1

INVOLVE THE PROCESSES OF DETACHMENT,

TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION OF SOIL
PARTICLES BY WATER
MAJOR FORCES OF SOIL EROSION: IMPACTS
OF RAINDROPS AND FROM WATER FLOWING
OVER THE LAND SURFACE

Erosion

Sediment

ERODIBILITY
soil which is susceptible to erosion
A soil ability to withstand rainsplash depend partially
upon its texture characteristic
Sand and silt more vulnerable to erode

EROSIVITY
potential energy (wind,rainfall) to cause erosion

To guide in making methodical decisions in soil

conservation planning.
The equation enables the planner to predict the
average rate of erosion for various combinations of
management techniques on a site.
Soil loss estimation is a set of management strategies
for prevention of soil being eroded from the earths
surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse,
acidification, salinization or other chemical soil
contamination

APPLICATION OF SOIL LOSS

IN CIVIL CONSTRUCTION

In civil construction projects, soil loss estimation is used

for the following activities :
Assessment of the potential erosion hazard associated
with the given project
Identification of high risk construction projects during the
planning and/or design phase
The sizing of the sediment storage volume of Sediment

Basins

Assessment of the relative performance of alternative soil

conservation practices, Erosion and Sediment Control
procedures or construction programs

The amount of eroded soil that is

delivered to a point in the
watershed that is remote from the
origin of the detached soil
particles.

In a watershed, soil loss includes

the erosion from slopes, channels,
and mass wasting, minus the
sediment that is deposited after it
is eroded but before it reaches the
point of interest.

Separate

Diameter (mm)

Comparison

Very coarse sand

2.00-1.00

36"

Coarse sand

1.00-0.50

18"

Medium sand

0.50-0.25

9"

Fine sand

0.25-0.10

4 1/2"

Very fine sand

0.10-0.05

1 3/4"

Silt

0.05-0.002

7/16"

Grains invisible to eye, silky to touch

<0.002

1/32"

Sticky when wet, dry pellets hard, harsh

Clay

Feel
Grains easily seen, sharp, gritty

Gritty, each grain barely visible

SOIL SEPARATES

10

SOIL PYSICAL PROPERTIES

RELATIVE SIZES OF SOIL SEPARATES

11

SOIL PYSICAL PROPERTIES

SOIL TEXTURE
12

UNIVERSAL

SOIL LOSS EQUATION (USLE)

REVISED USLE
MODIFIED USLE

13

UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION

(USLE)

14

Compute average annual soil loss caused by sheet and rill

erosion
Applies to overland flow on slopes
Computes sediment yield from slope
Computes deposition on slope
Computes soil particles

15

Tool for conservation planning

Assess BMP effectiveness
Assess performance goals
Achieve sustainable use of soil resource
Prevent excessive sedimentation
Prevent degradation of water quality
Not for water quality enforcement

16

Cropland
Construction sites
Disturbed forestland
Rangelands
Surface mined land

Reclaimed land
Landfills

17

Easy to understand and use

Minimal resources

Input values readily available

Independent of land use
Vast experience (50 years)

18

Topography

Rainfall

Erosion
Control
R

Sun

LS
P

Crop
C

Soil

Model of USLE Equation

19

Average annual Soil Erosion Loss (t/ha/yr)

Rainfall Erosivity Factor (MJ.mm/(ha.hr.yr))

Soil Erodibility Factor (t.ha.hr/(ha.MJ.mm))

Slope Length Factor

Slope Steepness Factor

Cover and Management Factor

Conservation Practice Factor

RKLSCP
20

The rainfall factor R accounts for differences in rainfall intensity-duration-frequency

for different location, i.e. the average number of erosion-index units in a year of rain
The erosion potential of a rainstorm is directly proportional value of two rainfall
characteristic:

i)

total kinetic energy of the storm (E)

ii)

Its maximum 30 minutes intensity (I30)

The erosivity factor as given by FRIM (1999)

R = (EI 30 )/ 170.2
E = 9.28P 8838.15
Where

I30 = the maximum 30-minute rainfall intensity

(mm/hr) for the storm of required ARI

E = annual erosivity (J/m2)

P = annual rainfall (mm)
21

The soil-erodibility factor, K is the rate of soil loss per unit of

rainfall erosivity factor R or EI30 for a specified soil.
It is measured on a unit plot, which is a 22.1m length of uniform
9% slope continuously in clean tilled fallow.
The K factor has unit of mass per area per erosivity unit.
The soil-erodibility are affected are

i)

physical features of the soil

ii)

topographic features

iii)

land management

22

The K factor can also be determined using Nomograph.

The nomograph has been derived from the following
equation (Tew,1999)
100K = 1.0M 1.14(10-4)(12-a) + 4.5(b-3) + 8.0(c-2)
Where;
M = (% silt + % very fine sand) x (100% clay)
a = % organic matter
b = soil structure code
c = permeability class
23

Energy Circuit Model of USLE

24

Malaysia Soil Erodibility Nomograph for Calculation of Soil Erodibility

Factor (K) (Tew,1999)
25

The effects of slope length and steepness are usually combined into one
single factor, namely LS factor, which can be computed by
LS = (/22.13)m(0.065 + 0.046S + 0.0065S2)
where
= slope length (m)
S = slope gradient in percent
m = 0.2 for S<1%, 0.3 for 1%<S<3%, 0.4 for 3%<S<5%,
0.5 for 5%<S<12% and 0.6 for S>12%
Alternatively, the nomograph in FRIM(1999) can be used

26

Slope-Length selection
Runoff begins

Deposition begins

27

Combine Slope Length-Steepness Factor, LS (Wischmeier & Smith))

28

C
P

Cover factor = The ratio of soil loss from an area with

specific cover compared to bare soil conditions.
Management practice factor = The ratio of soil loss
for a given surface condition compared to a hill
where plowing is perpendicular to contours.
Use C factor & P factor charts
29

The cover management factor is the ratio of soil loss from a

field with given cropping and management practices to the
loss from the fallow conditions used to evaluate the K factor.

The factor C also depends upon a period of time within which

weather effects would have varying influences.

30

The conservation practice factor, P is the ratio of soil loss with

one of these practices to the loss with straight-row farming up
and down the slope.
The factor P of USLE is a dimensionless supporting erosion
control, which has a specific value for slope groups from 1.1

to 24% as shown in Table 4

31

Cropping and Management Practices factor (CP)

Land Cover

CP factor

Water body

0.000

Bareland (mining areas, newly cleared land, etc)

1.000

Horticultural

0.250

Permanent Cropland

0.150

Cropland

0.200

Rangeland

0.229

Grassland

0.015

Forest

0.010

Swamps

0.001

Residential

0.003

Impervious

0.005

Commercial

0.008

Construction

1.000
32

Table 4 : Conservation Practice Factor (P) for

Contouring and Terracing

Slope (%)

Conservation Practice (P) Values

Contouring

1.1 2.0

0.60

Terracing (Strip
contourcropping)
0.30

2.1 7.0

0.50

0.25

7.1 12.0

0.60

0.30

12.1 18.0

0.80

0.40

18.1 24.0

0.90

0.45

33

The USLE predicts the average soil loss.

The USLE considers only sheet and rill erosion nor gully

erosion.
The USLE does not calculate sediment deposition.

34

Step 1 :
Determine the R factor
Step 2 : Determine the K value from the nomograph i.e based on the particle size
distribution analysis of the soil sample.
Step 3 : Divide the area into sub-area of uniform slope gradient and length (LS).
Step 4 : Choose appropriate values C to represent the seasonal average of the
effect of mulch and vegetation.
Step 5 :
Use recommended values of P based on the erosion control practice
being considered.
Step 6 :
Evaluate the product of the five factors to obtain the soil loss per
unit area.
Step 7 :
Multiply the soil loss per unit area by the total basin area to obtain
the total
sediment volume.
35

REVISED UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS

EQUATION
(RUSLE)

36

Revised Universal Soil Loss

Equation (RUSLE)

RUSLE is commonly used to predict long-time average

soil loss rates.
RUSLE considered best estimates based on long-term
average rainfall records.
RUSLE are not absolute values, nor an estimate of soil
losses within a given year or given time period.
RUSLE does not attempt to predict sediment deposition
rates or sediment transportation down-slope of sediment
control measures.

37

Revised Universal Soil Loss

Equation (RUSLE)
Similar as RUSLE however, three of the five parameters have been updated.

The updated parameters are :

Rainfall factor, R
Soil erodibility factor, K
Topographic factor, LS
The R factor derived from probability statistic by analyzing additional rainfall
records of individual storm.
The K factor modified to take into account for seasonal changes.

38

Rainfall Erosivity Factor, R

R = 164.74 (1.1177)s S0.64444
Where;
S = 2 year ARI, 6hour rainfall event (mm)

39

Soil Erodibility Factor, K

No.

Soil

Layers

K Factor

Texture

Hydrological Soil Group

Beriah

0.054

Clay

0.057

Clay

0.057

Clay

0.042

Sandy clay

C-D

0.035

Clay loam

0.035

Clay loam

0.049

Sandy clay loam

0.045

Sandy clay loam

0.045

Sandy clay loam

0.048

Clay

0.048

Clay

0.048

Clay

0.048

Sandy clay loam

0.048

Sandy clay loam

0.048

Sandy clay loam

0.046

Clay

0.042

Clay

0.042

Sandy clay

C-D

Bukit Temiang

Chempaka

Clay Over Organic

Holyrood

Organic Clay

40

Accounts for the effect of topography on

erosion.
The L factor represents the slope length, and
the S factor represents the slope steepness.

41

Slope Length and Steepness Factor, LS

Revised Universal Soil Loss

Equation (RUSLE) Schematic
slope failure

42

Slope Length and Steepness Factor, LS

Deposition Beginning and

Ending on a Slope

43

Slope Length and Steepness Factor, LS

SLOPE
s (%)

S ()

Slope Length, in meters ()

S (rad)

1.0

3.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

30.0

50.0

75.0

100.0

0.20

0.12

0.002

0.200

0.040

0.050

0.055

0.064

0.069

0.073

0.079

0.088

0.095

0.101

0.50

0.29

0.005

0.200

0.048

0.060

0.067

0.076

0.083

0.088

0.095

0.105

0.114

0.121

1.00

0.57

0.100

0.300

0.046

0.065

0.075

0.093

0.105

0.114

0.129

0.15

0.169

0.185

2.00

1.15

0.200

0.300

0.072

0.100

0.117

0.144

0.163

0.178

0.200

0.234

0.264

0.288

3.00

1.72

0.030

0.400

0.076

0.118

0.144

0.190

0.224

0.251

0.295

0.362

0.426

0.478

4.00

2.29

0.040

0.400

0.102

0.159

0.195

0.257

0.302

0.339

0.399

0.489

0.575

0.645

5.00

2.86

0.050

0.500

0.097

0.168

0.217

0.308

0.377

0.435

0.533

0.688

0.842

0.973

6.00

3.43

0.060

0.500

0.122

0.212

0.273

0.387

0.473

0.547

0.669

0.864

1.059

1.222

8.00

4.57

0.080

0.500

0.180

0.313

0.404

0.571

0.699

0.807

0.989

1.276

1.563

1.805

9.00

5.14

0.090

0.500

0.214

0.370

0.478

0.676

0.828

0.956

1.171

1.511

1.851

2.137

12.00

6.84

0.119

0.600

0.242

0.468

0.636

0.964

1.230

1.462

1.864

2.533

3.23

3.839

14.00

7.97

0.139

0.600

0.309

0.598

0.812

1.231

1.570

1.866

2.380

3.234

4.124

4.902

16.00

9.09

0.159

0.600

0.384

0.743

1.010

1.530

1.952

2.320

2.959

4.02

5.127

6.093

20.00

11.31

0.197

0.600

0.559

1.081

1.469

2.226

2.839

3.374

4.303

5.846

7.457

8.861

25.00

14.04

0.245

0.600

0.823

1.591

2.162

3.277

4.179

4.303

6.334

8.606

10.977

13.045

30.00

16.70

0.291

0.600

1.138

2.199

2.988

4.529

5.777

8.756

8.756

11.896

15.173

18.032

40.00

21.80

0.381

0.600

1.919

3.710

5.041

7.640

9.744

14.769

14.769

20.067

25.593

30.415

LS factor calculated using MSMA approach

44

Slope Length and Steepness Factor, LS

The factor that involves the most professional judgement. Length

determinations made by users can vary greatly for the same site.

To apply RUSLE, erosion can be calculated for several different

sub-areas on a site and the results averaged according to the area
represented by each slope length.
Sometimes a particular position on the landscape is chosen as the
location for the slope length to represent the whole site.

45

Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)

The LS factor uses different eqn. than used in USLE. The eqn. has
been developed to reflect rangeland, row crop, construction sites and
thawing soil conditions.
The C and P factor represents a combined effect of interrelated cover
and management variables.

RUSLE brings in a mixture of empirical and process-based erosion

technology to provide a better measure of the effect land management

on erosion rates.
46

Crop Management, C Factor

47

Erosion Control Practice, C Factor

48

Erosion Control Practice, P Factor

49

Revised Universal Soil Loss

Equation (RUSLE)
The limitations of RUSLE can be summarized as follows:
RUSLE provides soil-loss estimates rather than absolute soil-loss data.
The soil-loss estimates are long-term average rates rather than precipitation-event

specific estimates.
There are hill slope-length and gradient limits for which the component RUSLE
equations have been verified.

RUSLE does not produce watershed-scale sediment yields, and it is inappropriate

to input average watershed values for the computation of the RUSLE factors.

50

MODIFIED UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS

EQUATION
(MUSLE)

51

Modified Universal Soil Loss

Equation (MUSLE)
The Modified USLE is used to calculate sediment yield of a basin
as a result of a specific storm event.
T = 2 (V x QP) 0.56 x K x LS x C x P

where
T = sediment yield per storm event (tones or tons)
2 = 89.6 for SI units and 95.0 for English units
V = Volume of runoff (cubic meters or acre-feet)
QP = Peak flow ( m3/s or ft3/s )

K, LS, C and P are USLE Parameters

52

EXAMPLES

53

1.

Catchment area :
Total Area for Plot 1 & 2

38500 + 47750

86250 m2

8.62 ha

54

1.How to determine K

Soil Erodibility Factor (K factor)

Malaysia

55

1.How to determine K
Summary of Laboratory Test Result (Deng Seng, 2004)Malaysia

56

1.How to determine K
Summary of Laboratory Factor Analysis Result Summary
Hand
Auger No.

Depth

HA1

HA2

HA3

HA4

HA5

HA6

(m)

% Silt &
Very Fine
Sand

0.5

% Sand

Soil Structure
Classification

Permeability
Classification

K Factor

(0.06 2.0
mm)

%
Organic
Matter

41.7

43.1

0.1

0.12

1.0

37.5

27.1

0.1

0.05

0.5

34.5

53.1

0.1

0.09

1.0

23.4

56.0

0.1

0.08

0.5

36.7

54.3

0.1

0.11

1.0

50.1

38.8

0.1

0.20

0.5

35.1

50.8

0.1

0.09

1.0

36.4

52.9

0.1

0.10

0.5

37.7

49.1

0.1

0.10

1.0

42.2

38.5

0.1

0.10

0.5

83.8

16.0

0.1

0.44

1.0

86.0

13.9

0.1

0.45

Average
K factor

0.09

0.09

0.16

0.10

0.10

0.45

57

1.How to determine K

Malaysian Soil Series

58

1.How to determine K

59

1.How to determine K

60

1.

Calculation of LS factor using equation as follow

LS = (/22.13)m (0.065 + 0.0046S + 0.0065S2)
where

10.0%

0.50 for 5%<S<12%

60.0m

Hence, the LS factor;

LS

1.2531

61

Assuming the condition at site is bareland (newly cleared area)

CP

1.00

62

Storm Event
The design storm event for Plot 1 & Plot 2 (3month ARI)
Plot 1 catchment area = 38500 m2
Plot 2 catchment area = 47750m2
Overland flow length = 500m
Duration of storm
= 16.2 min
Intensity of design storm = 104.8 mm/hr
Runoff coefficient
= 0.74

63

4. Calculation of sediment yield using MUSLE

Subcatchment
(m2)

Volume
(m3)

Peakflow
(m3/s)

K
factor

LS
factor

CP
factor

Sediment
Yield
(tones)

38500

806.153

0.8294

0.09

1.2531

1.00

386.04

47750

999.8392

1.0286

0.09

1.2531

1.00

491.31

Total sediment yield for Plot 1 and Plot 2 = 877.35 tonnes per storm
event

64

Calculation of rainfall factor using the following methods:

i)

Using the following empirical study in Indonesia by Bols (1978)

R1 =

2.5 P2
100 x (0.073P + 0.73)

where

ii)

R1 =

Rainfall Erosivity Factor (MJ.mm/ha.hr.yr)

P=

Annual Rainfall (mm)

Relationship given by FRIM (1999)

R2 =

(EI 30)

170.2
E = 9.28P 8838.15
where

E = Rainfall Erosivity factor (J/m2)

P = Annual Rainfall (mm)
I30 = The maximum 30-minutes rainfall intensity with design ARI
(mm/hr)
65

6. Calculation of soil loss using USLE

3 rainfall stations with their average annual rainfall
No.

Station
Name

Station
No.

Source

Average Annual
Rainfall (mm)

I 30

R factor
(i)

R factor
(ii)

Ladang The Blue

Valley

9001

TNB

2332.3

71.3

795.323

5364.51

Pejabat TNB Kg
Raja

9002

TNB

2226.6

71.3

759.125

4953.59

Alur Masuk
Telom

9003

TNB

1993.3

71.3

679.229

4046.62

Subcatchment
(m2)

R factor
(i)

R factor
(ii)

K
Factor

LS
Factor

CP
Factor

Soil
Loss (i)
(tones)

Soil
Loss (ii)
(tones)

38500

744.56

4788.24

0.09

1.2531

1.00

83.97

540.013

47750

744.56

4788.24

0.09

1.2531

1.00

83.97

540.013

Total soil loss for Plot 1 and Plot 2 (Bols eqn.) = 167.94 tonnes/ha.yr
Total soil loss for Plot 1 and Plot 2 (FRIM eqn.) = 1,080.026 tonnes/ha.yr

66

Storm Event
The design storm event for Plot 1 & Plot 2 (3month ARI)
Plot 1 catchment area = 38500 m2
Plot 2 catchment area = 47750m2
Overland flow length = 500m
Intensity of design storm = 104.8 mm/hr
Runoff coefficient
= 0.74

67

7. Calculation of sediment yield using MUSLE

Subcatchment
(m2)
38500

Volume
(m3)

Peakflow
(m3/s)

K
factor

LS
factor

CP
factor

806.153

0.8294

0.09

1.2531

1.00

Sediment
Yield
(tones)
386.04

47750

999.8392

1.0286

0.09

1.2531

1.00

491.31

Total sediment yield for Plot 1 and Plot 2 = 877.35 tonnes per storm
event

68

USLE
Total soil loss for Plot 1 and Plot 2 (Bols eqn.)
269.74 tonnes/ha.yr

Total soil loss for Plot 1 and Plot 2 (FRIM eqn.)

= 1,667.48 tonnes/ha.yr

MODIFIED USLE
Total sediment yield for Plot 1 and Plot 2
= 1354.58 tonnes per storm event
69

ASSIGNMENT

70

The exercise given is to enable the participants to predict soil loss using
USLE and the sediment yield using MUSLE equation.

1.Given soil properties. Calculate K factor using nomograph.

Catchment

Depth

% silt
& very
fine
sand

% sand

%
organic
matter

Soil structure
Classification

Permeability
Classification

0.1

36.4

54.3

0.1

0.5

50.1

38.8

0.1

K
factor

Average
K

2. Calculate LS factor.

Given:

S = 15%
= 70 m
71

3.

Calculate R factor using FRIM equation;

Site: Sibu
(i)AR1 2 year ; a= 3.0878, b = 1.6430, c = -0.4472, d = 0.0262
(ii) P = 3000mm
Find;
(i) 2I30
(ii)R

4.

Calculate soil loss;

Given: CP = 1.00
A = RKLSCP
72

5.

Calculation of sediment yield using MUSLE eqn.

Use K,LS,CP from previous USLE exercise.

Given:
Catchment area A = 40,000m2
Duration of storm = 30 min
Intensity of design storm = 93.088 mm/hr
Runoff coeff. = 0.82

73

The exercise given is to enable the participants to predict soil loss using USLE
and the sediment yield using MUSLE equation.
1.Given soil properties. Calculate K factor using nomograph.
Catchment

Depth

% silt
& very
fine
sand

% sand

%
organic
matter

Soil structure
Classification

Permeability
Classification

K
factor

Average
K

0.1

36.4

54.3

0.1

0.1000 0.1475

0.5

50.1

38.8

0.1

0.1950

LS = ( / 22.13) m (0.065 + 0.046S + 0.0065S2)

2. Calculate LS factor.

= (70 / 22.13)0.6 (0.065 + 0.046[15]) + 0.0065(15) 2)

= (1.9955)(0.065 + 0.69 + 1.4625)

Given: S = 15%
therefore choose m = 0.6
= 70 m

= (1.9955).(2.2175)
= 4.425
74

3.

Calculate R factor using FRIM equation ;

Site: Sibu
(i) ARI 2 year ; a= 3.0879, b = 1.6430, c = -0.4472, d = 0.0262
(ii) P = 3000mm
Find;
(i) 2I30 = 93.088 mm/hr ; (where ln 2I30 = 4.534)
(ii) R = EI30/170.2 ; where E = 9.28P 8838.15
= 9.28(3000) 8838.15
= 19,001.85 J/m2
therefore R = (19,001.85 x 93.088)/170.2
= 10,392.74 MJ.mm/ha.hr.yr

4.

Calculate soil loss;

Given: CP = 1.00
A = RKLSCP
= 10,392.74 x 0.1475 x 4.425 x 1.0
= 6,783.21 tonne/ha/yr

75

5.

Calculation of sediment yield using MUSLE eqn.

Use K,LS,CP from previous USLE exercise.
Given:
Catchment area A = 40,000m2 = 4 ha
Duration of storm = 30 min
Intensity of design storm = 93.088 mm/hr
Runoff coeff. = 0.82
T = 2 (V x QP) 0.56 x K x LS x C x P

; where = psi
= 89.6 for S.I units

QP = CIA/360 = (0.82 x 93.088 x 4) / 360

= 0.848 m3/sec
Volume, V = Q x t = 0.848 x (30 x 60) = 1,526.4 m3
As such ,
T = 89.6 x (1,526.4 x 0.848) 0.56 x 0.1475 x 4.425 x 1.0
= 89.6 x 55.30 x 0.1475 x 4.425 x 1.0
= 3,233.99 tonnes

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Density of sediment,

Volume sediment

= 2.6 tons/m3
= Weight / Volume

= 3,233.99 / 2.6
= 1,243.84 m3

Assumption: Cost for excavation and transportation of sediment at site;

1 m3 = RM 10.00
Therefore cost for excavation + transportation
= 1,243.84 m3 x RM 10.00
= RM 12,438.42 per rainfall event

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