4.

0 FUEL OIL SYSTEM

1. DEFINITION
Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation, either as a distillate or a residue. Broadly
speaking, fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace or boiler for the
generation of heat or used in an engine for the generation of power, except oils having a flash point
of approximately 40 C (104 F) and oils burned in cotton or wool-wick burners. In this sense, diesel
is a type of fuel oil. Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes
and aromatics. The term fuel oil is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest
commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil i.e. heavier than gasoline and naphtha.(1)
Diesel fuel is principally a blend of petroleum-derived compounds called middle distillates (heavier
than gasoline but lighter than lube oil) and may or may not contain additional additives. Other
middle distillates include kerosene and No. 2 Heating Oil. Diesel fuel is designed to operate in a
diesel engine where it is injected into the compressed, high-temperature air in the combustion
chamber and ignites spontaneously. This differs from gasoline, which is ignited in a gasoline engine
by the spark plugs.
2. DISTRIBUTION AND DELIVERY

a. Road delivery vehicles

Vehicles make deliveries of oil fuels by road with capacities ranging from 11,800 to 28,700
liters (2600 to 6300 gallons). The vehicles discharge fuel into customers storage by pump or
compressed air at rates up to 1050 liters (230 gal) per minute, and can deliver to a height of 10.7
meters (35 ft) above the vehicle.
Truck trailers can usually drop 11,300 19,900 liters at a delivery. (Morse, pg. 170).
Truck tank cars will deliver from a few hundred gallons up to their capacity of about 6000
gal. (Potter, pg. 590).
b. Rail tank cars
The capacities of rail tank cars are generally 45 tons gross laden weight (approx. 30 tons
payload) to 100 tons gross laden weight (approximately. 70 tons payload). Cars for carrying
1

heated fuel oil are insulated with fiberglass lagging covered with galvanized sheeting, and are
equipped with finned tubes for steam heating.
Railway tank cars vary from 30,300 to 45,400 liters in capacity. (Morse, pg. 170).
When delivered by railroad tank car, there must be on hand at least sufficient storage
capacity to accommodate the capacity of one car (6000 to 10,000 gal) plus a minimum operating
supply. If delivery should be erratic, a larger minimum capacity will be necessary. (Potter, pg.
590).
c. River and coastal tankers
Where a customer has suitable berthing facilities and satisfactory arrangements can be
made, deliveries can be by either river or coastal tanker. River tankers currently in use are of
1860 tons capacity but may be larger if conditions permit. The customer is responsible for
supplying oil hose and/or discharge arms capable of discharging the full contents of the barge
under low-water conditions.
Coastal tankers are available up to 2000 tons capacity, equipped with pumps for discharging
into customers storage. The size of the vessels to be used will depend upon local conditions and
the depth of water in the approaches.
3. STORAGE TANKS
3.1 Types of Storage Tanks by location
3.1.1 Aboveground Tanks
Storage tanks should, wherever possible, be installed above ground. The site
selected should not be in an unduly exposed position. Clearance must be allowed for
the withdrawal from the tank of fittings such as immersion heaters and steam coils.
Where tanks are installed inside buildings, they should generally be located within a
tank chamber, although in some industrial installations such as steelworks and
foundries, a tank chamber may not be necessary. The requirements of insurance
companies and local authorities should be considered when designing these
installations.
Above ground storage tanks pose a fire hazard with the risk of fire spreading to
other facilities in the vicinity. Therefore these tanks have to be installed at a minimum
specified distance from other facilities. In order to contain spills and leakages dikes have
to be built around above ground storage tanks.(2)
3.1.2 Underground Tanks
Where underground installation of a storage tank is unavoidable, it should
preferably be housed in a specially constructed brick or concrete chamber, allowing easy
access to the drain valve and other fittings. Wherever possible, the tank chamber should
be located in dry ground and the finished structure made watertight. A sump must be
provided in the floor of the chamber stone and to collect any water that may enter the
chamber in exceptional circumstances, and the floor should slope slightly downwards
towards the sump. Water collected in the sump can be removed by using a semi-rotary
pump. The lower part of the chamber should form an oil resistant catch pit, as with the
more usual aboveground storage tank.
2

3.1.3

3.1.4

Buried Tank
It is recommended that storage tanks should not be buried directly in contact with
soil, since it is almost impossible to avoid corrosive attack. Where, for some reason, it is
not possible to provide a tank chamber as already described, adequate corrosion
protection must be applied to all exterior surfaces of the tank, fittings and pipework.

Underground storage tanks are more costly to install but have a longer life because
they are shielded from the environment. Underground storage tanks can be constructed
from fiberglass-reinforced plastic. Such tanks are usually ribbed so as to provide
structural strength. Alternately, underground storage tanks can be fabricated from steel
but with appropriate cathodic protection against corrosion from ground water. Likewise,
piping from the underground storage tank to the generator can be of fiberglassreinforced plastic or cathodically protected steel. (2)
Bunded Area
Where overfilling or leakage from the tank would contribute to a fire hazard, cause
damage to property or contaminate drains or sewers, a bund wall should be constructed
around the tank. This should be of brick or concrete with an oil-tight lining, and sealed
to the concrete base under the tank supports. The capacity of the bunded area should
be at least 10 per cent greater than that of the storage tanks contained within it.

Fuel storage tanks and handling facilities are generally either underground (UST) or
aboveground (AST) storage tank systems. An UST is any one or combination of tanks or tank
systems defined in applicable Federal or State regulations as an UST. Typically (unless otherwise
provided by applicable Federal or State rules), an UST is used to contain a regulated substance
(such as a petroleum product) and has 10 percent or more of its total volume beneath the
surface of the ground. The total volume includes any piping used in the system. An UST may be a
buried tank, or an aboveground tank with buried piping if the piping holds 10 percent or more of
the total system volume including the tank. For purposes of this part, an aboveground storage
tank (AST) is any storage tank whose total volume (piping and tank) is less than 10 percent
underground or any storage tank defined by applicable law or regulation as an AST.(3)
3.1.5

Sub Base Tanks

If you need to store less than 1,000 gallons of fuel, you would need sub base tanks.
As the name suggests, sub base tanks are designed to fit above the ground but below
the base of the generator set.(2)
Sub base tanks are rectangular in cross section and are double walled tanks. This
helps to prevent spillage of fuel in case of leakage.(2)

3.2 Types of Storage Tanks by material

There are five main types of storage tank available for industrial and commercial fuel oils,
namely:
Mild steel welded
Mild steel sectional
Cast iron sectional
Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP)
Reinforced concrete
Of these five, the mild steel welded tank is the most popular and is widely used for every
type of application.
The majority of storage tanks are of the horizontal cylindrical type, as shown in Figure 2.
Where ground space is a limiting factor, vertical cylindrical tanks may be used.

3.3 Other Types

A. Single or Double Wall Construction
B. Cylindrical or Rectangular Shapes
C. Horizontal or Vertical
3.4 Capacities
The capacity of storage tanks for oil-fired installations is an important consideration. The
minimum net storage capacity should be calculated either by taking:
1. Three weeks supply of oil at the maximum rate of consumption; or
2. Two weeks supply at the maximum rate of consumption, plus the usual capacity ordered
for one delivery, whichever is the larger.
Where the maximum weekly off-take is less than 200 gallons (1810 liters) the capacity
should still not be less than 650 gal (21850 l) in order to accept a standard 500-gal (2270-l)
tanker delivery. In some circumstances, it may be desirable to provide more than one tank, each
of sufficient capacity to accept at least a full delivery.
For the purposes of sizing storage tanks, it may be considered that a gallon of fuel oil will
generate 10 kwhr. There are 42 gal per barrel. Some engineers believe that there should be two
storage tanks so that one may be cleaned or inspected while the other is in operation.
Horizontal tanks may be used up to 30,000-gal capacity. Day-tank capacities should be sufficient
for about 8 hr operation of the engine (one shift). (Potter, pg. 590).
3.5 Tank supports
Horizontal cylindrical tanks should be installed on brick or reinforced concrete cradles with a
downward slope of 1 in 50 from the draw-off end towards the drain valve, as shown in Figure 2.
Cradles should be constructed on foundations adequate for the load being supported and the
type of soil. A reinforced concrete raft equal to the plan area of the tank, and of adequate
5

thickness to bear the load, is normally suitable for all but the weakest soils. Cradles should not
be placed under joints or seams of the tank plates and a layer of bituminized felt should be
interposed between the cradle and tank. The height of the tank supports should provide at least
450mm space between the drain valve and ground level to allow access for painting or draining
the tank.
3.6 Tank Fittings
3.6.1 Oil-level indicators
A brass dipstick is recommended as a cheap and reliable means of determining the
contents of a storage tank. A dipstick, when required, is usually provided ready
calibrated by the tank manufacturer before installation of the tank.
In many cases it is inconvenient to use a dipstick, due to the position or location of
the tank, and there are a variety of direct and remote contents gauges available,
including gauge glasses, float and weight, float and swing arm, float and indicator,
hydrostatic, electrical capacitance, etc.
3.4.2 Filling connection
Filling pipes should be as short as possible and free from sharp bends. The terminal
should be in a convenient position to allow easy coupling of the vehicle hose
connection, wherever possible within 5 meters (15 ft) of the hard standing for vehicle
delivery. The most suitable height for a filling pipe is about 1m (3 ft) above ground level
and clear of all obstructions.
3.4.3 Ullage
The air space between the oil surface and the top of the tank is known as ullage;
there should always be a small ullage remaining when the contents gauge registers full.
This prevents the discharge of oil from the vent pipe due to any frothing and surging of
the liquid during delivery. The ullage should provide not less than 100mm (4 in)
between the oil surface and the top of the tank or be equivalent to 5 per cent of the
total contents, whichever is the greater
3.6.4 Vent pipes
A vent pipe must be fitted at the highest point of every storage tank. Wherever
possible, it should be visible from the filling point and terminate in the open air, in a
position where any oil vapor will not be objectionable and, in the event of an overflow,
there will be no damage to property, fire risk of contamination of drains.
The vent pipe bore must be equal to or greater than the bore of the filling pipe, and
never less than 50 millimeters (2 in) diameter. It should be as short as possible and free
from sharp bends. It should terminate in a return bend or goose neck fitted with a wire
cage for protective purposes (fine gauze must never be used for this purpose).
3.6.5 Draw-off connection
The draw-off connection to the oil-burning plant should be at the raised end of
horizontal tanks. Where heating facilities are not provided, the lowest point of the
draw-off connection should never be less than 75mm (3 in) above the bottom of the
tank. For tanks fitted with heating elements, it is essential that these and their
associated thermostatic control probes should always remain below the oil surface.
6

3.6.6

Drain valve
A screw-down gate valve with a bore similar to that of the draw-off connection
should be installed at the lowest point on every storage tank to permit complete
draining. The valve should be readily accessible with a clear space below to facilitate its
use. Extension pipes to or from drain valves should be avoided if possible, but where
these are necessary, the pipe should be lagged and, if necessary, traced to ensure that
residual grades of oil will flow during adverse weather conditions. Valves and extension
pipes should be fitted with a plug or blank flange to prevent inadvertent discharge of
the tank contents.
3.6.7 Manhole
Every storage tank must have a manhole in an accessible position, preferably on
top. It may be circular, oval or rectangular, and not less than 460mm (18 in) diameter if
circular or 460mm (18 in) long and 410mm (16 in) wide if oval or rectangular. The
manlid must be securely fixed by bolts, studs or setscrews, and have a liquid and vaportight joint. Close-woven proofed asbestos, graphited on both sides, is a suitable jointing
compound for this purpose.
Vertical tanks over 3.65 meters (12 ft) high should have a further manhole fitted
near the bottom to provide access for cleaning and maintenance of any storage heating
facilities.
3.7 Heating Requirements
Distillate grades of oil fuel may be stored, handled and atomized at ambient temperatures,
and do not require heating facilities to be provided in storage tanks and handling systems.
However, exposure to extreme cold for long periods should be avoided, since oil flow from the
tank may become slightly restricted.
Heating facilities are required for all residual grades of oil fuels, such as Light Fuel Oil,
Medium Fuel Oil, and Heavy Fuel Oil. Table 1 gives the recommended minimum storage and
handling temperatures for residual oil fuels (from BS 28618: 11870).

Where oil is to be maintained at minimum storage temperature, an outflow heater will be

necessary to raise the temperature of the oil leaving the tank to that required for handling. It is
not good practice to store oil fuel at unnecessarily high temperatures, and the temperature
given under the column Minimum temperature at outflow from storage and for handling
should not be exceeded by more than 16.7C (30F). This is particularly important in relation to
Light Fuel Oil.
Maximum heat losses from storage tanks can be determined from Table 2. These losses can
be translated into maximum steam consumption rates of the heating coils from knowledge of
the latent heat of steam appropriate to the steam pressure used in a given installation. The tank
heating arrangements must be capable of maintaining the oil storage temperature with the
appropriate rate of heat loss.
Table 2. Heat loss from sheltered and exposed,
(www.engineeringtoolbox.com).
Heat loss
Oil temperature
2
(W/m .K)
Up to 10 C
(Btu/hr-ft2-F)
Up to 50 F
6.8
Sheltered
1.2
Unlagged
8.0
Exposed
1.4
1.7
Sheltered
0.3
Lagged
2.0
Exposed
0.35

lagged

and

10 27 C
50 80 F
7.4
1.3
8.5
1.5
1.8
0.32
2.1
0.37

unlagged

oil

tanks

27 38 C
80 100 F
8.0
1.4
9.0
1.6
2.0
0.35
2.25
0.4

3.8 Heating Methods

Storage tanks can be heated with thermostatically controlled steam coils, hot-water coils,
electric immersion heaters or a combination of these. The elements and their thermostats
should be positioned below the level of the oil draw-off line, so that they are always covered
during normal operation. The temperature-sensitive element of the thermostat should always
be situated above and to one side of the heating element. The heating elements should be
spaced evenly over the bottom of the tank or concentrated towards the draw-off end. A
combination of steam and electric heating can be used for installations where periods may
occur during which steam is not available.
Where a residual oil fuel is stored in tanks with outflow heaters provision should also be
made to maintain the oil at or above the minimum storage temperature shown in Table 1.
Excessive heating is not recommended, particularly for Light Fuel Oil, and will increase running
costs unnecessarily. Additional heating to outflow heaters can be provided by using a steam, hot
water or electric heater running along the bottom of the tank. With electric heating, additional
separate heating elements may be required.
Heating elements should be readily removable for repair if necessary and consequently
careful note should be taken of possible external obstructions to this operation. The steam
8

supply to the heating coils should be dry saturated. It is not generally necessary for the pressure
to exceed 3.45 bar (50 lbf/in2). The temperature of the heating medium should not exceed
177C (350F), and electric element loading should not exceed 1.24 W/cm2 (8 W/in2).
3.9 Heating requirements for warming storage tanks
The hourly heat requirement ( Q ) to raise the temperature of storage tank can be calculated
from:
Q W cp tr
where
W = total weight of contents when full (kg (lbs)),
c p = mean specific heat of fuel oil,
t r = temperature rise required per hour (C (F)).

The following are specific gravity and specific heat of fuel oil / diesel oil.
Table 3. Specific gravity and specific heat of fuel oil / diesel oil.
Reference: Armstrong Steam and Condensate Group, www.armstrong-intl.com
Fuel
Specific Gravity @ 60-70 F Specific Heat @ 60 F,
Btu/lb-F
No. 1 Fuel Oil
0.81
0.47
No. 2 Fuel Oil
0.86
0.44
No. 3 Fuel Oil
0.88
0.43
No. 4 Fuel Oil
0.90
0.42
No. 5 Fuel Oil
0.93
0.41
No. 6 Fuel Oil
0.95
0.40

Specific Heat @ 60 F,
kJ/kg-C
1.9679
1.8423
1.8004
1.7585
1.7167
1.6748

The rate of temperature rise ( t r ) will depend on the particular circumstances of the
installation and on how quickly the contents of the tank must be brought up to temperature.
3.10 Lagging / Insulation
Various types of lagging are available. The major advantage of its use is a considerable
reduction in heat losses from both storage tanks and pipework. The materials most suitable for
application to storage tanks are in the form of blankets or molded sections, glass silk blankets
of 85 per cent magnesia or slagwool. When applied, these materials should provide a lagging
efficiency of approximately 75 per cent. All lagging should be reinforced with wire netting,
either incorporated into the blanket or secured to anchor points on the tank surface. A
weatherproof surface finish should finally be applied to the lagging. This can be either two-ply
bitumen felt or, if necessary, sheets of galvanized steel or aluminum with sealed joints.

4. PIPEWORK SYSTEM
4.1 Handling Temperatures
Oil fuel pipeline systems transfer oil from storage to the oil burner at specified conditions of
pressure, viscosity, temperature and rate of flow. There can be considerable variety in the
choice of system, but its design (particularly correct pipe sizing and temperature control) is most
important if it is to function satisfactorily.
Distillate grades are usually handled at ambient temperatures provided these are not below
the cloud point when using gas oil. Residual grades, on the other hand, are handled at
temperatures above ambient. The recommendations of Table 1 should always be followed
regarding minimum recommended handling temperatures. Residual grades can also be handled
at temperatures above those recommended as minimum handling levels in order to reduce oil
viscosity, improve regulation and control of oil flow, reduce friction losses in pipelines and,
when necessary, provide oil at the correct atomizing temperature for the oil-burning equipment.
4.2 Handling equipment
Two items of equipment should always be inserted in the handling system as close to the
storage tank as possible. These are a filter and a fire valve.
To prevent foreign matter from damaging components and choking valves or atomizer
orifices, filters must be incorporated into the handling system. There are usually two stages of
filtration. The first provides protection for pumps and fire valves which handle oil at
temperatures below those required at the oil-burning equipment. Second-stage filtration
protects the atomizer orifice and burning equipment, and is sometimes incorporated as part of
the burner assembly.
The filtering medium should be of corrosion-resistant material such as Monel metal,
phosphor-bronze or stainless steel. All first-stage filters should be provided with isolating valves.
Fire valve is a valve that closes in case of fire should be inserted in the oil fuel line to the oilburning equipment and fitted as close to the tank as possible. It may be held open mechanically,
pneumatically or electrically. Temperature sensitive elements should be arranged to close the
valve at a fixed maximum temperature, and sited close to the oil-fired plant and well above floor
level. The operating temperature of the heat-sensitive elements should not be greater than 68C
(155F) except where ambient temperatures in the vicinity of the plant may exceed 418C
(120F), in which case the operating temperatures may be 183C (200F).
4.3 Types of system
There are two main types of oil-handling system in common use. These are gravity and ring
main.
4.3.1

Gravity systems
Gravity systems are of three basic types: gravity, pump assisted gravity and subgravity.
Gravity systems in general will handle distillate grades at ambient temperatures,
and residual oils at pumping or atomizing temperatures. Lagging and tracing will be
required with residual grades to prevent cooling of the oil to below handling
temperatures.
10

4.3.2

4.3.1.1 Gravity system

A gravity system is one in which the oil flows directly from the storage or
service tank through gravity feed pipeline. The static head on the feed line will
vary with the depth of oil in the tank, and the system should therefore only be
used for burners which will operate satisfactorily between such limits.
4.3.1.2 Pump-assisted gravity system
A pump-assisted gravity system is one in which oil flows by gravity from the
storage or service tank to a pump. The pump supplies oil to the combustion
equipment through a pipeline passing only the quantity required to feed the oilfiring equipment. The inclusion of a pump in this system will not reduce the
static head due to the fuel supply in the tank. The working pressure required at
the oil-burning equipment should therefore be greater than the maximum static
head available when the storage or service tank is full.
4.3.1.3 Sub-gravity system
A sub-gravity system is one in which a pump associated with the oil-burning
equipment is used to suck the oil from a tank in which the level of the oil can be
below the level of the pump.
Ring main systems
A ring main system draws oil from storage and circulates it to each consuming point
in turn, the balance of the oil being returned either to the suction side of the circulating
pump or to storage. A diagram of a typical hot oil ring main system is shown in Figure 2.

Each take-off point is connected to the burner it supplies by a branch line. Pressure
conditions are maintained approximately constant at each take-off point by a pressureregulating valve situated after the last takeoff point, and circulating a quantity of oil one
and a half to three times the maximum take-off from the circuit. By this means, stopping
take-off at one consuming point will not have a marked effect on the pressure at other
consuming points. Pressure conditions should be calculated at each consuming point for
all conditions of operation and take-off. The bore of the ring main should be such that
pressure variations are not excessive for the equipment served. If these variations at
each take-off point are likely to be critical, they can be accommodated by the use of
individual pressure-regulating valves on each branch.
Ring main systems are of three types: hot oil, warm oil and cold oil. Hot oil ring
mains circulate oil at atomizing temperature, warm oil ring mains at a temperature
11

between minimum pumping and atomizing temperature, and cold oil ring mains at
ambient temperature.
4.3.2.1 Hot oil ring mains
This is the most important of the three types of ring main system, since it
offers economies of installation and running costs. The smallest pipe sizes and
fittings can be used with low-viscosity high-temperature oil, and the number of
line heaters is minimized. The oil is circulated at atomizing temperatures and in
consequence, the system is less liable to be affected by pressure fluctuations
due to variations in viscosity, or small changes in the viscosity of the oil as
delivered. The system should usually be considered as the first possibility and
only discarded in favour of warm or cold oil systems where these will give some
real advantage.
4.3.2.2 Warm oil ring mains
This system is similar to a cold oil ring main but includes provision for
heaters in the circuit to maintain oil temperature between minimum handling
and atomizing levels. This provides a reduction in oil viscosity and reduces pipe
friction. The circulation temperature of the oil should be chosen to give the
minimum pressure drop consistent with the system design when circulating
one-and-a-half to three-times the maximum take-off and using a suitable pipe
diameter. This circulation temperature should allow a reasonable margin below
the specified atomizing temperature to facilitate the selection of the necessary
line heaters for branch lines between the ring main and the oil-burning
equipment.
4.3.2.3 Cold oil ring mains
This system is used mainly where different atomizing temperatures are
required at various consuming points or where a branch line would be
unacceptably long. The system should only be used where the length of pipeline
involved and the quantity of oil circulated will not cause an excessive pressure
drop due to friction. When designing a cold oil ring main system, care must be
taken to ensure that the pressure variations between take-off points, due to
changes in the oil consumption rate, do not affect burner performance.
Circulating one-and-a-half to three times the maximum take-off required
achieves this. The system is widely used with distillate grades but rarely with
residual grades.
4.4 Pipe sizing
The following factors must be taken into account when assessing pressure drop.
4.4.1 Viscosity
Pressure drop is directly proportional to viscosity. The effect of heat loss from pipelines
and consequent increase in viscosity should also be considered.

12

Table 4. Viscosity of Fuel Oil and Diesel Oil

13

Table 5. Approximate Viscosity Conversion

14

Viscosity Equation:
Kinematic vis cos ity ,

absolute vis cos ity ,

density ,

1 Stoke = 1 cm2/s = 100 cSt

1 Poise = 1 g/(cm-s) = 100 cP

Kinematic vis cos ity cSt

absolute vis cos ity cP

specific gravity

To convert viscosity from SSU to centistokes:

195

0.226 SSU SSU for 32 SSU 100

Centistoke s
135
0.220 SSU
for SSU 100
SSU

To convert viscosity from SSF to centistokes:

184

2.24 SSF SSF for 25 SSU 40

Centistoke s
60
2.16 SSF
for SSU 40
SSF

Example No. 1
A crude oil has a dynamic viscosity of 30 cP at 20C. Calculate its kinematic viscosity
in SI units. The density is 0.85 gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).

15

Given:
Dynamic viscosity = 30 cP
Density = 0.85 gram per cubic centimetre
Required:
Kinematic viscosity in SI units.
Solution:
Since the density in g/cm3 is numerically the same as specific gravity,
absolute vis cos ity cP
Kinematic vis cos ity cSt
specific gravity

30
0.85
Kinematic vis cos ity cSt 35.29 cSt

Kinematicviscosity cSt

4.4.2

Specific gravity
The specific gravity of a liquid and its API gravity are related by the following two
equations:
141.5
SG60
131.5 API
The specific gravity SG60 is the value at 60F since by definition the API is always at
60F. Thus, given the value of API gravity of a petroleum product we can easily calculate
the corresponding specific gravity at 60F using these equations.
From Design of Machine Elements book by Faires. The specific gravity of a
petroleum oil at any temperature t is given approximately by
SGt SG 60 0.00035t 60
Example No. 2
A sample of crude oil when tested in a lab showed an API gravity of 35. What is the
specific gravity of this crude oil?
Given:
API Gravity = 35
Required:
Specific Gravity at 60 F
Solution:
141.5
141.5
SG60

0.8498
131.5 API 131.5 35

4.4.3

Flow conditions
The handling system should be designed to provide streamline flow at all times
when steady and predictable pressure conditions are essential.
The Reynolds number of flow is a dimensionless parameter that depends on the
pipe diameter liquid flow rate, liquid viscosity, and density. It is defined as follows:

16

Re

4.4.4

vD

vD

where R= Reynolds number, dimensionless

v = average flow velocity, ft/s
D = inside diameter of pipe, ft
= mass density of liquid, slug/ft3
= dynamic viscosity, slug/(ft s)
= kinematic viscosity, ft2/s
The three flow regimes characterized by the Reynolds number of flow are
Laminar flow : Re 2100
Critical flow : 2100 < Re 4000
Turbulent flow : Re > 4000
Flow rate
Pressure drop under streamline flow conditions is directly proportional to the
quantity of oil flowing. The effect of reduced flow rate after take-off points, as
compared with full flow rate throughout the full length of the pipeline when there is no
take-off, should be taken into account to ensure that variation in pressure is within the
specified pump output. Special consideration is necessary with gravity and ring main
systems serving several take-off points.
The Darcy equation may be used to calculate the pressure drop in a pipeline as
follows:
h f

L v2
D 2g

where h= frictional pressure loss, ft of liquid head

f = Darcy friction factor, dimensionless
L = pipe length, ft
D = inside pipe diameter, ft
v = average flow velocity, ft/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, ft/s2
In laminar flow, the friction factor f depends only on the Reynolds number and is
calculated from
64
f
Re
where f is the friction factor for laminar flow and Re is the Reynolds number for laminar
flow (Re < 2100) (dimensionless).
4.4.5

Length of pipeline
Pressure drop is directly proportional to the length of the pipeline. All fittings used
in the system should be included in the determination of effective pipeline length.
Table 6 and 7 should be used to determine the equivalent length to be added to the

17

actual length of the pipeline for various types of fitting. The resulting figure is the total
effective length of the system.

Example No. 3
A piping system is 200 ft of 2-in pipe that has two 2-in gate valves, one swing check
valve, and four 90 standard elbows. Using the equivalent length concept, calculate the
total pipe length that will include all straight pipe and valves and fittings.
Given:
Piping system = 200 ft
2 in pipe
Two 2-in gate valves
Four 2-in elbows
Required:
Total Equivalent Pipe Length
Solution: Using Table 6
18

For 2-in pipe:

Two 2-in gate valves = 2 1.5 = 3 ft
One 2-in swing check valve = 1 19 = 19 ft
Four 2-in elbow = 4 x 8.5 = 34 ft
Total for all valves and fittings = 3 + 19 + 34 = 56 ft
Adding the 200 ft of straight pipe, the total equivalent length of straight pipe and all
fittings is Le = 200 + 56 = 256 ft
4.4.6

Oil Pipes - Recommended Flow Velocities

Flow velocities in oil pipes should be kept within certain limits

Table 8. Recommended Flow Velocities

Oil Application

Oil Flow Velocity

m/s
< 0.5
0.1 0.2
1.0 2.0
< 1.0

Suction lines for pumps

Suction lines for pumps at low pressures
Discharge lines for booster pumps
Discharge lines for burner pumps

4.4.7

Ft/s
< 1.6
0.3 0.65
3.3 6.5
< 3.3

Branch lines
Branch lines transfer oil from a ring main circuit to the oil-burning equipment.
Where a residual oil fuel is to be used, there will be some cooling of the oil immediately
adjacent to the pipe surfaces and this will show as a small increase in viscosity. To keep
this variation to a minimum and so prevent any difficulties in atomization at the oil
burner, care should be taken over the length and diameter of branch lines. In general,
the following empirical formula should be used when designing branch lines for hot
residual oils:
Length:
7L M

(S.I. Units)

(Imperial Units)
L M
where,
L = equivalent length of branch line in m (ft)
M = minimum M oil consumption (l/h (gal/h)).
Internal diameter:
(S.I. Units)
D 10.4L
(Imperial Units)
DL 8
where D is in mm (in).
Provision should always be made to isolate and drain branch lines.

19

5.0 Dimension and Buoyant Force of Empty Storage Tanks

20

6.0 Typical fire pump fuel storage tank. (Courtesy Fairbanks Morse.)

21

22

7.0 APPROXIMATE FUEL CONSUMPTION

As a rule of thumb for sizing generator fuel oil systems, each 100 kW of generator capacity will
consume about 7 gallons per hour. Any oil that is pumped to the engine but is not returned to the
day tank would add to the generator capacity based requirement.
http://www.preferredutilities.com/documents/Page281_FuelOilHandlingSystemDesign.pdf
23

Figure 6-15 from Power Plant Engineering by F.T. Morse

24

8.0

PIPING DIAGRAMS

25

26

27

9.0

EXAMPLE DESIGN

Design a fuel storage tank and fuel oil piping system for 500 kW generator. Use Diesel No. 2 fuel oil.
Pipes and Fittings:
Pipe length = 40 m supply, 60 m return
Gate Valves = 2 pcs supply, 1 pc return
Swing Check Valve = 1 pc
Strainer = 1 pc
Elbows = as shown
Tees = as shown
28

Pumping Rate = 2 x Firing Rate

Determine:
a. Size of Storage Tank. (Dimension). In meters.
b. Pipe size.
c. Total Pressure drop. In kPa.

Required:
a. Size of Storage Tank. (Dimension). In meters.
b. Pipe size.
c. Total Pressure drop. In kPa.
Solution:
Generator Size =
500 kW
Each 100 kW of generator capacity will consume about 7 gallons per hour
Full Load Fuel Consumption = 500 kW 7 gal hr per 100 kW 35 gal hr
Fuel Oil

No. 2D Diesel Fuel Oil

A. SIZING STORAGE TANK:

Three weeks supply of oil at the maximum rate of consumption
Capacity of storage tanks = (3 weeks)(7 days/week)(24 hr/day)(35 gal/hr)
Capacity of storage tanks = 17,640 gallons. ans.
From Dimension and Buoyant Force of Empty Storage Tanks.
Tank Capacity, gal
15,000
17,640
20,000

Tank Diameter
106
106
106

Tank Length
233
x
310

29

Wall Thickness
5/16 in
5/16 in
5/16 in

 17 ,640 15,000
x 23.25 31.0 23.25
27.342 ft
20 ,000 15,000

x 27'4"
D = Diameter = 106 = 126 inches = 3.2 m
L = Length
=27.33 ft = 328 inches = 8.33 m
T = Thickness = 5/16 inch = 8 mm
Check for volume

D 2L

126 2 328 4,089,826 in3

1 gal
17 ,705 gal 17 ,640 gal
V 4,089 ,826 in3
3
231
in

Increase tank length

Ullage
= 5%

17 ,640 gal
1.05 343 in
L 328 in

17 ,705 gal
Tank Dimension Selected:
Diameter
= 106 = 126 inches = 3.2 m
Length
=287 = 343 inches = 8.5 m
Thickness
= 5/16 inch = 8 mm
Ullage
= 5%
B. PIPE SIZE:
Table 4. At 30 C (86 F). No. 2 Diesel Fuel Oil
Viscosity = 50.6 SSU
195
cSt 0.226 SSU
SSU
195
cSt 0.226 50.6
7.582 cSt
50.6
Table 3. Specific Gravity of Diesel Fuel oil No. 2 at 60 F
Sp. Gr. = 0.86
At 30 C = 86 F
SGt SG 60 0.00035t 60
SGt 0.86 0.0003586 60 0.8509

Kinematic vis cos ity cSt

7.582

absolute vis cos ity cP

specific gravity

absoluteviscosity cP
0.8509
30

Absolute viscosity cP 6.452 cP

Select pipe size by trial and error method by limiting Re < 2100 and V < 0.5 m/s.
Try pipe size = in. Sch. 40
O.D. = 0.84 in = 21.336 mm = 0.021336 m
I.D. = 0.622 in = 15.7988 mm = 0.0157988 m
Flow rate = Pumping Rate = 2 x 35 gal/hr = 70 gal/hr

1 ft

Q 70 gal hr 231 in gal

12 in

1m

3.281 ft

1 hr
3

3600 s 0.0000736 m s

1 hr
3

3600 s 0.0000368 m s

Velocity:
4Q
V 2
D
40.0000736
V
0.3754 m s 0.5 m s
0.0157988 2
Reynolds Number:
VD
Re

7.582 cSt 7.582 10 6 m 2 s

Re

0.3754 0.0157988
7.582 10 6

782 2100

Therefore use Pipe size of in. Schedule 40.

C. TOTAL PRESSURE DROP

Return Flow Rate = 35 gal/hr = 35 gal/hr

1 ft

Q 35 gal hr 231 in gal

12 in

1m

3.281 ft

31

Velocity:
4Q
V 2
D
40.0000368
V
0.1877 m s 0.5 m s
0.0157988 2
Reynolds Number:
VD
Re

Re

0.1877 0.0157988
7.582 10 6

391 2100

Supply Line Equivalent Pipe Length

Item
Equivalent Length /
unit, m
Pipe
40
Gate Valves
0.2
Swing Check Valves
2.4
Strainer
1.5
Elbows
1.1
Tee, Branch Flow
1.3

Return Line Equivalent Pipe Length

Item
Equivalent Length /
unit, m
Pipe
60
Gate Valves
0.2
Elbows
1.1
Tee, Branch Flow
1.3
Tee, Line Flow
0.5

Quantity

Equivalent Length, m

1
2
1
1
2
1
Total

40
0.4
2.4
1.5
2.2
1.3
47.8 m

Quantity

Equivalent Length, m

1
1
2
1
1
Total

60
0.2
2.2
1.3
0.5
64.2 m

Pressure Drop for Supply Line

L V2
h f
D 2g
For Laminar Flow
64 64
f
0.082
Re 782
V 0.3754 m s
L 47.8 m

D 0.0157988 m
2
47.8 0.3754
h 0.082

1.782 m
0.0157988 29.81

32

ps SG t w gh 0.8509 1000 kg m3 9.81 m s 2 1.782 m 14,875 Pa 14.9 kPa

Pressure Drop for Return Line

L V2
h f
D 2g
For Laminar Flow
64 64
f
0.164
Re 391
V 0.1877 m s
L 64.2 m

D 0.0157988 m
2
64.2 0.1877
h 0.164

1.197 m
0.0157988 29.81

pr SG t w gh 0.8509 1000 kg m3 9.81 m s 2 1.197 m 9,992 Pa 10.0 kPa

Total Pressure Drop = p = 14.9 + 10.0 = 24.9 kPa

10.0 EXAMPLE DESIGN
A Diesel plant will have one 775-kw and two 400-kw units. Delivery of the fuel is to be arranged on a
monthly basis, the vendor expecting to deliver by tank car. Expected plant capacity factor, 35%. The
tankage and transfer system will be sized. Generator Efficiency = 94 %. Density of fuel oil = 0.9 kg per
Liter.
Figure 6-15 from Power Plant Engineering by F.T. Morse

33

Given:
Diesel plant units - one 775-kw and two 400-kw units.
Fuel Delivery Monthly Basis.
Expected plant capacity factor, 35%.
Generator Efficiency = 94 %.
Density of fuel oil = 0.9 kg per Liter.
Required:
Tank size and Transfer pump size.
Solution:
SIZING TANKAGE:
Plant Capacity = 775 + 400 + 400 = 1575 kW.
Average output at 35 % load factor = 0.35(1575) = 550 kw
From Figure 6.15 (above) , greatest fuel consumption at 35% capacity factor = 1.72 kw per litre oil.
Lowest fuel consumption at 35% capacity factor = 2.64 kw per litre oil.
Average fuel consumption at 35% capacity factor = (1/2)(1.72 + 2.64) = 2.18 kw per litre oil.

550
Required Storage =
24 30 181,650 L - ans.
2.18
Therefore, use 5 tank cars of 36,330 L capacity.
This is equal to (36,330 L)(0.9 kg/L) = 32,697 kg = 72,100 lb = 36 tons tank cars.
SIZING TRANSFER SYSTEM:
At full-rated load, fuel consumption (Figure 6.15 above) = 0.18 kg per bhp-hr.
1575 kw
bhp
2246 bhp
0.746 kw bhp 0.94
Maximum rate of fuel usage = 2246 x 0.18 = 404.3 kg/hr
404.3 kg hr
449.2 L hr 7.5 L min
Flow rate =
0.9 kg L
Transfer pumps and piping should have at least 7.5 L/min. ans.

34

REFERENCES:
Menon, E.S. Piping Calculations Manual. McGraw Hill, 2005.
Mobley, R.K. Plant Engineering Handbook. Butterworth Heinemann. 2001
Morse, F.T. Power Plant Engineering in MKS Unit, Litton Educational Publishing, Inc. 1953
Potter, P.J. Power Plant Theory and Design, 2nd Ed. New York. The Ronald Press Company. 1959
Internet:
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_oil
2. http://www.dieselserviceandsupply.com/Generator_Fuel_Tanks.aspx
3. http://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/18/1304.405

35