Basic Concepts

Disclaimer: The material (text and images) contained in this presentation,

unless otherwise indicated, comes from Hurley, Patrick: A Concise
Introduction to Logic, 9th edition. This material is copyrighted by Wadsworth
(2006) and is here being used only for educational purpose of BCC students
registered in the course PHI1100 Introduction to Logic.
Basic Concepts
Logic
May be defined as the science that evaluates arguments.
Argument
It is a group of statements (propositions), one or more of which
(the premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to
believe, one of the others (the conclusion).
Statement (Proposition)
It is a sentence that is either true or falsein other words, typically
a declarative sentence.
Broccoli is a good source of vitamin A. True
Argentina is located in North America. False
Rembrandt was a painter and Shelley was a poet. True
Truth and falsity are called the truth values of a statement.
Many sentences cannot be said to be either true or false. They are
not classified as statements: Questions, Proposals, Suggestions,
Command, Exclamations, etc.
Basic Concepts
Premises and Conclusion
Premises are the statements that set forth the reasons or
evidence;
Conclusion is the statement that the evidence is claimed to
support or imply.
P1: All crimes are violations of the law.
P2: Theft is a crime.
C: Therefore, theft is a violation of the law.
The most important task in the analysis of arguments is
being able to distinguish premises from conclusion.
Conclusion Indicators
Therefore, accordingly, entails, that, we may conclude, hence,
thus, it follows that, consequently, whence, so, as a result, we
may infer, etc.
Premise Indicators
Since, in that, seeing that, as indicated by, for the reason that,
because, as, inasmuch as, for, given that, etc.
Basic Concepts
Argument 1
Corporate raiders leave their
target corporation with a
heavy debt burden and no
increase in productive
capacity. Consequently,
corporate raiders are bad
for the business community.
Argument 2
Expectant mothers should
never use recreational
drugs, since the use of
these drugs can jeopardize
the development of the
fetus.
Argument
Support
Argument
Statement 1
Statement 2
Statement 3
Premise 1
Premise 2
Conclusion
Basic Concepts
Recognizing Arguments
Not all passages contain arguments.
In general, a passage contains an argument if it purports to
prove something.
Two conditions must be fulfilled for a passage to purport to
prove something:
At least one of the statements must claim to present evidence
or reasons.
There must be a claim that the alleged evidence or reasons
supports or implies somethingthat is, a claim that something
follows from the alleged evidence.
The first condition expresses a factual claim.
The second condition expresses an inferential claim.
The inferential claim is simply the claim that the passage
supports or implies something.
Basic Concepts
Typical Nonarguments
Simple Noninferential Passages
Warning
Piece of Advice
Statement of Belief or Opinion
Loosely Associated Statements
Report
Expository Passages
Illustrations
Explanations
Conditional Statements
Basic Concepts
Explanations
An explanation is a group of statements that
purports to shed light on some event or
phenomenon that is accepted as a matter of fact.
The Challenger spacecraft exploded after liftoff because
an O-ring failed in one of the booster rockets.
An explanation is composed of two parts:
The Explanandum
It is the statement that describes the event or
phenomenon to be explained;
The Explanans
It is the statement or group of statements that purports to
do the explaning.
Basic Concepts
Sometimes explanations are mistaken for arguments because they often contain
the word because.
Yet explanations are not arguments because in an explanation the purpose of the
explanans is to shed light on, or to make sense of, the explanandumeventnot
to prove that it occurred.
In other words, the purpose of the explanans is to show why something is the
case, while in an argument, the purpose of the premises is to prove that
something is the case.
Premises
Conclusion
Accepted facts
Claimed to prove
Explanans
Explanandum Accepted fact
Claimed to
shed light on
Argument
Explanation
Basic Concepts
Conditional Statements
A conditional statement is an if ... then ...
statement.
If air is removed from a solid closed container, then the
container will weigh less than it did.
A conditional statement has two component
statements:
Antecedent
It is the component statement immediately following the
if. No matter where the if is in the sentence.
Consequent
It is the component statement following the then.
Sometimes the word then is left out.
Basic Concepts
Conditional Statements
Are especially important in logic because they
express the relationship between necessary and
sufficient conditions.
Sufficient Condition
A is said to be a sufficient condition for B whenever the
occurrence of A is all that is needed for the occurrence of B.
Being a dog is a sufficient condition for being an animal.
If X is a dog, then X is an animal.
Necessary Condition
B is said to be a necessary condition for A whenever A
cannot occur without the occurrence of B.
Being an animal is a necessary condition for being a dog.
If X is not an animal, then X is not a dog.
Basic Concepts
Deduction and Induction
Arguments can be divided into two groups: deductive and
inductive.
Deductive Argument
It is an argument in which the premises are claimed to
support the conclusion in such a way that in a valid
deductive argument it is impossible for the premises to be
true and the conclusion false.
In such arguments the conclusion is claimed to follow
necessarily from the premises.
Deductive arguments are those that involve necessary
reasoning.
The meerkat is a member of the mongoose family.
All members of the mongoose family are carnivores.
Therefore, it necessarily follows that the meerkat is a carnivore.
Basic Concepts
Inductive Argument
It is an argument in which the premises are claimed to
support the conclusion in such a way that it is improbable
that in a strong inductive argument that the premises be
true and the conclusion false.
In these arguments the conclusion is claimed to follow only
probably from the premises.
Inductive arguments are those that involve probabilistic
reasoning.
The meerkat is closely related to the suricat.
The suricat thrives on beetle larvae.
Therefore, probably the meerkat thrives on beetle larvae.
In general, inductive arguments are such that the content of
the conclusion is in some way intended to go beyond the
content of the premises.
Basic Concepts
Typical Deductive Arguments
Argument Based on Mathematics
It is an argument in which the conclusion depends on some purely
arithmetic or geometric computation or measurement.
Argument from Definition
It is an argument in which the conclusion is claimed to depend merely
upon the definition of some word or phrase used in the premise or
conclusion.
Categorical Syllogism
Syllogism is an argument consisting of exactly two premises and one
conclusion. In a categorical syllogism each statement begins with one
of the words all, no, or some.
Hypothetical Syllogism
It is a syllogism having a conditional statement for one or both of its
premises.
Disjunctive Syllogism
It is a syllogism having a disjunctive statement (i.e., an either ... or ...
statement) for one of its premises.
Basic Concepts
Typical Inductive Arguments
Prediction
Here the premises deal with some known event in the present or past,
and the conclusion moves beyond this event to some event in the
relative future.
Argument from Analogy
It is an argument that depends on the existence of an analogy, or
similarity, between two things of states of affairs.
Inductive Generalization
It is an argument that proceeds from the knowledge of a selected
sample to some claim about the whole group.
Argument from Authority
It is an argument in which the conclusion rests upon a statement made
by some presumed authority or witness.
Argument Based on Signs
It is an argument that proceeds from the knowledge of a certain sign
to a knowledge of the thing or situation that the sign symbolizes.
Causal Inference
It proceeds from knowledge of a cause to knowledge of the effect, or,
conversely, from knowledge of an effect to knowledge of a cause.
Basic Concepts
Argument Evaluation
Deductive Argument: Validity and Soundness
A valid deductive argument is an argument such that it is
impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.
All television networks are media companies.
NBC is a television network.
Therefore, NBC is a media company.
An invalid deductive argument is an argument such that it is
possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.
All banks are financial institutions.
Wells Fargo is a financial institution.
Therefore, Wells Fargo is a bank.
In general, validity is not something that is determined by the
actual truth or falsity of the premises and conclusion; but
whether the premises support the conclusion.
A sound argument is a deductive argument that is valid and
has all true premises. Both conditions are necessary; if one is
missing the argument is unsound.
Basic Concepts
Valid Invalid
True premises
True conclusion
All wines are beverages.
Chardonnay is a wine
Therefore, chardonnay is a beverage.
[sound]
All wines are beverages.
Chardonnay is a beverage.
Therefore, chardonnay is a wine.
[unsound]
True premises
False conclusion
None exist
All wines are beverages.
Ginger ale is a beverage.
Therefore, ginger ale is a wine.
[unsound]
False premises
True conclusion
All wines are soft drinks.
Ginger ale is a wine.
Therefore, ginger ale is a soft drink.
[unsound]
All wines are whiskeys.
Chardonnay is a whiskey.
Therefore, chardonnay is a wine.
[unsound]
False premises
False conclusion
All wines are whiskeys.
Ginger ale is a wine.
Therefore, ginger ale is a whiskey.
[unsound]
All wines are whiskeys.
Ginger ale is a whiskey.
Therefore, ginger ale is a wine.
[unsound]
Basic Concepts
Argument Evaluation
Inductive Arguments: Strength and Cogency
A strong inductive argument is an argument such that it is
improbable that the premises be true and the conclusion false.
All dinosaur bones discovered to this day have been at least 50
million years old. Therefore, probably the next dinosaur bone to
be found will be at least 50 million years old.
A weak inductive argument is an argument such that the
conclusion does not follow probably from the premises, even
though it is claimed to.
When a lighted match is slowly dunked into water, the flame is
snuffed out. But gasoline is a liquid, just like water. Therefore,
when a lighted match is slowly dunked into gasoline, the flame
will be snuffed out.
In general, the strength of an inductive argument results not
from the actual truth or falsity of the premises and conclusion,
but from the probabilistic support the premises give to the
conclusion.
Basic Concepts
Strong Weak
True premise
Probably true
conclusion
All previous American presidents were men.
Therefore, probably the next American president
will be a man.
[cogent]
A few American presidents were Federalists.
Therefore, probably the next American president
will be a man.
[uncogent]
True premise
Probably false
conclusion
None exist
A few American presidents were Federalists.
Therefore, probably the next American president
will be a Federalist.
[uncogent]
False premise
Probably true
conclusion
All previous American presidents were television
debaters.
Therefore, probably the next American president
will be a television debater.
[uncogent]
A few American presidents were Libertarians.
Therefore, probably the next American president
will be a television debater.
[uncogent]
False premise
Probably false
conclusion
All previous American presidents were women.
Therefore, probably the next American president
will be a woman.
[uncogent]
A few American presidents were Libertarians.
Therefore, probably the next American president
will be a Libertarian.
[uncogent]
Basic Concepts
Deductive arguments
Valid
Invalid
(all are unsound)
Sound
Unsound
Inductive arguments
Strong
Weak
(all are uncogent)
Cogent
Uncogent
Deductive arguments
Valid
Invalid
(all are unsound)
Sound
Unsound
Inductive arguments
Strong
Weak
(all are uncogent)
Cogent
Uncogent
Statements
True
False
Statements
True
False
Basic Concepts
Argument Forms: Proving Invalidity
The validity of an argument has nothing to do with its
specific subject matter.
All adlers are bobkins.
All bobkins are crockers.
Therefore, all adlers are crockers.
The validity of an argument is determined by its form.
All A are B. All daisies are flowers.
All B are C. All flowers are plants.
All A are C. Therefore, all daisies are plants.
This is a valid argument form. Its validity rests purely upon
the arrangement of the letters within the statements, and it
has nothing to do with what the letters might stand for.
Substitution
Instance
Basic Concepts
Proving Invalidity
An invalid argument is such that it is possible for the
premises to be true and the conclusion false.
All adlers are bobkins.
All crockers are bobkins.
Therefore, all adlers are crockers.
The invalidity of an argument is determined by its form.
All A are B. All cats are animals.
All C are B. All dogs are animals.
All A are C. Therefore, all cats are dogs.
A substitution instance having true premises and a false
conclusion is called a counterexample.
The counterexample method is used to prove that an
argument is invalid.
Substitution
Instance