Boric, R., Holmgren, C. & Wilson, N.S.F. & Zentilli, M.

, 2002 - The Geology of the

El Soldado Manto Type Cu (Ag) Deposit, Central Chile; in Porter, T.M. (Ed.),
Hydrothermal Iron Oxide Copper-Gold & Related Deposits: A Global Perspective,
Volume 2; PGC Publishing, Adelaide, pp 163-184.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE EL SOLDADO MANTO TYPE

Cu (Ag) DEPOSIT, CENTRAL CHILE
1Ricardo

Boric, 2Carmen Holmgren, 3Nicholas S. F. Wilson and 1Marcos Zentilli

1Department

of Earth Sciences, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada,

2Consultant, Santiago, Chile,
3Energy and Environment, Geological Survey of Canada, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Abstract - El Soldado is the largest (>200 Mt @ 1.4% Cu) of the known Cu manto-type deposits in
central Chile. It is strata-bound within a submarine, bimodal calc-alkaline basalt - rhyodacite unit of the
Lower Cretaceous Lo Prado Formation., which also contains marine carbonaceous shales and volcaniclastic
sandstones. Although stratigraphically restricted, the clustered orebodies are mostly vein-like and discordant,
controlled by a system of N-S to NNW faults formed within a transtensional zone (cymoid loop) of a sinistral,
strike-slip brittle shear system. Individual orebodies are zoned, with an external and deeper zone of barren
pyrite, followed inward by concentric zones with chalcopyrite-pyrite, chalcopyrite bornite, bornite-chalcocite,
and a central zone of chalcocite ( digenite covellite) and abundant hematite. The deposit was formed in
two main phases: 1) a low-temperature, diagenetic phase during which framboidal pyrite developed in
o
association with migrated petroleum, at ca. 130 to 120 Ma; 2) a high-temperature (>300 C from fluid
inclusions) hydrothermal phase at ca. 103 Ma, (coinciding with batholith emplacement), that deposited early
hematite ( magnetite), followed by chalcopyrite, bornite and chalcocite, mostly replacing pre-existing
pyrite, with the excess Fe forming hematite. Gangue minerals are calcite, albite, k-feldspar and chlorite.
The hydrothermal Cu mineralization is associated with an increase in Na and depletion in K in host rocks,
although there are localised zones of K increase in bornite-chalcocite assemblages near structures. Isotopic
studies indicate that: a) the sulphur in diagenetic pyrite provided the bulk of the sulphur for Cu sulphides;
b) petroleum was the source of carbon in bitumen and part of the carbonate; c) osmium in diagenetic pyrite
was derived from the black shales; d) strontium in calcites was inherited from the Cretaceous arc lavas;
e) oxygen isotopes in carbonates, and K-feldspar and atmospheric argon in K-feldspar plus the high salinity
of fluid inclusions (21-26% NaCl equivalent) suggest a basinal connate-metamorphic brine was responsible
for Cu transport, yet a (distal) magmatic component to the fluids cannot be ruled out.

Introduction

2000), thus making it equivalent, in terms of total metal

content, to a medium size porphyry copper deposit, yet
smaller than Mantos Blancos and Candelaria (eg. Maksaev
and Zentilli, this volume).

The El Soldado copper deposit (32 38 Lat S; 71 04 Long

W; 500-1000 m above sea level.) is located in the Coastal
Cordillera of Central Chile, 120 Km northwest of the capital
city Santiago, and 30 km from the Pacific coast (Figure 1).
The total identified resources at El Soldado, comprising
production plus reserves, is well over 200 million tonnes
(metric tons) @ 1.35% Cu, including 70 million tonnes @
1.8 % Cu mined out from rich zones (Contador and Glavic,

This paper offers an updated description of the geology,

petrography, structure, ore and gangue mineralogy,
hydrothermal alteration, and paragenesis of the El Soldado
deposit, incorporating previous information (eg. Holmgren,
1987; Klohn et al., 1990), and adding new data accumulated
in the last decade during development and mining of new
orebody clusters at the mine. We also incorporate
summaries of detailed studies developed during the last
decade in a collaborative effort between the CMDLC staff,
various consultants, and faculty and students at Dalhousie
University, Halifax, Canada.

Editors note: The El Soldado deposit has been included within the
Iron Oxide Copper-Gold (IOCG) family by a number authors in the
existing literature, although others would disagree. It does have significant
hematite and specularite associated with the copper mineralising phase.
However, it differs from many of the recognised members of the family
(such as Olympic Dam and La Candelaria) in that there appears to be
much less evidence for a magmatic contribution to the mineralisation,
but instead a more definite link to basinal processes, perhaps driven by a
magmatic heat engine. In fact it exhibits the influence of many of the
processes normally associated with sediment hosted copper deposits such
as White Pine (USA) and the Kupferschiefer (Europe). This excellent,
well reasoned paper which presents a series of carefully researched
observations and cogent arguments for the formation of this deposit was
invited for the reader to assimilate and ponder whether El Soldado is a
member of, or is related to, the IOCG family of deposits.

Manto Type Copper Deposits

Chile contains one of the largest copper concentrations on
Earth and annually produces around 37% of the worlds
copper (Camus and Dilles, 2001). Most of that production
comes from the giant porphyry copper deposits of Cenozoic
age, although a significant proportion is from Mesozoic
163

164

The Americas

Figure 1: Location of El Soldado in central Chile, and in relation to other Chilean Cu and Fe deposits.

El Soldado, Chile - R. Boric et al.

strata-bound copper (silver) and copper (gold-iron) deposits

(Figure 1). These stratabound deposits are distributed in
the western part of the Andean orogen between 21 to 34
latitude S and the most significant are hosted by volcanic
and volcano-sedimentary sequences of Jurassic to Lower
Cretaceous age, which were accumulated in intra-arc basins.
Among the strata-bound deposits, the copper (silver) family,
also known as mantos or manto-type copper deposits
in the literature, are the better understood. This family of
deposits usually has a high copper grade (1.5-2% Cu),
relatively low contents of silver (5-20 g/t) and are practically
devoid of gold. They are hosted by Jurassic volcanic rocks
in northern Chile (21- 26 latitude S; eg. Mantos Blancos,
Michilla) and by Early Cretaceous volcano sedimentary
sequences (27 to 34 latitude S; eg. Punta del Cobre, El
Soldado). The most important mines of this subtype are
Mantos Blancos in northernmost Chile, and El Soldado, in
central Chile (Figure 1). The ore in these deposits is only
strata-bound in a regional sense, meaning that they are
epigenetic, and although the ores are restricted to certain
stratigraphic units, in detail they are discordant; their
orebodies are structurally controlled or follow relatively
permeable horizons in the strata. Hypogene mineralogy is
relatively simple, and consists of bornite, chalcocite (
digenite), chalcopyrite, pyrite and hematite. The sulphide
ores tend to occur in reduced (probably sub-marine) strata
rather than in oxidised (sub-aerial) strata, suggesting to most
authors that oxi-reduction reactions were important in their
genesis. Supergene metal enrichment related to surficial
weathering, which has been significant in making some
porphyry copper deposits economic, is not a main factor in
the mantos, although oxidised ores are exploited in many.
Gangue minerals are relatively scarce and the effects of

165

hydrothermal alteration are difficult to distinguish from

low-grade regional metamorphic assemblages (eg. Sato,
1984; Sillitoe, 1992).
The genesis of these manto type deposits has been the
subject of much controversy (eg. Fontbot, 1990), with the
proposed genetic models ranging from volcanogenic
syngenetic (eg. Ruiz, et al., 1965; Camus, 1980; Ruiz and
Peebles, 1988), through hypotheses that call for fluids
liberated during low-grade metamorphism of the volcanic
piles (eg. Sato, 1984: Westra, 1988; Sillitoe, 1992); fluids
directly derived from granitoid plutons (eg. Carter, 1961;
Palacios, 1986; Klohn et al., 1990), to a combination of
these last two mechanisms (eg. Fontbot, 1990). The
scarcity of effectively datable minerals has made absolute
dating difficult, and the pronounced alkali metasomatism
of the host rocks (Boric, 2002) complicates their
interpretation. Nevertheless, available geochronological
data suggest that, in this family of deposits, ores were
emplaced at least 10 Ma after the deposition of the host
strata, mainly during two metallogenic pulses, in the Late
Jurassic and in the Early Cretaceous (Munizaga et al., 1988;
Boric et al., 1990; Tassinari et al., 1993; Vivallo and
Henriquez, 1998; Wilson et al., submitted; Maksaev and
Zentilli, this volume).

Geography and History

The El Soldado mine (Figure 1) is located within 8 km of
the Pan American Highway, railway links and major power
grids. The mine is currently owned and operated by Cia.
Minera Disputada de las Condes Ltda. (CMD), an affiliate
of ExxonMobil Coal and Minerals Co. (EMCMC). El
Soldados primary operations (Figure 2) comprise an open

Figure 2: View of the El Soldado camp on the steep western slope of a snow-capped 2300 m high range. The dotted line
marks the approximate boundary between the marine Lo Prado Formation and the sub-aerial andesitic lavas
and red beds of the Veta Negra Formation. Also shown are the Morro open pit (op), waste dumps (wd) the
transport level for the underground operation (tl), the flotation plant (fp) and the leaching plant (lp).

166

The Americas

pit mine (the Morro pit), an underground mine, the El Cobre

sulphide flotation concentrator plant, and a leaching plant
with Solvent Extraction Electro Winning (SXEW).
Concentrates are sent to the CMD Chagres smelter located
north of the Aconcagua River, southeast of El Soldado
(Figure 1), or to the Ventanas port on the Pacific coast.
The mine lies on the steep west flank of a 2300 m high,
moderately vegetated range (brush and small deciduous
trees), in a zone of warm-temperate climate, with abundant
winter fog, irregular precipitation in the form of rain
(~ 400 mm/year), and occasional snow during May to

August (Figure 2). Temperatures range from 2oC in winter

to ~30 oC in summer, with a yearly median of ~15oC
(Fuenzalida, 1965).
At El Soldado, mining of exposed high-grade pods began
in the eighteenth century, although the first modern
exploitation did not commence until 1919, when ore grading
between 7 and 15 % Cu was extracted from an underground
mine. Since then, under a number of subsequent owners,
production has been almost continuous, but was limited to
less than 600 t/day until the late 1960s, when it was
increased to 3300 t/day. Exxon Minerals, today EMCMC,
Quaternary Sediments

71o

Amarilla
Cabildo

Granodiorite Intrusive
(Lower Cretaceous)

Las
Guias
El Sauce

a
ig u
La L

Los Maquis

r
ve
Ri

Las Chilcas Formation

(Aptian - Albian?)

Luisa

Veta Negra Formation

(Barremiam - Albian)

Regalo

Ocoa Member

El Carmen

Purehue Member

32o30

Chancleta El Peumo
Las
Animas
Guayacan
Rusa
La Patagua

Lo Prado Formation
(Neocomian)
Upper Member

Palqui

Farellon

Lower Member
San
Pedro

Horqueta Formation
(Upper Jurassic)
Fault (observed)

La Comuna

El Cerrado

Fault (inferred)

~
Quenes

El Soldado

Manto-type Cu Deposits

Veta Negra

Veta del Agua

32o40

El Soldado (Large)
El Sauce (Medium)

La Victoriana

Mine

Occurrence
Vein-type Cu Deposits
Mine
Occurrence

Santa Fe
La Isla

Caquicito

El Salado

4Km

Figure 3: El Soldado in its regional stratigraphic setting. Note the large number of Cu deposits, mines and occurrences
hosted by the Lower Cretaceous Lo Prado Formation and the distal location of El Soldado with respect to
outcrops of the Cretaceous batholith.

El Soldado, Chile - R. Boric et al.

also owner of the Los Bronces porphyry copper deposit in

the high Cordillera (Figure 1), assumed control of El
Soldado in 1978 and developed an intensive drilling
campaign, which led to the discovery of many unexposed
sulphide orebodies, significantly increasing ore reserves.
These discoveries and the change in underground mining
method to sub-level open-stoping, allowed stepwise
expansions in sulphide ore treatment to 5500 and 11 500 t/
day. In 1989 the Morro open pit (Figure 2) began operating,
to support an increase in the production rate up to the current
17 500 t/day, with the SXEW leaching plant (Figure 2)
being added in 1990 to treat the oxide ore from the Morro
pit. In 2001 the open pit mine provided 70% of total
production, with a copper grade at 1.2% Cu. Total identified
resources at El Soldado, comprising production plus
reserves, is well over 200 million metric tons @ 1.35%
Cu, including 70 million metric tons @ 1.8% Cu mined
out from rich zones (Contador and Glavic, 2000).

Regional Geologic Setting

The El Soldado deposit is hosted by the upper member of
the Lower Cretaceous Lo Prado Formation (Piraces and
Maksaev, 1977), a volcaniclastic arc suite, which represents
an important regional metallotect, hosting more than 20
copper deposits mined at one time or another, between the
Aconcagua and the La Ligua rivers (Figures 1 and 3). At
El Soldado, this unit is 500 m thick and composed of
bimodal rhyodacitic (felsic) and basaltic (mafic) flows and
pyroclastics with sedimentary volcaniclastic and marine

167

limestone lenses (Figure 4). These strata are underlain by

the lower member of Lo Prado Formation, a marine,
organic-rich calcareous shale-siltstone-sandstone unit,
which is at least 1500 m thick. The Lo Prado Formation
conformably overlies the volcanic Upper Jurassic Horqueta
Formation (Figure 3), and is conformably overlain by 5-7
km of basaltic andesites, tuffs, volcanic epiclastic breccias,
redbeds and lacustrine sediments of the continental Lower
Cretaceous (Barremian-Albian) Veta Negra Formation,
which in turn is overlain by the Cretaceous (Lower - Upper
Cretaceous) Las Chilcas Formation (eg. Rivano et al., 1993;
Rivano, 1996).
Deposition of the sedimentary-volcanic sequence took place
in a transitional marine-terrestrial environment during the
Early Cretaceous. The Lo Prado Formation contains both
marine (ammonites and pelecypods of Berriasian to
Hauterivian age; Vergara et al., 1995; Wall et al., 1999)
and plant remains, indicating proximity to a coast. Pillow
basalts are locally developed in the upper member of Lo
Prado Formation (Vergara et al 1995), but at the mine area,
basalt flows and rhyodacite flows, domes and feeder dykes
predominate. The overlying Veta Negra Formation marks
a transition to a terrestrial environment, and is characterised
by oxidised lavas and intercalated volcaniclastic breccias
and redbeds. The presence of Lower Cretaceous marine
fossils in the overlying Las Chilcas Formation (Rivano et
al., 1993; Wall et al., 1999) indicates that brief marine
transgressions occurred after deposition of the Veta Negra
Formation in a subsiding basin.

Figure 4: Cross-section at the N-750 coordinate. Note the structurally controlled and yet stratabound nature of the
orebodies within the upper member of the Lo Prado Formation.

168

The Americas

Lower Cretaceous, calc-alkaline granitoids intrude the Veta

Negra Formation in the mountains 13 km to the east of El
Soldado (Figure 3) and the Lo Prado Formation both 20
km along the range to the north (Figure 3), and 28 km
directly south of El Soldado at La Campana-Caleu, and
may well subcrop much closer at the level of the mine. In
these localities the batholith has generated skarnoid and
vein copper deposits (eg. Ruiz and Peebles, 1988). The
age of this batholith is bracketed by K/Ar dates on biotite
(118-94 Ma; Rivano et al., 1993; Wall et al 1999), and on
more precise 40Ar/39Ar dates on hornblende (117-103 Ma),
and on biotite (101-94 Ma; Parada and Larrondo, 1999).
Major structures recognised at the district scale are N-S to
NNW left lateral strike-slip faults and reactivated normal

faults; the latter dipping at 60 to the west (Figures 4 & 5).

The strata have been tilted into a ca. 30 east-dipping
homocline, but the dip of the strata decreases progressively
to the east.
In terms of tectonics, these Lower Cretaceous volcanosedimentary sequences and granitoids, are inferred to
represent a volcano-plutonic arc, developed at a continental
margin (eg. Charrier and Muoz, 1994; Vergara et al, 1995).
The great thickness of shallow water formations and the
recurrence of marine facies are suggestive of subsidence
and deposition under extensional conditions, which had
prevailed at the arc and back arc domains (berg et al.,
1984; Vergara et al., 1995). This environment is consistent
with conditions associated with a steep subduction regime

Figure 5: Simplified structural map of El Soldado orebodies in relation to a regional wrench fault. Note outline of
open pit.
a)
Location of the deposit within a cymoid loop. 1: Lower sedimentary member of the Lo Prado Formation;
2: Upper member of Lo Prado Formation; 3: rhyodacite flows and domes; 4: Veta Negra Formation;
5: Rhyodacite feeder dykes; 6: Andesite feeder dykes for Veta Negra Formation; 7: Major regional wrench
faults (generalized); 8: Lesser faults and veins; 9: Mineralized (Cu) lacustrine shale at Veta Negra mine,
showing dip of strata; due to generalization, dyke displacements are not shown.
b)
Generalized structural plan of orebodies, detail from 5A: A: Main shear faults; B: Secondary Faults;
C: Fractures. Inset shows hypothetical model of conjugate faults in response to a sinistral wrench system
with a regional NNW (horizontal) main stress axis (modified from Boric, 1997).

El Soldado, Chile - R. Boric et al.

(Marianas Type) inferred to have been active in this segment

of the Andes during most of the Early Cretaceous (eg.
Mpodozis and Ramos, 1990; Sillitoe, 1992; Maksaev and
Zentilli, this volume).

Lithological Control
Figure 4 is a cross-section showing the main stratigraphic
units recognised at the mine through the Filo and Valdivia
Sur orebody clusters, namely: 1) the lower member of the
Lo Prado Formation, composed of marine sediments,
mostly volcaniclastic sandstones, organic-rich siltstones,
and calcareous shales; 2) the upper member of the Lo Prado
Formation, a 500-m-thick sequence of interlayered basaltic
and rhyodacite flows and domes, with intercalations of tuffs,
epiclastic sandstones and breccias, some with calcareous
cement, also of marine origin, and 3) the lower (Purehue)
member of the Veta Negra Formation, composed of red,
oxidised, subaerial basaltic andesite flows (many of them
breccia flows), intercalated tuffs, red sandstones, and a few
lenses of lacustrine siltstones with abundant carbonised
plant remains and minor copper sulphides (eg. at the Veta
Negra deposit, Figures 3 and 5; Villalobos 1995).
In addition there are 3 different types of subvertical dykes
(Figure 5): 1) rhyodacite dykes with a 290-300o trend, some
of which are the feeders of the host rhyodacite flows and
domes of the Lo Prado Formation; 2) basaltic and andesite
dykes with a 280-290o trend; some of these are feeders to

169

the Veta Negra Formation lavas; and 3) microdiorite dykes

that cut all the above units and have a NW and NE trends.
The only faneritic intrusive recognised in the camp is a
gabbro-diorite stock, which has been intercepted by deep
drill holes in the northern part of the mine; it does not
outcrop, and it is interpreted to be coeval with the Veta
Negra volcanic sequence.
Basaltic flows can be correlated within the camp, although
they have notable textural and thickness variations. Most
significant as a host rock, the rhyodacite flows are thicker
above the feeder dykes, forming domes, with spectacular
columnar jointing (Figure 6), and locally a brecciated top,
interpreted to be a syn-volcanic structure. Away from their
feeder dykes, the rhyodacites grade into coarse to fine
volcaniclastic rocks. Large angular boulders of rhyodacite
in overlying epiclastic strata that cap the ore deposit indicate
that the rhyodacite domes were elsewhere undergoing
erosion soon after emplacement (Wilson, 1998).
In most previous publications, such as the company reviews
by Klohn et al. (1986, 1990) the host rocks to ore at El
Soldado have been referred to as anomalous, alkaline
trachytes and andesites, and the title of the papers (if
not their conclusions) imply that the ores are related to
alkaline magmatism. Other workers suggested that the
felsic rocks are either albitised (Na metasomatised)
andesites (Olcay and Alarcon, 1975), or represent rhyolitic

Figure 6: Strongly developed columnar jointing in mineralized rhyodacite unit exposed in Morro open pit. Primary
porosity and the competent nature of the rhyodacite makes it the most favourable host rock. Note the different
style of fracturing in andesite dyke, and steep fault plane.

*** Cu value from whole rock chemical analysis

* Cu assay value for 3 m drillcore interval

** MS = magnetic susceptibility as measured with K2 meter

263

253
<0.5

<0.5
1

<1
2

1
<1

<1
57

35

125

16

168

283

34

155

213
<5

3
32

30
28

23
2968

9772
15

1
<1

2.2
0.40

1.15
1.50

0.75
6.18

6.64
0.31

0.14
1.03

2.05
5.91

5.33
5.83

9.43

0.81
9.21

3.56
0.58
8.26

19.33

18.14
0.73

0.75
51.71

51.03
0.04

0.15
2.79

2.78

The basalts (previously termed andesites) are dark grey to green, and
are typically massive and porphyritic, commonly amygdaloidal, blocky,
and brecciated; no pillow basalts have been recognised at the mine.
Where the rocks are least altered, phenocrysts consist of zoned
plagioclase (An84-63), clinopyroxene, and olivine. The groundmass
is halophytic to sub-ophitic and composed of microlites of plagioclase
with interstitial pyroxene, opaques (titanomagnetite), devitrified glass,
and secondary minerals. The most common alteration consists of
chlorite and calcite. Amygdules, irregular cavities and fine veinlets
are common and are usually filled by the secondary minerals calcite,
chlorite, epidote, microcline (adularia), albite, bitumen, and sulphides.
Microprobe analyses of plagioclase, however, yield albite to oligoclase
compositions (An2-12) even in crystals without visible secondary
minerals. This implies that the basalts were affected by a pervasive,
widespread Na alteration which changed the composition of their
plagioclase phenocrysts to albite-(oligoclase). Clinopyroxene is less
altered than plagioclase, the microprobe indicating it is augite, and
rarely diopside. Common alteration minerals are calcite, chlorite,
muscovite, and epidote. Augite is rimmed by semi-opaque irontitanium oxides. Olivine phenocrysts are totally altered to calcite,
chlorite, and oxides of titanium and iron. Magnetite is partially replaced
by hematite-titanium oxides, and by pyrite. Pyrite replacement is very
extensive, with few of the unmineralised background basalts still
containing appreciable magnetite. Sulphide replacement of magnetite
is even heavier close to the ore bodies. Rare secondary apatite is
present. These rocks have the characteristics of altered and Nametasomatised basalts, previously referred to as spilites (Boric, 2002).

2.09

cp>bn (6)

bn>cc (sodic) (6)

basalt

basalt

2.08

ignimbrites (Terrazas, 1977). However, geochemical analyses (Table

1) of carefully chosen representative samples of the least altered rocks
in the El Soldado camp by Boric (2002) clearly indicate that the rocks
are not alkaline, nor trachytes and andesites, but an alkali
metasomatised bimodal sequence of basalts and rhyodacites. Figure
7 shows that in terms of the immobile trace elements, unaltered rocks
from El Soldado plot in the fields of basalt (to basaltic andesite), and
rhyodacite. Discriminant plots for the least altered basalts show that
they are calc-alkaline and not alkaline (Boric, 2002). The same rock
types have been recognised at Mantos Blancos (Chavez, 1985) and
Punta del Cobre (Marschik and Fontbot, 1996).

5.86

507

53

13

243

241
1

<0.5
<1

1
1

1
<1

1
50

43

175

15

363

201

57

172

153
39

<5
32

44
44

30
66

916
29

3
<1

<1
1.21

0.01
0.14

1.09
6.50

2.62
0.13

0.12
1.45

2.05
3.03

5.34
8.28

9.44

0.53

5.49
0.46

18.44

7.67

0.69

0.71
52.70

51.56
2.03

0.03
2.79

2.90

py>cp (7)

0.01
background (4)
basalt

basalt

0.15

19.17

7.97

4.76

543

67

15

48

65
2

2
8

7
5

6
5

6
179

194

33

23

43

711

35
23

<5
6

6
11

<5
2

3
16783

44600
66

2
5

12.7
1.66

0.72
0.69

0.69
3.08

2.73
0.18

0.31
6.27

1.66
7.32

3.41
4.13

3.79

0.07

0.36
0.08

14.31

3.89

0.48

0.44
66.46

68.71
0.01

0.01
2.66

2.60
2.65
bn>cc (sodic) (13)

bn>cc (potassic) (4)

rhyodacite

rhyodacite

3.66

15.23

2.19

0.71

157

135

26

41

35
2
8
6
5
194
47
0.09
cp>bn (6)
rhyodacite

3.23

2.61

0.00

67.72

0.41

15.03

2.79

0.31

4.28

6.44

2.74

0.20

2.79

0.73

1.95

36

25660

<5

12

411

55

26

53
3

2
9

9
6

6
6

5
185

204
26
66
58

25
60
96

415

561
9

15
5

5
23

9
10

8
131

755
58

4
<1

<1
1.36

0.81
0.77

0.80
3.98

3.88
0.13

0.11
2.49

3.96
4.85

5.53
4.53

4.40

0.09

0.55

0.12

13.91

2.63

0.41

0.43
69.73

69.46
0.00

0.01
2.63

2.58

py>cp (9)

0.06
background (4)
rhyodacite

rhyodacite

0.28

14.34

2.02

0.31

V
U
Th
Nb
Hf
Zr
Y
Sr
Rb
Ba
Zn
Pb
Ni

ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm

Co
Cu***

ppm
ppm

As
Ag

ppm
%

S
C

%
%

LOI
P2O5

%
%

K2O
Na2O

%
%
%
%

CaO
MgO
MnO
FeOT

%
%

AL2O3
TiO2

%
%

SiO2
MS**

%
(see text)

SG
g/cm3
Cu*
Ore Zone (n)
Host rock

1. Averages Values by Ore Zone

Table 1 . Geochemistry, Average Values by Ore Zone

ppm

The Americas

K2

170

Rhyodacite units (previously termed trachytes) are light coloured (pink,

grey and green) and typically porphyritic and flow banded; flow
banding is visible in both flows and dykes. Columnar jointing is welldeveloped perpendicular to cooling surfaces in dykes and flows (Figure
6). Locally, rhyodacites are vesiculated and brecciated (mostly autobreccias, Wilson, 1988), or show evidence of devitrification such as
spherulitic texture. There is clear evidence that the concordant bodies
of rhyodacite were extrusive flows and domes, including irregular,
brecciated tops filled with sediment, local erosional unconformities,
and angular clasts of rhyodacite in epiclastic strata overlying the felsic
bodies. Xenoliths of dark, fine-grained rocks are abundant.
Amygdules, and veinlets are commonly filled with calcite, quartz,
bitumen, and sulphide. Background (least altered) unmineralised
rhyodacites, distal from orebodies, have a glomeroporphyric texture,
formed by albite phenocrysts (An0-2) in a pilotaxitic to trachytic
groundmass (there-from trachytes). The groundmass is composed of
albite microlites, fine-grained potassic feldspar, minor quartz and
opaque minerals (pyrite, titanite-leucoxene) and devitrified glass.
Albite crystals are not zoned (optically or by microprobe analysis;
Holmgren, 1987; Boric, 2002). Albite is altered to calcite, chlorite,
microcline, and minor muscovite, epidote and titanite. Apatite (both

171

El Soldado, Chile - R. Boric et al.

primary and secondary) and zircon are scarce, and U/Pb

dating indicates that part of the (visibly resorbed) zircon
is xenocrystic (Zentilli et al., 2001). Even though there is
no textural evidence for Na alteration, the albite
phenocrysts are interpreted to be the result of an event of
regional metasomatism/metamorphism rather than a
primary factor or a product of hydrothermal alteration per
se. It is the trachytic texture and the abundant feldspar
laths that led to this rock being named a trachyte.
Rhyodacites also have minor ferromagnesian phenocrysts
altered to calcite, chlorite, epidote, titanium oxides
(leucoxene, titanite, rutile), and minor hematite and pyrite.
Although less abundant than in the basalts, pyrite is a very
common secondary mineral in the least-altered,
background rhyodacites. Pyrite occurs as small crystals
(1 to 100 m), disseminated in the groundmass, included
in albite phenocrysts, and very commonly replacing or
rimming ferromagnesian minerals or titanomagnetite (see
Figure 9A). These rhyodacites have the characteristics of
altered and Na-metasomatised felsic rocks referred to in
the past as keratophyres (Boric 2002).
It is interesting to note that 60-65% of copper production
has come from rhyodacitic host rocks, 30-25% from
basaltic hosts and 5-10% from the volcaniclastic
sediments, reflecting their respective behaviour during
deformation. As shown in Figure 4, economic copper
mineralization is restricted to the upper member of the Lo
Prado Formation, although narrow veins continue upwards
into the lowermost strata of the Veta Negra Formation.
This clearly indicates that copper mineralization postdates
the deposition of the base of that unit. The roots of
orebodies are usually located well above (100-150 m) the
lower sedimentary member of the Lo Prado Formation.
The lowermost unit of the upper member of the Lo Prado
Formation, which is composed of basalt breccia flows with
minor volcaniclastics is mostly barren, containing only
minor pyrite (Boric, 2002).

Structural Control
El Soldado comprises numerous vein-like orebodies with
intervening barren zones, distributed in about a dozen
orebody clusters (Figures 5 and 8). The known clusters are
spatially distributed within a volume that is about 2 km long
by 0.8 km wide and 600 m in vertical extent (Figures 4 and
8). Within the blocks, individual sub vertical orebodies are
extremely variable in size, from very small to 450 m long,
150 m wide, and 450 m in vertical extent (Boric, 1997).
Clusters of orebodies occur mainly where structural
permeability has been generated by brittle fracturing, such
as in fault intersections, where subvertical (pipelike) bodies
are developed. The best example is the Valdivia Sur chimney
(Figure 4), which contains 14 Mt @ >2% Cu, including core
zones grading 5% Cu and 20-30 g/t Ag. At an individual
orebody scale, the copper sulphides occupy mainly
structural porosity, in the form of veins, faults and joints,
including columnar joints. Fracturing is most intense in the
rhyodacite (Figure 4), which was not only the hardest and
most brittle, but was pre-fractured by columnar jointing
(Figure 6) and syn-volcanic breccias. Primary porosity was
also important locally, in the form of vesicles and irregular
gas structures in basalts, and inter-clast pores in breccias
and tuffs. However, the tuffs in the uppermost Lo Prado
Formation were relatively incompetent (ductile) during
faulting, and in general formed an impermeable seal to all
fluids, both petroleum and hydrothermal solutions.
The master faults are shears that form a cymoid loop (eg.
Anhaeusser, 1965) - a dilational jog or trans-tensional zone
(eg. Cox et al., 2001) - within the confines of which the best
orebodies were developed. This loop is closed both to the
south and north of the mine (Figure 5). Intersections of NS and NNW faults with 290o-300o conjugate faults form
particularly rich orebodies within this transtensional domain.
North and south of the loop orebodies are narrow and can
5

80
Rhyolite
Com/Pan

70

Z r /T iO 2* 0.0001

RhyodaciteDacite
Trachyte

SiO2
60

Andesite

TrAn
Phonolite

50

SubAb
Ab

40
0.001

0.01

Com/Pant

1
Rhyolite

0.1

Trachyte
Rhyodacite/Dacite
TrachyAnd
Andesite

0.01

Bsn/Nph
And/Bas

Bas-Trach-Neph

0.1

SubAlkaline Basalt

10

Phonolite

0.001
0.01

Zr/TiO2*0.0001

Figure 7: Discriminant plots of El Soldado rocks (black symbols: unaltered rocks;

open symbols: altered rocks) indicating that the volcanic and subvolcanic rocks in the El Soldado deposit are rhyodacites and basalts,
not alkaline trachytes and andesites, as interpreted by previous workers.
Plots after Winchester and Floyd (1977) from Boric (2002).

0.1

Alk-Bas

10

Nb/Y

rhyodacite
basalt
mafic dyke
rhyodacitic dyke
microdioritic dyke
diorite
Veta negra Fm basaltic andesite

172

The Americas

be best described as veins (eg. Veta del Agua, Figures 3

and 5). Intermediate and mafic dykes which were emplaced
in a general WNW trend, are cut and displaced by most
faults and predate the hydrothermal event, although they
are generally unmineralised (Boric, 1997). This structural
pattern can be explained by a fracturing-reactivation event
under brittle strain conditions. Judging by the orientation
of conjugate shears and of dilatant fractures, the main stress
(1) is inferred to have been sub-horizontal and oriented
NNW - SSE; the minimum stress (3) perpendicular to it,
and the intermediate stress (2) subvertical (eg. Boric,
1997; 2002; S. Caddey, CMD internal report, 2001). This
inferred local tectonic stress is consistent with the regional
stress field active during the Early Cretaceous and
responsible of the left lateral motion along the Atacama
fault system in the Early Cretaceous of northern Chile (eg.
Maksaev and Zentilli, this volume). Chavez (1988), in a
detailed rock-mechanics analysis of meso- and microstructures in the underground workings, computed probable
maximum (1) and minimum (3) confining stresses of
1050 and 850 bar respectively, and pore fluid pressures for
the main fracturing-mineralising event of between 1250
and 850 bar.

Mineral Zoning and Paragenesis

Hypogene ore minerals (Figures 9 & 10) are chalcopyrite,
bornite, chalcocite (and digenite) and minor covellite that
occur as disseminations and veinlets. Common waste or
gangue minerals are pyrite, hematite, calcite, chlorite, albite,
K-feldspar (adularia, microcline), solid bitumen, quartz,
opaline silica, rutile, titanite, and minor amounts of
magnetite, sphalerite, galena, and arsenopyrite.
Hydrothermal alteration mimics the gangue associations
(Table 1; Figure 11), and consists of abundant calcite,
chlorite, albite, microcline, epidote, titanite-leucoxene and
rutile, and some quartz, sericite and clay minerals, but
primary rock textures are largely preserved (Holmgren,
1987, Boric, 1997).
I ndividual

orebodies in a cluster (Figure 8) show a

remarkable mineralogical zoning (eg. Martin, 1981, Ruge,
1985; R. Sillitoe, CMD internal report, 1995; Boric 1997,
Ponce 2001), from a core of chalcocite - (covellite) hematite or chalcocite- (covellite) -bornite-hematite;
followed outward by approximately concentric zones of
bornite-chalcopyrite, chalcopyrite, chalcopyrite-pyrite and
pyrite in the most peripheral zone. Furthermore, the deeper
roots of the orebodies contain relatively more pyrite than
their upward terminations, which are richer in bornite,
chalcocite and fine hematite (Figure 8B; Boric, 1997; 2002;
Ponce, 2001). As shown in Figure 8A, a more global zoning

Figure 8:
Left
Right

Plan view of El Soldado orebodies (Level Zero), showing mineral zoning of orebody clusters. Note a general increase
of specular hematite (Spec Hem) towards the north, and an increase of chalcocite and bornite toward the south.
Generalized model (adapted from Sillitoe, CMD internal report, 1996 and Boric, 1997), for the vertical mineralogical
zoning of individual orebodies: outward pyrite-chalcopyrite zone, followed inwards by a chalcopyrite-bornite zone,
and an internal and uppermost bornite-chalcocite-hematite zone

El Soldado, Chile - R. Boric et al.

at the camp scale has also been noted. The southern

orebodies have relatively more chalcocite and bornite,
whereas chalcopyrite and pyrite predominate towards the
north (Martin, 1981; Holmgren and Gonzalez, 1988; Boric,
1997; Boric, 2002). In addition, new exploration drill holes
have shown that specular hematite becomes gradually more
abundant towards the north (Boric, 2002).
Matching their mineralogical zoning, the orebodies display
a strong variability in copper grades, especially laterally
(Figures 4, 5 & 8). Their lateral margins are similarly
characterised by abrupt changes in the copper content
(Ruge, 1985). The transition from internal high-grade (~1.2
- 2.0% Cu), to lateral medium-grade (0.5 - 1.2% Cu), to
external low-grade (0.2 - 0.5% Cu) zones, takes place within
few metres or less. Country (or background) rocks
between the orebodies are barren (usually below 0.1%
Cu; Table 1; Figure 11). Variations in copper grade are
less marked along strike and down plunge of the orebodies.
The cut-off grade is generally 0.8% Cu for the underground
mine, and 0.5% Cu for the open pit. The silver content
averages about 6 g/t Ag, although in the bornite-chalcocite
core it is 20-30 g/t Ag. Microprobe analyses indicate that
silver is mainly in the bornite and chalcocite, as inclusions
and in solid solution (M.C.Graves, Cuesta Research Ltd.
report for CMD, 1995; Boric, 1997; Ponce, 2001). It is

important to emphasise that globally, Cu grades increase

southwards (Boric, 2002).
In previous studies (eg Klohn et al, 1990), the external pyrite
zone (Figures 4 & 8) had been considered a distal unit within
the hydrothermal assemblage. However, it is now
recognised that at least part of this pyrite (background
values where pyrite is less than 2% by volume) grew at
low temperatures in association with liquid petroleum in
the realm of sulphur-reducing bacterial activity. Geopetal
structures of gas bubbles at the top of oil-filled cavities
indicate that petroleum migrated and solidified before the
tilting of the strata (Wilson and Zentilli, 1999). Therefore
it is necessary to contrast the pyrite of diagenetic origin
(Stage I of Wilson and Zentilli, 1999) and that of possible
hydrothermal origin (Figure 12); zones with more than
2% pyrite could be a combination of both processes (Boric,
2002).
Part of the pyrite grew by sulphidation of titanomagnetite
(Figure 9A) and ferromagnesian minerals, and is present
as fine disseminations in all rocks as a background, usually
comprising about 1% by volume. However, most of the
pyrite in El Soldado occurs as framboidal spherules
associated with bitumen (Figures 9B, 9C). Framboids are
spheroidal aggregates with a diameter ranging from a few
micrometers to 70 m (mean 16 m; Wilson, 1998) made

Figure 9: Photomicrographs of Diagenetic (A,B,C) and early hydrothermal assemblages (D).

A:
B:
C:
D:

173

Altered titanomagnetite rimmed by diagenetic pyrite (white), in calcite (dark) (field of view 4 mm);
Diagenetic, framboidal pyrite (py) within and around solid bitumen (b) and calcite (ca) (scale bar 95 micrometers);
Framboidal and euhedral pyrite in calcite (ca) (scale bar 38 micrometers);
Specular hematite (spec hem) and chalcopyrite-pyrite from the earliest hydrothermal stage, in altered rock (field of
view 2 mm).

174

The Americas

of euhedral pyrite crystals of 1 m and larger. These

framboids developed mostly, but not exclusively, within
globules of liquid petroleum, now bitumen. Around a
nucleus of framboidal pyrite, later growth of pyrite,
probably as a result of increasing temperatures, developed
large euhedral pyrite crystals (Figure 9C). Minor amounts
of sphalerite, sphalerite with inclusions of chalcopyrite
(Wilson, 1998), and very rare arsenopyrite (Zentilli et al.,
1997) exist within this early sulphide assemblage. It
remains open to question how much, if any of the pyrite at
El Soldado developed during the hydrothermal phase. Low
values of arsenic are associated with (and perhaps restricted
to) the diagenetic pyrite (Wilson, 1998; Collins et al., 2002).
Organic matter occurs as bitumen and graphite. In hand
specimen bitumen looks glassy black and is brittle like
anthracite. It is particularly significant in the south of the
camp (eg. Filo). Under transmitted light it is opaque, and
under reflected light it is light brown (Figures 9B, 10B,
10D) with low reflectance (less than 5%), and thus easily
overlooked; it is relatively soft and brittle and is easily
plucked out during manufacture of polished sections.
Although identified and analysed by microprobe
(C.Holmgren & F.Barbagelata, CMD internal company

Figure 10:
A:
B:
C:
D:

report, 1985), its genetic significance was not recognised

until recently (Zentilli et al., 1994; 1997). Bitumen started
as liquid petroleum, and is found forming globules,
commonly showing degassing bubbles that have risen to
the top of cavities (Wilson and Zentilli, 1999).
Solidification led to shrinkage and fragmentation into
angular granules (Figures 9B, 10D). Bitumen occupies
primary and fracture porosity in rhyodacites and basalts,
and it is commonly associated with calcite, which fills brittle
(post-solidification) fractures, indicating that calcite is
paragenetically later. It occurs with framboidal pyrite, and
in all sulphide zones, but is more abundant in the Filo
orebody cluster in the southern part of the camp (Wilson,
1998). Graphite (graphitised bitumen) occurs in the north
of the camp in chalcopyrite and bornite veins (Wilson,
1998). Bitumen in the richest bornite ores is highly enriched
in chlorine, as detected in microprobe analyses. This
chlorine is interpreted to have been inherited from chloride
copper complexes during mineralization, suggesting an
active-carbon role for the bitumen (Wilson and Zentilli,
1999).
During the hydrothermal stage (Stage II) chalcopyrite was
the first copper mineral to crystallise; chalcopyrite clearly

Mineral assemblages of the hydrothermal stage (II).

Pyrite-chalcopyrite zone; pyrite (py) replaced by chalcopyrite (cp) [field of view 1 mm];
Bornite-chalcocite zone; bornite (light grey) and chalcocite (darker grey) replace pyrite (white), part of which was
framboidal; solid bitumen (b) has up to 1.7% S, and is veined by calcite (ca) [scale bar 90 microns];
Bornite-chalcopyrite zone; assemblage of bornite (grey), chalcopyrite (light grey) and hematite (white); [field of
view 1 mm];
Chalcocite (white)-covellite (grey) assemblage with solid bitumen (b) and calcite; [field of view 1.5 mm].

El Soldado, Chile - R. Boric et al.

replaces pyrite (Figure 10A). The pyrite-chalcopyrite zone

contains mainly pre-existing pyrite of Stage I, although
some proportion of the pyrite may have grown in Stage II.
Chalcopyrite, bornite and chalcocite pseudomorphically
replace the framboidal pyrite and thus the texture of the
framboidal precursor can be observed even in massive parts
of sulphide veins (Figure 10B).
Bornite is associated with chalcocite, although many
microprobe analyses indicate that locally the sulphide has
the composition of digenite (M.C.Graves, Cuesta Research
Ltd., internal report CMD, 1995). Where replacement of
pyrite by bornite and chalcocite-digenite is complete,
expelled excess iron formed hematite (Holmgren, 1987;
Figure 10C), with textural relationships suggesting coprecipitation of the 3 phases. Bornite and chalcocite contain
Ag measurable by microprobe (M.C.Graves, Cuesta
Research Ltd., internal report CMD, 1995; Ponce, 2001;
Boric, 2002).
Covellite is common in the southern part of the camp,
together with chalcocite and bitumen (Figure 10D; Ponce,
2001).
The first mineral to crystallise (Figure 11) during the
hydrothermal phase (Stage II) was probably specular
hematite (Figure 9D) locally accompanied by minor
magnetite (Martin, 1981; Wilson, 1998). However, this
aspect has not been addressed systematically and needs
more work.
Although relatively insoluble oxidised copper minerals (eg.
malachite, chrysocolla, copper pitch) exist near the surface
(10-30 m, to 60 m in faults), and mixed sulphide-oxide ores
are exploited, supergene enrichment is not significant. The
lower margin of the oxidised zone is gradual, and displays
secondary minerals (eg. chalcocite) passing gradually into
hypogene sulphides, but does not represent a supergene
enriched zone; in fact mixed ores have lower copper grades
than the primary sulphide mineralisation. The absence of
supergene copper enrichment has been ascribed to high
erosion rates, the relative scarcity of pyrite in the upper
levels of orebodies, and the abundance of calcite, which
would neutralise the oxidising solutions necessary to
produce enrichment (Gonzalez and Holmgren, 1993; Ponce,
2001).

Alteration
Previous studies (Klohn et al., 1990) recognised 4 main
alteration effects: 1) carbonatisation, expressed as
abundant calcite halos and veinlets in proximity to ore;
2) chloritisation, which is particularly pronounced in the
host basalts and tuffs, where it is associated with epidote
and calcite; 3) silicification, mainly associated with the
bornite zones of the orebodies; and, 4) albitisation, which
they considered to be late and patchy, and only locally
developed. The present study points out the importance of
previously unrecognised alkali metasomatism and
particularly sodic, and locally potassic alteration in the
deposit (Boric 2002). Furthermore, it is necessary to

175

distinguish between the effects of the diagenetic phase, of

regional metamorphism, and hydrothermal alteration
proper. To this effect, the geochemistry of representative
samples of rocks from the different mineralogical zones
have been analysed for major and trace elements and
compared with the freshest, least altered, or
background rocks distal from ore (Table 1, Figure 11).
Specific gravity (S.G.) was measured with a beam balance,
and magnetic susceptibility (M.S.) systematically with a
hand-held EDA K-2 Magnetic Susceptibility Meter.
The alteration effects on rhyodacites (Figure 11A) are
divided into 4 zones: 1) pyrite; 2) chalcopyrite; 3) bornitechalcocite-sodic; and 4) bornite-chalcocite-potassic, the
latter to emphasise alkali metasomatic effects. For the
basalts (Figure 11B) the bornite-chalcocite association is
not sub-divided. The plots represent the ratios between
the different groups and the background or least altered
rock, taken away from ore but still in mappable continuity
to ensure internal consistency.
In the rhyodacites, all zones are enriched in Cu when
compared with background rocks (Table 1). There is no
significant change in specific gravity, while magnetic
susceptibility, SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, CaO, C, REE, Y, Zr, Th,
U and V all show no change. Most significant in the
rhyodacites is the moderate increase in Na2O (due to
albitisation), FeO(total), S, MgO (chloritisation), P2O5
(secondary apatite), Ag, As, and Zn, with the anomaly that
Na2O is depleted in the K-feldspar rich bornite-chalcocite
zone. K2O is depleted in the sulphide zones, except where
it occurs as adularia. This K-rich zone is also depleted in
Zn and Sr, but contains some of the highest Cu grades.
Other important depletions are Co, Ni (not reliable because
both values are close to the detection limits; Table 1). Rb
and Ba are depleted, except in the bornite-chalcocitepotassic zone, where they increase sympathetically. Sr
behaves like CaO, as expected. In retrospect it appears
that the rocks selected as background rhyodacite were
somewhat enriched in carbonate, and this fact distorts the
apparent behaviour of LOI, MnO and C (Boric, 2002).
For the basalts (Figures 11B), again there is no change in
S.G, SiO2 (no hint of silicification, even in the bn-cc zone),
TiO2, Al2O3, FeO(total) and the immobile trace elements.
In contrast to the rhyodacites, the basalts exhibit a drastic
loss of magnetic susceptibility, reflecting the wholesale
sulphidation of magnetite, associated with a large gain in
S; this extreme effect should be useful in exploration. Other
uneven losses are MgO, K2O, Ba, Rb and Sr. Arsenic is
lost from the chalcopyrite zone, but increases in the other
two zones. Zentilli et al. (1997) showed how early-formed
arsenopyrite has been almost totally replaced by bornitechalcocite; it appears some of the As is redistributed in Cu
sulphides. Significant increases are Na2O, Na2O/K2O, LOI,
and C (as total C including bitumen and CO2).

Fluid Inclusion Data

Fluid inclusion data from previous studies are summarised
in Table 2. This work was carried out by Holmgren (1985;
1987) and M. Skewes (CMD internal report, 1988), and

176

The Americas

Figure 11: Plots of gains and losses, normalized to least altered (background) rocks (see Table 1);
in each case the columns represent different mineral zones in the orebodies (see Figure 8).
A:
B:

Major and trace elements in rhyodacites;

Major and trace elements in basalts. Note that there is no change in specific gravity, but a complete
removal of magnetic susceptibility (M.S) in the basalts.

El Soldado, Chile - R. Boric et al.

177

Table 2. Range of Homogenization Temperatures (1) and Salinities of Fluid Inclusions in El Soldado
o

Hom. Temp. Max. C

Hom. Temp. Min. C
n
Ore Zone
Salinity %
Stage II
Low High Average Low High Average Samples Min Max Average
py-cp
118 240
172
155
296
249
5
10
31
26
cp-bn
102 239
153
119
303
178
12
3
31
22
bn-cc
93
244
138
137
204
181
9
3
31
21
late barren veins
82
122
102
104
170
137
6
22
29
25
Compiled from data in Holmgren (1985;1987); M.Skewes (CMD internal report, 1988) in Boric (2002);
(1) Uncorrected homogenization temperatures

Table 2:

n
Samples
3
8
5
2

Range of Homogenization Temperatures (uncorrected for pressure) from reports by

Holmgren (1985;1987) and M. Skewes (CMD internal report, 1988) in Boric (2002).

partially reported in Klohn et al. (1990). For this summary

paper, Table 2 groups results of over 400 TH measurements,
ice melting and NaCl dissolution measurements made in
veinlets of calcite and quartz, grouped by mineralogical
zones. The homogenisation temperatures for the 4 groups
overlap somewhat as follows: 1) pyrite-chalcopyrite (172o
o
249 C); 2) chalcopyrite-bornite (153-178 C); 3) borniteo
o
chalcocite (138-181 C); 4) late barren veins (102-137 C),
o
suggesting a cooling trend from a maximum of ca. 200 C;
all these temperatures are uncorrected for pressure. No
evidence of boiling of the fluids was observed in the fluid
inclusions.
Klohn et al. (1990) assumed the depth of formation to be
7 km and applied pressure corrections to the data,
suggesting temperatures of Cu-rich hydrothermal fluids to
o
o
have been ca. 300 C (hydrostatic, 680 bar) or ca. 400 C
o
(lithostatic, 1800 bar), and for the late barren veins 175 C
o
(hydrostatic) and 250 C (lithostatic). The maximum burial
of the deposit by Lower Cretaceous strata is poorly
constrained, but the absence of high-temperature alteration
minerals such as biotite or actinolite, which in the Salton
o
Sea basin appear at temperatures higher than 300 C (eg.
Elders et al. 1979) it is unlikely that temperature was much
o
higher than 300-350 C.
Salinities are consistently high (21-26% NaCl equivalent)
with some analyses as high as 34%, suggesting CaCl2 in
addition to NaCl in the fluids. A few samples indicated
salinities as low as 3% NaCl equivalent. Although no
evaporites are known in the Lo Prado and Veta Negra
Formations, the consistently high salinities suggest their
presence in what may represent basinal fluids. Klohn et
al. (1990) interpreted these high salinities as evidence for
magmatic fluids. We prefer to interpret this salinity as
representing deeply circulating basinal brines analogous
to those in the Salton Sea geothermal system of southern

California (23-30 wt % NaCl equivalent), with maximum

temperatures of ca. 350oC (eg. Elders et al. 1979).

Isotopic data
Sulphur isotope data on the pyrite have a wide range in
34S ratios (-11.1 and 28.0 ), consistent with strong
fractionation in compartmentalised pore domains where
variable proportions of sulphate are incompletely reduced;
the fractionation is probably biogenic, such as with the
intervention of sulphur-reducing bacteria (eg. Love, 1967),
most likely at temperatures below 100oC (Wilson et al., in
press a). Sulphur isotope data on copper sulphides, which
pseudomorphically replace framboidal pyrite (Figure 9B),
also has a wide range in 34S ratios (-12.7 and 19 ),
indicating that sulphur was inherited from the pyrite during
replacement of pyrite by Cu sulphides (Wilson et al, in press
a). A few sulphide samples have 34S ratios near zero, and
were originally interpreted by Klohn et al. (1990) to be
evidence for a magmatic source, although the wide range
observed in many new analyses suggests that a magmatic
signature is volumetrically insignificant.
13

The C ratios of gangue calcite at El Soldado vary

between -4 and -20 and represent a mixing line with
18
consistent O values (12.0 - 14.7 ) between
pyrobitumen-derived organic and inorganic C reservoirs
(Wilson 1998; Wilson et al., in press a). The observed range
is compatible with incorporation of bitumen-derived
organic carbon into the gangue calcite, and is greatest
13
(lowest C) where solid bitumen was replaced during
mineralization. Bitumen associated with gangue calcite
13
has C values of -30 to -26 , indicative of
representing solidified petroleum (Wilson, 1998).
18

The O ratios of K-feldspar (adularia) range between 12.0

and 12.7 , and are compatible with the fluids being of

Table 3. Summary Table of Geochronological Data

Unit
Material Age Ma
Rhyodacitic dyke
zircon
138-126
132 + 3
Rhyodacitic dyke
k-spar
119 + 2
Basalt dyke
k-spar
Alkali metasomatism in rhyodacite
k-spar
109-112
Veins and vugs in ore
k-spar
101-106
Amygdules (distal)
k-spar
101-105
88 + 18
Rhyodacite flow
apatite

Method
U/Pb
40
Ar/39Ar
40
Ar/39Ar
40
Ar/39Ar
40
Ar/39Ar
40
Ar/39Ar
AFT

Source
Heaman in Boric (2002)
Boric & Munizaga (1994)
Boric & Munizaga (1994)
Wilson (1998)
Wilson (1998)
Boric & Munizaga (1994)
Wilson et al. (submitted b)

178

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metamorphic/basinal origin (Wilson et al., in press a).

Oxygen isotope ratios of calcite vary between 12.0 and 14.7
, a range of less than 3 . The relatively small range in
18O ratios in calcite and K-feldspar suggest that the
external fluid was relatively homogeneous and there was
no great variation in temperature during crystallisation. The
18O ratios of water in equilibrium with calcite at the
estimated temperatures of 300 oC to 400 oC can be
calculated using the equations of ONeil and Clayton
(1969), and gives a range of 6.4 - 9.12 and 8.8 - 11.5
respectively, hence overlapping with the range of primary
magmatic waters, if slightly on the heavy (metamorphic)
side, hence a magmatic contribution to the mineralising
brines cannot be ruled out. If the temperature of
equilibration of calcite had been lower, say between 100
and 200 oC, then the participation of meteoric waters could
be invoked.
The 87Sr/86Sr ratios in calcite (which contain less than 60
ppm Rb) of 0.7041 to 0.7051 are similar to those of the
host basaltic rocks at the time of mineralization (eg.
Munizaga et al., 1995), and different from values obtained
from marine carbonates in the Lo Prado Formation (0.70510.7071; F. Munizaga, CMD internal report, 1992). These

results are consistent with a basinal or metamorphic fluid

having inherited the low 87Sr/86Sr ratios during water-rock
reaction for several million years. Furthermore, during the
geochronological study (Wilson, 1998; Wilson et al.,
submitted b), it was noted that all 40Ar/39Ar dated samples
of K-feldspar (adularia) contain high proportions of
atmospheric argon; this is interpreted to indicate a high
proportion of meteoric water in the basinal mineralising
fluids, lessening the probable importance of any magmatic
component.
Re-Os-isotope data for El Soldado (Ruiz et al., 1997) are
significantly more radiogenic than those of the porphyry
copper type deposits of Chile. Whereas the initial 187Os/
188
Os ratios in pyrite from El Soldado is 3.95, in the Los
Bronces (Disputada) porphyry copper southeast of El
Soldado (Figure 1) the pyrite has (187Os/188Os)i of 0.18
(mantle ~0.12). Ruiz et al. (1997) suggest that black shales
are the one crustal reservoir (continental crust ~ 1.0) that
could possibly account for the anomalously high (187Os/
188
Os), of El Soldado sulphides. These results are consistent
with the present interpretation that the diagenetic pyrite in
El Soldado is related to petroleum (Wilson and Zentilli,
1998); they say little about the source of the Cu deposited
during the hydrothermal stage.

Figure 12: Generalized paragenesis for the El Soldado ore deposits. Temperature and time scales
approximate only. Dashed lines indicate high uncertainty. The most signifiucant minerals
are indicated in black. See text for discussion.

El Soldado, Chile - R. Boric et al.

Geochronology
Table 3 summarises the state of knowledge of the age of
rocks and alteration/gangue minerals. The age of the host
basalts and rhyodacites is based on marine fossils in the
Lo Prado Formation, Berriasian to Hauterivian (Lower
Cretaceous). According to the time scale of Okulitch
(1999), the marine rocks were emplaced between 145 and
127 Ma. This is consistent with 126-138 Ma U/Pb dates
on zircon from a host rhyodacite dyke (L.Heaman in Boric,
2002) and a 1323 Ma 40Ar/39Ar in K-feldspar (Boric and
Munizaga, 1994). A basalt dyke that may be a feeder to
the Veta Negra Formation yielded a 40Ar/39Ar in K-feldspar
of 1192Ma (Boric and Munizaga, 1994). Wilson (1998)
dated K-feldspar developed by alkali metasomatism in
rhyodacite with ages of 109-112 Ma, and K-feldspar
(adularia) veinlets in ore with ages between 101 and
106 Ma, with an average of 1032 Ma, which we consider
to be the age of Cu (Ag) mineralization. A similar age was
obtained by Boric and Munizaga (1994) on K-feldspar in
amygdules in basalt distal from ore at El Soldado. One
fission track age in apatite of 8818 Ma was reported from
a rhyodacite flow within the mine, interpreted to represent
final cooling of the hydrothermal system to ca. 100oC
(Wilson et al., submitted b).
In summary, the copper-silver mineralization was emplaced
at least 20 Ma after the deposition of the host rocks, broadly
coinciding with the emplacement of the Cretaceous
batholith and the peak of regional low-grade metamorphism
as determined elsewhere in the basin (eg. Fuentes et al.,
2001; Morata et al., 2001; Maksaev and Zentilli, this
volume).

Evolution of the Deposit

Figure 12 is a generalised summary of the evolution of El
Soldado, taking into account the mineral paragenesis, fluid
inclusion constraints, and the geochronology. The
evolutionary model is significantly different from the
interpretation of Klohn et al. (1990). The deposit can be
best understood by distinguishing 2 phases: a first (Stage
I) diagenetic stage of rock preparation and deposition of
low-temperature pyrite, probably related to petroleum
migration, and a second (Stage II) hydrothermal phase (eg.
Wilson, 1998; Wilson and Zentilli, 1999). An intervening
metamorphic stage can be assumed, involving the burial
of the sequence until the time of batholith emplacement.
During Stage I, burial must have been relatively rapid,
since liquid petroleum was generated and migrated into
the upper Lo Prado Formation, before tilting, implying oilwindow temperatures of >60oC in the underlying source
rocks (Wilson and Zentilli, 1999; Wilson, 2000). The
presence of petroleum as a liquid, and the formation of
framboidal pyrite with the assistance of bacteria (Wilson
et al., submitted a), suggest that the temperature was less
than 100oC. The source of oil was the dark shales of the
lower member of the Lo Prado Formation; it migrated
upwards through extensional normal faults that must have
been active during sedimentation and volcanism that filled

179

the basin, and probably represent growth faults, which were

later reactivated during Stage II. Permeability was provided
by primary porosity such as columnar jointing, syn-volcanic
breccias, inter-particle spaces in coarse volcaniclastic rocks,
vesicular zones in basalts, and secondary fracture porosity
related to faults. The uppermost tuffaceous unit of the Lo
Prado Formation acted as a relatively impervious cap for
the petroleum reservoir.
After petroleum solidified and fractured as it shrank, calcite
crystallised in the open spaces. This calcite (as the carbon
isotope data show) was in part generated by the oxidation
of organic matter. The diagenetic stage must have
developed between deposition of the volcanic host rocks
at ca. 130 Ma, and peak metamorphism, although calcite
precipitated after solidification of the bitumen, probably at
temperatures above 100oC, consistent with the minima for
homogenisation temperatures of fluid inclusions (Table 2).
During the diagenetic and metamorphic stages,
redistribution of alkalis in the rhyodacites formed interstitial
K-feldspar with argon dates of variable age, but averaging
ca. 110 Ma (Table 3).
During Stage II, temperatures peaked to 300-350oC,
probably soon after intrusion of the Cretaceous Batholith,
and the age of mineralization is probably close to
1032 Ma, on the basis of the ages obtained in previous
and current work for adularia associated with copper
sulphides (Wilson and Zentilli, 1999). This age is similar
to 40Ar/39Ar dates obtained by Fuentes et al. (2000) for
adularia and sericite in Veta Negra Formation lavas in the
Chacana area, only 10 km south of El Soldado. Also, this
is the age obtained for alteration K-feldspar and sericite
associated with a dacitic porphyry at the La Isla Cu mine,
also in the Chacana area (Boric and Munizaga, 1994).
Apatite fission track dating suggests rapid cooling and
exhumation, such that by 90 Ma the rocks had cooled to
ca. 100oC (Wilson et al., submitted b) and were never
substantially reheated.
In addition to the age and duration of the ore-forming
process no genetic model is complete without consideration
of the possible source(s) of fluids, metals, sulphur, gangue
constituents, of energy, the fluid transport mechanism and
the fluid focusing through the deposit, the conditions and
controls of precipitation in the ore deposit, and post-ore
modifications (eg. Zentilli et al., 1997; Boric, 2002).
The diagenetic pyrite precursor turns out to be a
fundamental prerequisite for mineralization at El Soldado.
Cu was preferentially precipitated where it could replace
pyrite, and chalcopyrite and the subsequently replacing
sulphides (Figure 12) recycling the sulphur and
incorporating it into their structure (Wilson et al., in
press a). Little sulphur appears to have been added during
Cu mineralization. From isotopic studies we know the
sulphur was derived from low-temperature (probably
bacterial) reduction of sulphate in the pore waters. Since
Fe is not easily transported in oxidised waters (eg. Love,
1967), Fe for the pyrite was most likely derived from the
reduced pore waters accompanying the petroleum in their

180

The Americas

rise through the basinal normal faults. This concept is

totally consistent with the Re-Os data on (diagenetic) pyrite
(Ruiz et al., 1997).
The growth of specularite in the northern part of El Soldado,
locally associated with pyrite, seems to have preceded the
introduction of Cu. Either this specularite represents
abundance of Fe in solution after bacterial reduction of
sulphate became ineffective by rising temperature, and
precipitation near an oxidising front, or otherwise the first
pulses of hydrothermal brines did not carry significant Cu,
nor sulphur, to create sulphides. This part of the paragenesis
remains doubtful. It is reminiscent, however, of an early
phase of specular hematite present in Punta del CobreCandelaria (eg. Ortiz et al., 1966; Marschik and Fontbote,
1996) and Mantos Blancos districts (Chavez 1985).
Sulphur was inherited wholesale from diagenetic pyrite
during the hydrothermal stage, as indicated by the matching
extremely wide range in sulphur isotopic ratios in pyrite
and Cu sulphides. The source of the Cu is speculative, but
as forcefully put forward by Westra (1988) for El Soldado,
by analogy with other low-grade metamorphic sequences
such as the Karmutsen volcanics in British Columbia
(Lincoln, 1981), and the Keweenawan tholeiitic lavas of
northern Michigan (Jolly and Smith, 1972), it is most likely
that the Cu was extracted during prograde low-grade
metamorphism from the oxidised Veta Negra Formation
mafic and intermediate volcanics, volcaniclastics and
redbeds.
The salinity of fluid inclusions (21-26% NaCl equivalent)
indicates that the solutions that transported the Cu were
high-salinity brines. The presence of chlorine has been
detected within the bitumen associated with high grade Cu
ores (Wilson, 1998; Wilson and Zentilli, 1999). Eh-pH
relationships allowing for the precipitation of chalcocitecovellite-hematite assemblages must have been highly
oxidising, and mildly acidic at ca. 300oC (eg. Lincoln,
1981). The oxygen and carbon isotope data, the strontium
isotopes and the presence of atmospheric argon in the
alteration and gangue K-feldspar (adularia) are compatible
with the fluids having been connate, in part meteoric waters
within the subaerial volcanic Veta Negra Formation, in
partial equilibrium with the rocks during prograde
metamorphism, which culminated with peak temperatures
during intrusion of the batholith.
The energy source for fluid migration may have been the
tectonic tilting of the strata and the intrusion of the huge
Cretaceous batholith. Focusing was provided by the
development of a brittle shear system parallel to the Andean
margin in response to oblique subduction (eg. Maksaev and
Zentilli, this volume) generating transtensional regimes
such as the cymoid loop at El Soldado. The reactivation of
pre-existing normal faults and the resulting fracturing
generated structural permeability in vertical zones thus
attracting and channelling large volumes of hot, Cu-rich
brines into the more brittle lithologies of the Lo Prado
Formation, such as the rhyodacites, from the overlying Veta
Negra Formation.
The access of Cu-rich, oxidised chloride brines to zones
with pyrite accompanied by still-reactive bitumen, which

acted as active carbon to destabilise the chloride complexes

(Wilson and Zentilli, 1999), led to the progressive
replacement of the pyrite by Cu sulphides. The replacement
of pyrite by chalcopyrite only requires the addition of Cu,
but any further replacement by Cu leads to an excess of Fe,
which results in the co-precipitation of hematite (Figure
10C).
As indicated above, after ore formation and batholith
intrusion, the region underwent rapid cooling and
exhumation during inversion of the Cretaceous Basin. This
interpretation is compatible with apatite fission track dates
of ca. 90 Ma at El Soldado, and 82-95 Ma at the Caleu
Pluton revealing rapid denudation during the Late
Cretaceous (eg. Parada and Larrondo, 1999; Gana and
Zentilli, 2000).
Supergene oxidation is not insignificant, in particular in
the upper levels of the mine near the surface, and in the
proximity of open faults, such that mixed sulphide-oxide
ores are exploited by leaching. However, oxidation has
led to a decrease in Cu grades rather than to supergene
enrichment. The lack of sufficient pyrite to generate
sulphuric acid during oxidative weathering, the presence
of reducing bitumen, and of abundant calcite to neutralise
any acid formed, have worked against supergene
enrichment (eg. Gonzalez and Holmgren, 1993).

Conclusions and Implications for

Exploration
The main controls of orebody development at El Soldado
are:
1. Pyrite and bitumen. Copper minerals replaced preexisting pyrite, which developed within a degraded
petroleum reservoir, probably through the interaction
of sulphur reducing bacteria, at temperatures below
100oC (Wilson and Zentilli, 1999; Wilson et al., in
press a). Petroleum migration and pyrite growth
preceded tilting of the strata (Wilson and Zentilli, 1999;
Wilson et al., in press a). Therefore the locus for pyrite
within the potential petroleum reservoir could extend
long distances down dip and to the east. Solid bitumen
acted as a reductant for hydrothermal solutions and
probably destabilised chloride complexes carrying Cu
(Wilson, 1998). Other palaeo-petroleum reservoirs
within the Cretaceous basin could be the locus of
mineralization even if no pyrite was developed. As
pointed out by Zentilli et al. (1997) interaction of
hydrothermal solutions with petroleum source rocks
(organic-rich Lo Prado Formation or any other),
migrating hydrocarbons, or hydrocarbon reservoirs
could be good loci for sulphide precipitation. Petroleum
has had both physical roles, such as preserving pore
spaces by preventing cementation, providing new
porosity during shrinking to a solid, and because of its
negligible tensile and shear strength, enhancing
reactivation of bitumen-sealed faults (Zentilli et al.,
1997), as well as chemical roles, such as promoting
pyrite growth, and acting as a reductant to oxidising
solutions.

El Soldado, Chile - R. Boric et al.

2. Structural Permeability. Early formed extensional

faults controlled the migration of petroleum and
localised the formation of the essential pyrite before
and during petroleum migration. Later remobilisation
of these faults and development of a sinistral strikeslip regime with a transtensional zone (cymoid loop)
responding to a horizontal maximum principal stress
1 oriented NNW-SSE. The best extensional structures
should have an orientation somewhat parallel to the
above, and the permeability zones formed should have
a sub-vertical extension, parallel to the intermediate
stress direction (eg. Sibson, 2001). Within this brittle
regime, the most favourable rock types for ore are the
brittle rhyodacites, and basaltic lavas of the upper
member of the Lo Prado Formation, whereas the more
ductile tuffaceous units and fine-grained clastic
sediments are relatively less favourable (eg. Klohn et
al., 1990).
Other important conclusions are:
3. The trachyte of previous reports (eg. Klohn et al., 1990)
is in fact a metasomatised rhyodacite; the andesite is
in fact basalt. There is no evidence of alkaline
magmatism in the El Soldado camp, and the rocks are
calc-alkaline (Boric, 2002). The alteration of these
rocks has given them characteristics of keratophyres
and spilites. The same effects are recognised in the
Punta del Cobre - Candelaria district (Marschik and
Fontbot, 1996).
4. Hydrothermal Cu mineralisation is associated with an
increase in Na related to albitisation and a depletion in
K in host rocks. Nevertheless, there are localised zones
of K increase in bornite-chalcocite assemblages near
structures, where K-feldspar has precipitated as adularia.
5. The complete disappearance of magnetic susceptibility
in basalts as they approach mineralised bodies resulted
from sulphidation of the magnetic minerals, and should
be a useful empirical tool in logging and geophysical
exploration.
6. The El Soldado deposit is epigenetic, but the fluids that
formed it were not magmatic. The data available
suggest that the fluids were highly saline connate basinal
brines, modified by prograde very low grade
metamorphism, but with a significant component of
meteoric water. Evaporites may have been involved,
although they have not been recognised in the basin.
Generalisations about very large manto type deposits:
7. This study suggests that very large manto type Cu (Ag)
deposits hosted by volcanic rocks, such as El Soldado,
Mantos Blancos and Punta del Cobre have some
common features, perhaps suggesting that these deposits
form part of a continuum between the Cu (Ag) and CuAu-Fe stratabound deposits (Maksaev and Zentilli this
volume):
They are hosted by bi-modal calc-alkaline volcanic
sequences including rhyodacite intrusive-extrusive
units that have been strongly albitised.

181

They are associated with transtensional domains in

brittle strike-slip shear systems.
They have a similar paragenesis that starts with
specular hematite, followed by increasingly copperrich sulphides.
They are associated with strong Na and locally K
alteration, clearly distinguishable from regional
metamorphic assemblages.
Their mineralization event is roughly coeval with
emplacement of granitoid intrusives that are
proximal (Punta del Cobre) or distal (El Soldado,
Mantos Blancos).
The importance of petroleum involvement, or the
generation of diagenetic pyrite as rock preparation
is important in El Soldado, but has not been
associated with Mantos Blancos and Punta del
Cobre; possibly El Soldado is an anomaly.

Acknowledgements
We thank the El Soldado CMD Management for
encouraging this publication and allowing the
comprehensive study, for which they provided logistic
support and many analyses. Funding came from Cuesta
Research Ltd., NSERC grants to MZ, and a Killam
Fellowship to NSFW.

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