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Signals, Antenna and Measurements

1) The document discusses various techniques for spectral measurements including when the bandwidth exceeds amplifier capabilities, permits amplification, or permits digital spectral analysis. 2) It provides examples of passive multichannel filters using circuits, waveguides, prisms, and diffraction gratings. 3) The document also covers autocorrelation analysis for spectral measurements and the resolution, aliasing effects, and application to 1-bit signals that have been hard-clipped.

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varunmr
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Available Formats
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56 views19 pages

Signals, Antenna and Measurements

1) The document discusses various techniques for spectral measurements including when the bandwidth exceeds amplifier capabilities, permits amplification, or permits digital spectral analysis. 2) It provides examples of passive multichannel filters using circuits, waveguides, prisms, and diffraction gratings. 3) The document also covers autocorrelation analysis for spectral measurements and the resolution, aliasing effects, and application to 1-bit signals that have been hard-clipped.

Uploaded by

varunmr
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Spectral Measurements

Case A: Bandwidth exceeds that of


available amplifiers
T
A
(f)
S(f)
channels
f
1
f
N
receivers and antennas
detector noise, detect directly or
split frequencies and then detect
before amplification or detection
f
1
f
N
f
1
f
N
f
Receivers-G1
1) Extreme bandwidth: use multiple
2) If signal large compared to
3) Use passive frequency splitters
Spectral Measurements
Case B: Bandwidth permits amplification
f
1
f
N
further frequency splitting
Case C: Bandwidth permits digital spectral analysis
(
f Resolution
- ~ ) f ( V
2
M
2
N
) f ( ) (
N N

(Permits ~100 more B per cm
2
silicon)
(Reference: Van Vleck and Middleton, Proc. IEEE, 54, (1966)
)
G2
1) Amplify before either detection or
1) If computer resources permit, compute
N 2B
: transform point N per multiplys N log N

2) Or 1-bit (or n-bit) samples) (N
spectra M average
Examples of Passive Multichannel Filters
IN
f
1
f
n
f
2
Z
o
2. Waveguides
f
1 resonant
cavities at f
f
virtual
short
/4
f
N
RCVR RCVR
f
1
f
3
f
2
filters
passive
channel-dropping filters
Z
o
at f
1
f
G3
1. Circuits
Examples of Passive Multichannel Filters
3. Prism
-
bound electron(s)
red
blue
f
o
f
prism
5. Cascaded Dichroics
plane wave
<f
1
<f
2
f
n
>f
1
>f
2
>f
n-1
(f
1
>f
2
>f
n
)
4. Diffraction grating
(f)
G4
Digital spectral analysis example: autocorrelation
0 0
f
()
(f)
[W Hz
-1
]
analog signals
Possible analog implementation:
1) max lag =
max
= NT
2) sample lag, T sec
3) finite integration time >>
max
) (

v

B
RF
0
f
f
RF

0
f
f
IF
delay line



LO
local oscillator
v(t)
) T (

v
) (

v
) NT (

v

NT =
max
BB
RF

G5
: on based is
T 2
Resolution of autocorrelation analysis
) ( W ) ( ) (

y v
=
1)
W( )
0


M
= NT
-
M
0
f
0
f
B

v
(f) W(f)
~1/2
M
Hz
Thus

v
(f)
) f ( W ) f ( ) f (

v v
M
=
7 7 7 7
W(f)
f
0
G6

m
<
Aliasing in autocorrelation spectrometers
) f ( I ) f (
) t ( i ) (
) f (

) (

v
v
v
v


=
=
7 7 7 7
2)
i(t)
T
0
t
I(f)
0
f(Hz)
-1/T
Aliasing is spectral overlap
-1/T
0
1/T 2/T
B
) f (

v

3) Finite averaging time adds noise to
) f (

, ) (

v v

G7
1/T 2/T
Autocorrelation of hard-clipped signals
A/D
( )
2

c
o
u
n
t
e
r
delay line

LO
x(t)
v
o
(t)
1
v(t)
) (

v

hard clipping
A/D 1
+1
-1
0
t
+1 if v(t) > 0
Receivers-I1
Analysis of 1-bit autocorrelation
( ) ( )
0 -
0
x t
2 1 2 2 1 1



<
+

[ ] = =
2 1 x
) (
( )
( )
2 1
x x
2 1
e
1 2
1
2
2
2
2
1


+














1 2 v
t t ), ( ) ( where =

( ) ( ) [ ] ( )



=
0
0
2 1 2 1
0
2 1 2 1 x
2 2
( )










= + =




0
0
0 0
2 1 2 1
1 2 1 4
I2
J GRVZM are x , x where
x 1
x 1
x sgn , x , x t x Let
x sgn x sgn E
1 2
x x 2
2 1
dx dx x sgn x sgn
2 1



2 1
x x
dx dx x , x p dx dx x , x p

2 : Note dx dx x , x p
Power spectrum for 1-bit signal
Change
variables
x
2
x
1

dr
rd
r
x
1
= r cos
x
2
= r sin
dx
1
dx
2
= rdr d
( )
( )


















=
2
0 0
1
1
2 r
2
2
x
1 e
1 2
1
2
r
d d 4 ) (
2
2
( )
( )


=
2
0
2
1
1 2
1
d 4
I3



2 sin
2 1


2 1
2 sin
Power spectrum for 1-bit signal
( )
( )


=
2
0
2
1
1 2
1
d 4
( )
( )
1 sin
2 2
1
4 1 d
sin 1
1
4
1
4
1
0
x











+


=

=



( ) ( )






=
x v

2
sin


( ) ( ) ( )
T
x
)

Where =
0 b
0
p(b)
p(a)
b

(see Burns & Yao, Radio Sci., 4(5) p. 431 (1969))

2 Let
I4
a


2 1
2 sin
2 1




- v(t sgn v(t) sgn
exact not b if
bias has : Note
Spectral response & sensitivity: autocorrelation receiver
;
B
f
1
f
T
) f (
eff
rms



channel bandwidth
(S. Weinreb empirical result,
MIT EE PhD thesis, 1963)
Apodizing weighting functions:
f
1.099
0.87
0.69
N
s
N f
s
N
s
first
sidelobe
-7 dB
-16 dB
-29 dB
Note trade between spectral resolution, sidelobes in (f) and T
rms








=

= N ;
N
T
1
f
M
s



uniform
raised cosine
blackman
0
0
0
I5

6 . 1
f 60 . 0
f 13 . 1
taps #
Spectral response & sensitivity: autocorrelation receiver
If N delay-line taps, how many spectral samples N
s
?
1
W()

M
Say uniform weighting of ():
Then B = N
s
f = N
s
/2
M
) where spectral resolution f 1/2
m
for orthogonal channels from boxcar W()
( ) ( ) B 2 N
M s
= = = =
W(f) for adjacent channel
M

f
In practice: raised cosine widens f by 1/0.6 1.7, so N
s
N/1.7
W(f)
I6
(1
taps # N rate nyquist at 2B 1 T B NT 2
2 1
Types of power
Delivered
Available
Exchangeable
( ) { } { }
j t
e
v t R t sin t


= +
V
g
g
Z
L
Z
R
g g
+
-
+
-
V
{ }( )


=


g
Z P
P VI R
2
1
P
L
D available
D e delivered
Receivers-K1
Receivers Gain and Noise Figure
Ve Re V cos Im V
+ j X
Z if i.e., , P max
Delivered and Available Power
{ }( )


=


g
Z P
P VI R
2
1
P
L
D available
D e delivered
R
L

g
e
Z R -
g
e
Z R
P
D
0 Z f
g
e
<
( ) - finite P P
g L
Z Z
D


=
K2
0
g
=
0
g
e
Z R -
g
e
Z R
P
A
P
D
R
L
0 Z f
g
e
>
Z if i.e., , P max
R : I
option power
le exchangeab
Z Im
R : I
Definition of Gain
g
Z
L
Z
G
1 2
G
power
(= G
p
)

1 2
D D
P P
G
available
(= G
A
)

1 2
A A
P P
G
transducer
(G
T
)
power

1 2
A D
P P

G
exchangeable
(=G
E
)
1
2
E
E
P
P
G
insertion
(= G
I
)

1
2
D
D
P
P
with
amplifier
without
amplifier
Note: G
A
, G
E
dont depend on Z
L
do depend on Z
g
(via P
E2
)
K3
Definition: Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
First define:
N
1
=
N
2
=
S
1
=
S
2
=
1
z
WH

2 2 2 1 1 1
N S SNR ; N S

V
g
1 2
g
Z
L
Z
F
G
( )
g
E
=
K4
exchangeable noise power spectrum @ Port 1
same, at 2
exchangeable signal power spectrum @ Port 1
same, at 2
SNR Define
Z f G Recall
Definition: Noise Figure F
kT N
N S
N S
SNR
SNR
F
o o 1
2 2
1 1
2
1


[Ref. Proc. IRE, 57(7), p.52 (7/1957); Proc. IEEE, p.436 (3/1963)]
S
2
= G
E
S
1
(see definition of G
E
)
N
2
= G
E
N
1
+ N
2T
transducer noise
( )
N
1
N GN GS
N S
F
1 1 1
1 1
+ =
+
=
( )
E
G

o
R
o
R
1
T
T N
1 F =

=
K5
K 290 T , where ,
G N
T 2
T 2
G let
T 2
G kT
G kT
G N
excess noise figure
receiver noise temperature
Receiver Noise Example
( 6 F T
F ( 2 F T
) F ( 1
T
T
1 F T
R
R
o
R
R
= =
= = =
= = + = =
Examples:
Excess noise corresponds to
receiver noise temperature T
R

+
1

T
R
= (F 1) T
o
290K
noiseless
G, F
T
A
+
1

T
A
N
2T
T
A
T
R
K6
dB) 5 . 7 ~ F K 1500
dB) 3 K 290
dB 0 K 0
F , G
F , G

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