Chapter 2

Theoretical Models of
Chemical Processes
Mathematical Model (Eykhoff, 1974)
a representation of the essential aspects of an existing
system (or a system to be constructed) which
represents knowledge of that system in a usable form
Everything should be made as simple as possible, but
no simpler.

General Modeling Principles

The model equations are at best an approximation to the real
process.

Chapter 2

Adage: All models are wrong, but some are useful.

Modeling inherently involves a compromise between model
accuracy and complexity on one hand, and the cost and effort
required to develop the model, on the other hand.
Process modeling is both an art and a science. Creativity is
required to make simplifying assumptions that result in an
appropriate model.

Dynamic models of chemical processes consist of ordinary

differential equations (ODE) and/or partial differential equations
(PDE), plus related algebraic equations.

Chapter 2

Table 2.1. A Systematic Approach for

Developing Dynamic Models
1. State the modeling objectives and the end use of the model.
They determine the required levels of model detail and model
accuracy.
2. Draw a schematic diagram of the process and label all process
variables.
3. List all of the assumptions that are involved in developing the
model. Try for parsimony; the model should be no more
complicated than necessary to meet the modeling objectives.
4. Determine whether spatial variations of process variables are
important. If so, a partial differential equation model will be
required.
5. Write appropriate conservation equations (mass, component,
energy, and so forth).

Table 2.1. (continued)

Chapter 2

6. Introduce equilibrium relations and other algebraic

equations (from thermodynamics, transport phenomena,
chemical kinetics, equipment geometry, etc.).

7. Perform a degrees of freedom analysis (Section 2.3) to

ensure that the model equations can be solved.
8. Simplify the model. It is often possible to arrange the
equations so that the dependent variables (outputs) appear
on the left side and the independent variables (inputs)
appear on the right side. This model form is convenient
for computer simulation and subsequent analysis.
9. Classify inputs as disturbance variables or as manipulated
variables.

Chapter 2

Modeling Approaches
Physical/chemical (fundamental, global)
Model structure by theoretical analysis
Material/energy balances
Heat, mass, and momentum transfer
Thermodynamics, chemical kinetics
Physical property relationships
Model complexity must be determined
(assumptions)

Can be computationally expensive (not realtime)

May be expensive/time-consuming to obtain

Good for extrapolation, scale-up

Does not require experimental data to obtain

(data required for validation and fitting)

 Conservation Laws
Theoretical models of chemical processes are based on
conservation laws.

Chapter 2

Conservation of Mass
rate of mass rate of mass rate of mass

(2-6)
in
out
accumulation

Conservation of Component i
rate of component i rate of component i

in
accumulation

rate of component i rate of component i

out
produced

(2-7)

Conservation of Energy

Chapter 2

The general law of energy conservation is also called the First

Law of Thermodynamics. It can be expressed as:
rate of energy rate of energy in rate of energy out

accumulation
by
convection
by
convection

net rate of work

net rate of heat addition

to the system from performed on the system

the surroundings
by the surroundings

(2-8)

The total energy of a thermodynamic system, Utot, is the sum of its

internal energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy:

Utot Uint U KE U PE

(2-9)

 Black box (empirical)

Large number of unknown parameters

Can be obtained quickly (e.g., linear regression)

Chapter 2

Model structure is subjective

Dangerous to extrapolate
Semi-empirical
Compromise of first two approaches
Model structure may be simpler
Typically 2 to 10 physical parameters estimated
(nonlinear regression)
Good versatility, can be extrapolated
Can be run in real-time

 linear regression
y c0 c1 x c2 x 2

nonlinear regression

Chapter 2

y K 1 e t /

number of parameters affects accuracy of model,

but confidence limits on the parameters fitted must
be evaluated
objective function for data fitting minimize sum of
squares of errors between data points and model
predictions (use optimization code to fit
parameters)
nonlinear models such as neural nets are
becoming popular (automatic modeling)

Chapter 2

Uses of Mathematical Modeling

to improve understanding of the process

to optimize process design/operating conditions

to design a control strategy for the process

to train operating personnel

Development of Dynamic Models

Chapter 2

Illustrative Example: A Blending Process

An unsteady-state mass balance for the blending system:

rate of accumulation rate of rate of

of mass in the tank mass in mass out

(2-1)

or

d V
dt

w1 w2 w

(2-2)

Chapter 2

where w1, w2, and w are mass flow rates.

The unsteady-state component balance is:

d Vx
dt

w1x1 w2 x2 wx

(2-3)

The corresponding steady-state model was derived in Ch. 1 (cf.

Eqs. 1-1 and 1-2).

0 w1 w2 w

(2-4)

0 w1x1 w2 x2 wx

(2-5)

Chapter 2

The Blending Process Revisited

For constant , Eqs. 2-2 and 2-3 become:
dV

w1 w2 w
dt

d Vx
dt

w1x1 w2 x2 wx

(2-12)

(2-13)

Equation 2-13 can be simplified by expanding the accumulation

term using the chain rule for differentiation of a product:

Chapter 2

d Vx

dx
dV

V
x
(2-14)
dt
dt
dt
Substitution of (2-14) into (2-13) gives:
dx
dV
V x
w1x1 w2 x2 wx
(2-15)
dt
dt
Substitution of the mass balance in (2-12) for dV/dt in (2-15)
gives:
dx
V x w1 w2 w w1x1 w2 x2 wx
(2-16)
dt
After canceling common terms and rearranging (2-12) and (2-16),
a more convenient model form is obtained:
dV 1
w1 w2 w
(2-17)
dt
w2
dx w1

(2-18)
x1 x x2 x
dt V
V

Chapter 2

Chapter 2

Stirred-Tank Heating Process

Figure 2.3 Stirred-tank heating process with constant holdup, V.

Stirred-Tank Heating Process (contd.)

Chapter 2

Assumptions:

1. Perfect mixing; thus, the exit temperature T is also the

temperature of the tank contents.
2. The liquid holdup V is constant because the inlet and outlet
flow rates are equal.
3. The density and heat capacity C of the liquid are assumed to
be constant. Thus, their temperature dependence is neglected.
4. Heat losses are negligible.

Chapter 2

For the processes and examples considered in this book, it

is appropriate to make two assumptions:
1. Changes in potential energy and kinetic energy can be
neglected because they are small in comparison with changes
in internal energy.
2. The net rate of work can be neglected because it is small
compared to the rates of heat transfer and convection.
For these reasonable assumptions, the energy balance in
Eq. 2-8 can be written as
dU int
wH Q
(2-10)
dt

denotes the difference

between outlet and inlet
the system
conditions of the flowing
streams; therefore
H enthalpy per unit mass
- wH = rate of enthalpy of the inlet
w mass flow rate
stream(s) - the enthalpy
Q rate of heat transfer to the system
of the outlet stream(s)

U int the internal energy of

Chapter 2

Model Development - I
For a pure liquid at low or moderate pressures, the internal energy
is approximately equal to the enthalpy, Uint H, and H depends
only on temperature. Consequently, in the subsequent
development, we assume that Uint = H and U int H where the
caret (^) means per unit mass. As shown in Appendix B, a
differential change in temperature, dT, produces a corresponding
change in the internal energy per unit mass, dU int ,
dU int dH CdT

(2-29)

where C is the constant pressure heat capacity (assumed to be

constant). The total internal energy of the liquid in the tank is:
Uint VU int

(2-30)

Chapter 2

Model Development - II
An expression for the rate of internal energy accumulation can be
derived from Eqs. (2-29) and (2-30):
dU int
dT
VC
(2-31)
dt
dt
Note that this term appears in the general energy balance of Eq. 210.

Suppose that the liquid in the tank is at a temperature T and has an

enthalpy, H . Integrating Eq. 2-29 from a reference temperature
Tref to T gives,
H H C T T
(2-32)

ref

ref

where H ref is the value of H at Tref. Without loss of generality, we

assume that H ref 0 (see Appendix B). Thus, (2-32) can be
written as:
H C T T
(2-33)

ref

Model Development - III

For the inlet stream

Chapter 2

H i C Ti Tref

(2-34)

Substituting (2-33) and (2-34) into the convection term of (2-10)

gives:

wH w C Ti Tref w C T Tref

(2-35)

Finally, substitution of (2-31) and (2-35) into (2-10)

dT
V C
wC Ti T Q
dt

(2-36)

steam-heating:

Q ws H v

Chapter 2

dT
V C
wC (Ti T ) ws H v (1)
dt

0 wC (Ti T ) w s H v (2)
subtract (2) from (1)

dT
V C
wC (T T ) (ws ws )H v
dt
divide by wC
H v
V dT
T T
( ws ws )
w dt
wC

Define deviation variables (from set point)

y T T

T is desired operating point

Chapter 2

u ws ws

V dy
w dt

ws (T ) from steady state

note when

H v
u
wC

dy
0
dt

note that

H v
V
K p and
1
wC
w

y K pu

dy
1 y K pu
dt
General linear ordinary differential equation solution: sum of exponential(s)
Suppose u 1 (unit step response)
t

y (t ) K p 1 e 1

Chapter 2

Figure 2.4

Example 1:
Ti = 40o C, T = 90o C, Ti = 0o C

s.s. balance: wC(T - Ti ) = wsHv

Chapter 2

w s =0.83 106 g hr
H v =600 cal g
C=l cal g o C
w=104 kg hr

=103 kg m3
V=20 m3

V 2 104 kg
V

2 104 kg

2hr
w 104 kg hr

dy
= -y + 6 10-5 u
dt

y TT
u ws ws

dynamic model

Step 1: t=0 double ws

Chapter 2

T(0) = T y(0) = 0
u = +0.83106 g hr
dy
2
= -y + 50
dt
y = 50l - e-0.5t

final T = yss + T = 50 + 90 = 140o C

Step 2: maintain

Step 3: then set

T = 140 o C / 24 hr

u = 0, w s = 833 kg hr

dy
2
= -y + 6 10-5 u, y(0) = 50
dt

Solve for u = 0
y = 50e-0.5t

t
y0

(self-regulating, but slow)

how long to reach y = 0.5 ?

Chapter 2

Step 4: How can we speed up the return from 140C to 90C?

ws = 0 vs. ws = 0.83106 g/hr
at s.s ws =0
y -50C T 40C

Process Dynamics
Process control is inherently concerned with unsteady
state behavior (i.e., "transient response", "process
dynamics")

Stirred tank heater: assume a "lag" between heating

element temperature Te, and process fluid temp, T.

Chapter 2

heat transfer limitation = heA(Te T)

Energy balances
Tank:
Chest:

At s.s.

dT
wCTi +h e A(Te -T)-wCT=mC
dt
dTe
Q - h e A(Te - T) = m e C e
dt
dT
dT
0, e 0
dt
dt

Specify Q calc. T, Te
2 first order equations 1 second order equation in T
Relate T to Q (Te is an intermediate variable)

y=T-T

u =Q-Q

Ti fixed

Chapter 2

mm e C e d 2 y m e C e m e C e m dy
1

u
2

wh e A e dt
wC
w dt
wC
h eAe

Note Ce 0 yields 1st order ODE (simpler model)

Fig. 2.2

Rv

1
q=
h
Rv

Rv: line resistance

Chapter 2

dh
1
A
qi h
dt
Rv

(2 - 57)

linear ODE

P Pa gh
If

dh
A qi Cv* gh qi Cv h
dt
nonlinear ODE

(2-61)

Chapter 2

Table 2.2. Degrees of Freedom Analysis

1. List all quantities in the model that are known constants (or
parameters that can be specified) on the basis of equipment
dimensions, known physical properties, etc.
2. Determine the number of equations NE and the number of
process variables, NV. Note that time t is not considered to be a
process variable because it is neither a process input nor a
process output.
3. Calculate the number of degrees of freedom, NF = NV - NE.
4. Identify the NE output variables that will be obtained by solving
the process model.
5. Identify the NF input variables that must be specified as either
disturbance variables or manipulated variables, in order to
utilize the NF degrees of freedom.

Chapter 2

Degrees of Freedom Analysis for the Stirred-Tank

Model:
3 parameters:

V , ,C

4 variables:

T , Ti , w, Q

1 equation:

Eq. 2-36

Thus the degrees of freedom are NF = 4 1 = 3. The process

variables are classified as:
1 output variable:

3 input variables:

Ti, w, Q

For temperature control purposes, it is reasonable to classify the

three inputs as:
2 disturbance variables:

Ti, w

1 manipulated variable:

Biological Reactions

Chapter 2

Biological reactions that involve micro-organisms and enzyme catalysts

are pervasive and play a crucial role in the natural world.
Without such bioreactions, plant and animal life, as we know it, simply
could not exist.
Bioreactions also provide the basis for production of a wide variety of
pharmaceuticals and healthcare and food products.
Important industrial processes that involve bioreactions include
fermentation and wastewater treatment.
Chemical engineers are heavily involved with biochemical and
biomedical processes.

Bioreactions
Are typically performed in a batch or fed-batch reactor.

Chapter 2

Fed-batch is a synonym for semi-batch.

Fed-batch reactors are widely used in the pharmaceutical
and other process industries.
Bioreactions:
cells

substrate more cells + products

(2-90)

Yield Coefficients:
mass of new cells formed
YX / S
(2-91)
mass of substrate consumed to form new cells
YP / S

mass of product formed

(2-92)
mass of substrate consumed to form product

Chapter 2

Fed-Batch Bioreactor

Monod Equation
rg X

(2-93)

Specific Growth Rate

max
Figure 2.13. Fed-batch reactor
for a bioreaction.

S
Ks S

(2-94)

Chapter 2

Modeling Assumptions
1. The exponential cell growth stage is of interest.
2. The fed-batch reactor is perfectly mixed.
3. Heat effects are small so that isothermal reactor operation can
be assumed.
4. The liquid density is constant.
5. The broth in the bioreactor consists of liquid plus solid
material, the mass of cells. This heterogenous mixture can be
approximated as a homogenous liquid.
6. The rate of cell growth rg is given by the Monod equation in (293) and (2-94).

 Modeling Assumptions (continued)

7. The rate of product formation per unit volume rp can be
expressed as

Chapter 2

rp YP / X rg

(2-95)

where the product yield coefficient YP/X is defined as:

YP / X

mass of product formed

mass of new cells formed

(2-96)

8. The feed stream is sterile and thus contains no cells.

General Form of Each Balance

Rate of

accumulation rate in rate of formation

(2-97)

Chapter 2

Figure 2.14

 Individual Component Balances

Cells:

Chapter 2

Product:

d ( XV )
V rg
dt

d PV
dt

Substrate:

Vrp

d( SV )
1
F Sf
V rg
dt
YX / S

(2-98)

(2-99)
(2-100)

Overall Mass Balance

Mass:

d (V )
F
dt

(2-101)

Chapter 2
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