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THEORY OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES

THEORY OF JET PROPULSION
The principle of jet propulsion can be illustrated by a toy balloon. When
inflated and the stem is sealed, the pressure is exerted equally on all internal
surfaces. Since the force of this internal pressure is balanced, there will be no
tendency for the balloon to move.

If the stem is released, the balloon will move in a direction away from the
escaping jet of air. Although the flight of the balloon may appear erratic, it is
at all times moving in a direction away from the open stem.

The balloon moves because of an unbalanced condition existing within it.

When the stem area of the balloon is released, a convergent nozzle is created.
As the air flows through this area, velocity is increased accompanied by a
decrease in air pressure. In addition, an area of skin against which the
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internal forces had been pushing is removed. On the opposite internal surface
of the balloon, an equal area of skin still remains. The higher internal
pressure acting on this area moves the balloon in a direction away from the
open stem. The flight of the balloon will be of short duration though, because
the air in the balloon is soon gone. If a source of pressurized air were
provided, it would be possible to sustain the flight of the balloon.

THEORY OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES

If the balloon were converted into a length of pipe, and at the forward end an
air compressor designed with blades somewhat like a fan were installed, this
could provide a means to replenish the air supply within the balloon.

A source of power is now required to turn the compressor. To extend the

volume of air, fuel and ignition are introduced and combustion takes place.
This greatly expands the volume of gas available.

In the path of the now rapidly expanding gases, another fan or turbine can be
placed. As the gases pass through the blades of the turbine, they cause it to
rotate at high speed. By connecting the turbine to the compressor, we have a
mechanical means to rotate the compressor to replenish the air supply. The

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gases still possessing energy are discharged to the atmosphere through a

nozzle that accelerates the gas stream. The reaction is thrust or movement of
the tube away from the escaping gas stream. We now have a simple turbojet
engine.

The turbojet engine is a high-speed, high-altitude power plant. The simple

turbojet engine has primarily one rotating unit; the compressor/turbine
assembly. The turbine extracts from the gas stream the energy necessary to
rotate the compressor. This furnishes the pressurized air to maintain the
engine cycle. Burning the fuel-air mixture provides the stream of hot
expanding gas from which approximately 60 percent of the energy is
extracted to maintain the engine cycle. Of the total energy development,
approximately 40 percent is available to develop useful thrust directly.
If we had ten car engines, that would equal the total shaft horsepower of a
turbine engine, it would take six of these engines to turn the compressor and
the other four would supply the thrust. The amount of energy required to
rotate the compressor may at first seem too large; however, it should be
remembered that the compressor is accelerating a heavy mass (weight) of air
towards the rear of the engine. In order to produce the gas stream, it is
necessary to deliver compressed air by a mechanical means to a burner zone.
With a requirement for an engine that delivers rotational shaft power, the next
step is to harness the remaining gas stream energy with another turbine (free
turbine). By connecting the turbine to a shaft, rotational power can be
delivered to drive to an aircraft propeller, or an electrical generator, or
whatever driver is needed. The power shaft can extend from the front, back,
or from an external gearbox.

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The basic portion of the turbine engine, the gas producer, extracts
approximately 60 percent of the gas stream energy (temperature/pressure) to
sustain the engine cycle. To develop rotational shaft power, the remaining gas
stream energy must drive another turbine; this is called the power turbine. In
the case of the LM6000 at Knapton the LP compressor shaft is connected to
the main reduction gearbox. A turboflex coupling connects the front of the LP
compressor to the input shaft of the gearbox, this is called cold end drive.
Once synchronised the LP shaft speed effectively becomes fixed to match the
grid frequency.
In operation, the gas producer system automatically varies its speed, thereby
controlling the intensity of the gas stream in relation to the load applied to
the power turbine shaft (LP). This is accomplished by a fuel metering system
that senses engine requirements.
Reciprocating engines operate on the four-stroke, five-event principle. Four
strokes of the piston, two up and two down, are required to provide one
power impulse to the crankshaft. Five events take place during these four
strokes: the intake, compression, ignition, power, and exhaust events. These
events must take place in the cylinder in the sequence given for the engine to
operate.

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Comparison between working cycle of turbo jet engine and piston engine.
Although the gas turbine engine differs radically in construction from the
conventional four-stroke, five-event cycle reciprocating engine, both involve
the same basic principle of operation. In the piston (reciprocating) engine, the
functions of intake, compression, ignition, combustion, and exhaust all take
place in the same cylinder and, therefore, each must completely occupy the
chamber during its respective part of the combustion cycle. In the gas turbine
engine, a separate section is devoted to each function, and all functions are
performed at the same time without interruption.
SUMMARY
The theory of gas turbine engine operation is based on the laws or principles
of physics. The principle of jet propulsion can be illustrated by a toy balloon.
When the balloon is inflated and the stem is unsealed the balloon will move in
a direction away from the escaping jet of air. If the balloon is converted into a
length of pipe, and at the forward end an air compressor is installed to supply
air for combustion, and to expand the volume of air, fuel and ignition are
introduced and combustion takes place. Then, in the path of the expanding
gases a turbine rotor is installed. As the gases pass through the turbine

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blades, the turbine rotor is rotated at high speed. This turbine rotor is
connected to the compressor shaft, and we now have a means to rotate the
compressor to replenish the air supply. The remaining gases are discharged to
the atmosphere. The reaction of these gases is thrust, or movement of the
tube away from the escaping gases. This is a simple turbojet engine.
In the turbojet engine, approximately 60 percent of the energy is extracted to
rotate the compressor, while the remaining 40 percent is used to develop
thrust. In the turboshaft engine, the remaining energy is used to drive a
turbine rotor attached to a transmission. One turbine drives the HP
compressor and the other turbine drives the LP compressor which is directly
connected to the main reduction gearbox and alternator assemblies.
The gas turbine engine differs radically in construction from the reciprocating
engine in that the turbine engine has a separate section for each function,
while in the reciprocating engine all functions are performed in the same
cylinder.

Summary of Gas Turbine Layout and Temperature Gradients

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PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
GENERAL
This section covers the principles of turbine engine operation. The two
classifications of turbine engines are turbojet and turboshaft (shown below).
The term "turbo" means "turbine." Therefore, a turboshaft engine is one
which delivers power through a shaft. During this course we shall concentrate
on the Turboshaft engine as this is the design installed at Knapton.

Turbojet

Turboshaft

OTTO AND BRAYTON CYCLES

There is an element of similarity to both the reciprocating and jet engines, but
the thermodynamic cycle of each is different from the other. The reciprocating
engine operates on the Otto cycle, a constant volume cycle, consisting of four
distinct operations. These operations are performed intermittently by a piston
reciprocating in an enclosed cylinder. It is important to remember that the
piston in a reciprocating engine delivers power only during one of its four
strokes.
The turbine engine operates on the Brayton cycle, a constant pressure cycle
containing the same four basic operations as the Otto cycle, but
accomplishing them simultaneously and continuously so that an uninterrupted
flow of power from the engine results.
BRAYTON CYCLE OF OPERATION
Ambient air is drawn into the inlet section by the rotating compressor. The
compressor forces this incoming air rearward and delivers it to the
combustion chamber at a higher pressure than the air had at the inlet. The
compressed air is then mixed with fuel that is sprayed into the combustion
chamber by the fuel nozzles. The fuel and air mixture is then ignited by
electrical igniter plugs similar to spark plugs. This ignition system is only in
operation during the starting sequence, and once started, combustion is
continuous and self-sustaining as long as the engine is supplied with the
proper air-fuel ratio. Only about 25 percent of the air is used for combustion.
The remaining air is used for internal cooling and pressurizing.
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The turbine engine at Knapton has additional rotor and stator stages added to
the LP turbine rotor to extract the maximum power from the gas stream. The
engine uses nearly two-thirds of the energy produced by combustion to drive
the compressor rotors to sustain combustion. The additional power turbine
stages extract the remaining energy and converts it to shaft horsepower
(shp), which is used to drive the output shaft of the engine. The gas then exits
the engine through the exhaust section and then onto atmosphere.

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SUMMARY OF ADVANTAGES OF TURBINE ENGINES

Power-to-weight ratio. Turbine engines have a higher power-to-weight

ratio than reciprocating engines. An example of this is the LM1600. It
weighs approximately 8,200 pounds and delivers 20,000 shaft
horsepower. The power-to-weight ratio for this engine is 2.43 shp per
pound, where the average reciprocating engine has a power-to-weight
ratio of approximately .67 shp per pound. An equivalent reciprocating
engine would therefore weigh in excess of 30,000 pounds.

Less maintenance. Maintenance per hour of operation is especially

important in aircraft operations. Turbine engines require less
maintenance per flying hour than reciprocating engines generally do. In
the electrical generation industry the same principles apply. As a
maintenance manager, this advantage will appeal because of a greater
availability and lower maintenance hour to operational hour ratio. The
turbine engine also has fewer moving parts than a reciprocating engine;
this is also an advantage over the reciprocating engine.

Cold weather starting. The turbine engine does not require any oil
dilution or preheating of the engine before starting. Also, once started,
the reciprocating engine takes a long time to warm up to operating
temperatures, whereas the turbine engine starts readily and is up to
operating temperature immediately.

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SUMMARY OF DISADVANTAGES OF TURBINE ENGINES

Just like everything else, along with the advantages or the good, we have to
take the disadvantages or the bad. This also holds true with the turbine
engine. The disadvantages of the turbine engine are discussed in the
following subparagraphs.

Foreign Object Damage. One of the major problems faced by the turbine
engine is Foreign Object Damage (FOD). A turbine engine requires
tremendous quantities of air. This air is sucked into the engine at
extremely high velocities, and it will draw up anything that comes near
the inlet area. The turbine engines used in power generation are fitted
with filters in the engine inlet ductwork to prevent foreign objects from
entering the engine and damaging the compressor vanes. However,
even with this precaution, FOD is still a menace to turbine engine
operation, as shown below:

Figure 1.8. Compressor Foreign Object Damage.

High temperatures. In the combustion chamber, the temperature is

raised to about 3, 500 F. in the hottest part of the flame. Because this
temperature is above the melting point of most metals, proper cooling
and flame dilution must be employed at all times to insure that the
engine is not damaged, how this is achieved is discussed later in the
combustion system description.

Slow acceleration. The acceleration rate of a turbine engine is very slow

in comparison with that of a reciprocating engine. The pilot must be
aware of the time lag in the turbine engine acceleration between the
instant when power is requested and when power is available.

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High fuel consumption. Turbine engines are very uneconomical when it

comes to the amount of fuel they consume. The Lycoming T53 turbine
engine, for instance, uses approximately 1.5 gallons per minute of fuel.
Compare it to a reciprocating engine of approximately the same
horsepower which has a fuel consumption rate of 1 gallon per minute.

Cost. The initial cost of a turbine engine is very high when compared to the cost of a
reciprocating engine.
ENGINE CONSTRUCTION

GENERAL
Because of the many types of turbine engines, it is not possible to list all the
major components and have the list apply to all engines. Several components
are common to most turbine engines, and a knowledge of these will be helpful
in developing a further understanding of the aero derivative aviation gas
turbine engines. This section discusses the major engine sections individually.
TERMINOLOGY
Engine terminology must be explained at this point to enable you to
understand the terms used in discussing gas-turbine-engine operating theory.
Directional references are shown in drawing below:

Directional References.

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Directional references. Front or forward -- cold end of engine. Rear or

aft -- hot end of engine. Right and left -- determined by viewing the
engine from the rear. Bottom -- determined by the location of the
combustor drain valve. Top -- directly opposite, or 180 degrees from the
combustor drain valve. These directional references hold true for most
gas turbine engines.

AIR INLET SECTION

The amount of air required by a gas turbine engine is approximately ten times
that of a reciprocating engine. The air inlet is generally a large, smooth
aluminum or magnesium duct which must be designed to conduct the air into
the compressor with minimum turbulence and restriction. The air inlet section

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may have a variety of names according to the desire of the manufacturer. It

may be called the front frame and accessory section, the air inlet assembly,
the front bearing support and shroud assembly, or any other term descriptive
of its function. Usually, the outer shell of the front frame is joined to the
center portion by braces that are often called struts.

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COMPRESSOR SECTION AXIAL FLOW

A Typical Axial Flow Rotating Compressor Module

The compressor is the section of the engine that produces an increase in air
pressure. It is made up of rotating and stationary vane assemblies. The first
stage compressor rotor blades accelerate the air rearward into the first stage
vane assemblies. The first stage vane assemblies slow the air down and direct
it into the second stage compressor rotor blades. The second stage
compressor rotor blades accelerate the air rearward into the second stage
vane assemblies, and so on through the compressor rotor blades and vanes
until air enters the diffuser section. The highest total air velocity is at the inlet
of the diffuser. As the air passes rearward through the diffuser, the velocity of
the air decreases and the static pressure increases. The highest static
pressure is at the diffuser outlet, commonly called compressor discharge
pressure or CDP.

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A Typical Static Compressor Stator Casing

The compressor rotor may be thought of as an air pump. The volume of air
pumped by the compressor rotor is basically proportional to the rotor rpm.
However, air density, the weight of a given volume of air, also varies this
proportional relationship. The weight per unit volume of air is affected by
temperature, compressor air inlet pressure, humidity, and compressor
cleanliness. If compressor air inlet temperature is increased, air density is
reduced. If compressor air inlet pressure is increased, air density is
increased. If humidity increases, air density is decreased. Humidity, by
comparison with temperature, and pressure changes, has a very small effect
on density.
Compressor efficiency determines the power necessary to create the pressure
rise of a given airflow, and it affects the temperature change which takes
place in the combustion chamber. Therefore, the compressor is one of the
most important components of the gas turbine engine because its efficient
operation is the key to overall engine performance. Compressor cleanliness is
therefore vital to optimizing the gas turbines overall efficiency, how the
compressor is kept clean will be discussed later in the course.

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The axial flow compressor increases the pressure of the air gradually over a
number of stages, each stage comprising of a row of rotor blades followed
by a row of stator blades. Both the rotor and stator blades are of aerofoil
section and are attached in such a -manner so as to form divergent passage
ways between adjacent blades of the same row as shown above.
Axial flow compressors have the advantage of being capable of very high
compression ratios with relatively high efficiencies. Because of the small
frontal area created by this type of compressor, it is ideal for installation on
high-speed aircraft. Unfortunately, the delicate blading and close tolerances,
especially toward the rear of the compressor where the blades are smaller
and more numerous per stage, make this compressor highly susceptible to
foreign-object damage or FOD. Because of the close fits required for efficient
air-pumping and higher compression ratios, this type of compressor is very
complex and very expensive to manufacture. For these reasons the axial-flow
design finds its greatest application where required efficiency and output
override the considerations of cost, simplicity, and flexibility of operation.
However, due to modern technology, the cost of the small axial-flow
compressors is coming down.

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TWIN SPOOL GAS TURBINES

We now know that the performance of the gas turbine is directly related to
the exit pressure of the compressor assembly. As a general rule the higher the
compression ratio, the more powerful the engine is for its given physical
dimensions.
As the basic design of the gas turbine evolved more stages were progressively
added to the compressor assembly to achieve the higher performance levels.
These larger compressors required more power to drive, therefore more
stages were added to the turbine assembly. It was soon established that with
the larger compressor and turbine assemblies so the shaft weight had
dramatically increased. One of the disadvantages of increased weight is
increased inertia, this means that the shaft is slower to accelerate and
decelerate. This leads to problems associated with airflows through the
engine, rapid changes in load requirements can then lead to problems such as
stall and surge. Both stall and surge are covered later in the course, at this
point it should be noted that stall and surge are situations to be avoided in all
turbine operations.
Gas turbine manufacturers solved the problem of higher compression ratios
(greater than 9:1) by splitting the compressor into two independent shafts as
shown below:

Typical Twin Spool gas Turbine

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The total numbers of stages of compression are divided between the two
spools Low Pressure leading to High Pressure, each spool being driven by
its own turbine assembly. This is necessary because each compressor needs to
be free to rotate at its most efficient rpm and will require a different amount
of torque to drive each shaft. This eases the problem of compressor blade
matching and results in a very powerful, efficient and flexible and most
importantly reliable engine.

The advantages of a Twin Spool Gas Turbine compared to a Single Spool

Engine can be summarised as follows:
1) Higher Compression ratios
2) Better Fuel Consumption
3) Easier to Start (HP shaft first)
4) Quicker Speed Response
5) Better Reliability

The LM6000 at Knapton has a combined compression ratio across both LP

(2.4:1) and HP (12:1) assemblies of approximately 30:1 at full load. This can
be seen on the control system by the parameter HPC Exit Pressure.

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To understand the limitations of the engine it is important to understand its

operation, so we will now look at the passage of the air as it moves through
the compressor modules.
As the air is drawn into the engine, its direction of flow is changed by the
variable inlet guide vanes. The angle of entry is established to ensure that the
air flow onto the rotating compressor blades is within the stall-free (angle of
attack) range. Air pressure or velocity is not changed as a result of this action.
As the air passes from the trailing edge of the inlet guide vanes, its direction
of flow is changed due to the rotational effect of the compressor.
In conjunction with the change of airflow direction, the velocity of the air is
increased. Passing through the rotating compressor blades a gain in pressure
is obtained. When leaving the trailing edge of the compressor blades, the
velocity of the air mass is again increased by the rotational effect of the
compressor. The angle of entry onto the stationary stator vanes results from
this rotational effect as it did on the airflow onto the compressor.
Passing through the stationary stator vanes the air velocity is decreased
resulting in an increase in pressure due to the divergent duct shape. The
combined action of the rotor blades and stator vanes results in an increase in
air -pressure; combined they constitute one stage of compression. This action
continues through all stages of the axial compressor. To retain this pressure
buildup, the airflow is delivered, stage by stage, into a continually narrowing
airflow path. After passing from the last set of stator vanes the air mass
passes through exit guide vanes.
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Gas turbine engines are designed to avoid the pressure conditions that allow
engine surge to develop, but the possibility of surge still exists in engines that
are not properly set up or adjusted, or have a technical problem. Engine surge
occurs any time the combustion chamber pressure exceeds the compressor
discharge pressure CDP. It is identified by a loud popping sound which is
issued from the inlet. Because there is more than one cause for surge, the
resultant sound can range from a single carburetor backfire pop to a machine
gun sound.
Engine surge is caused by a stall on the airfoil
surfaces of the rotating blades or stationary
vanes of the compressor. The stall can occur on
individual blades or vanes or, simultaneously, on
groups of them. To understand how this can
induce engine surge, the causes and effects of
stall on any airfoil must be examined.
All airfoils are designed to provide lift by
producing a lower pressure on the convex
(suction) side of the airfoil than on the concave
(pressure) side. A characteristic of any airfoil is
that lift increases with an increasing angle of
attack, but only up to a critical angle. Beyond this
critical angle of attack, lift falls off rapidly. This is
due largely to the separation of the airflow from
the suction surface of the airfoil, as shown in the
sketch. This phenomenon is known as stall. All
pilots are familiar with this condition and its
consequences as it applies to the wing of an
aircraft. The stall that takes place on the fixed or
rotating blades of a compressor is the same as
the stalling phenomenon of an aircraft wing.
In the event of any stall, the turbine should not be operated before
seeking specialist advice.

AIRFLOW CONTROL
Where high pressures ratios are required it becomes necessary to introduce
airflow into the compressor design. This may take the form of variable inlet
guide vanes IGVs, for the first stage plus a number of stages incorporating
variable stator vanes VSVs for the succeeding stages as the shaft pressure
ratio is increased, see the diagram below.

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As the compressor speed is reduced from full load the static vanes are
progressively closed in order to maintain an acceptable angle of attack for the
airflow onto the following rotor blades.
Additional air from the low pressure compressor LPC is also utilised for
controlling engine core speed. Variable bleed valves VBVs, are normally
located radially around the engine on the bleed manifold, which open and
close through the load range. At idle, the VBVs are fully open, dumping
excess LPC discharge air. Above idle, the VBVs track closed following the
control system schedules, which control the airflow passing through the core
of the engine. By controlling IGV, VSV and VBV positions through the control
system logic, correct core engine shaft speed is maintained, eliminates engine
stall and keeps exhaust gas temperature T48 within design limits.

COMBUSTION SECTION
Today, three basic combustion chambers are in use. They are the annular
combustion chamber, the can type, and the combination of the two called the
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can-annular. The turbine at Knapton has an annular type combustor, which is

the type discussed here. The combustion section contains the combustion
chamber, igniter plugs, and fuel nozzles. It is designed to burn a fuel-air
mixture and deliver the combusted gases to the turbine at a temperature
which will not exceed the allowable limit at the turbine inlet.

Typical Annular Design Combustor

Fuel is introduced at the front end of the burner as a gas or in a highly
atomized spray from the fuel nozzles depending on the fuel used at the time.
Combustion air flows in through a set of swirlers and then around the fuel
nozzle which ensures a thorough mix with the fuel to form a correct fuel-air
mixture. This is called primary air and represents approximately 20 percent of
total air taken into the engine. The fuel-air mixture which is to be burned is
normally a ratio of 15 parts of air to 1 part of fuel by weight. The remaining
80 percent of the air is used to form an air blanket around the burning gases
and to lower the combustor temperature. This temperature may reach as high
as 3500 F. By using 80 percent of the air for cooling, the temperature
operating range can be brought down to about half, so the turbine section will
not be destroyed by excessive heat. The air used for burning is called primary

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air- and that for cooling is secondary air. The secondary air is controlled and
directed by holes in the combustion chamber liner side walls.

Cross Section of Typical Annular Combustor

Igniter plugs function only during starting, being cut out of the circuit as soon
as combustion is self-sustaining. All combustion chambers contain the same
basic elements: a casing or outer shell, a perforated inner liner or flame tube,
fuel nozzles, and some means of initial ignition. The combustion chamber
must be of light construction and is designed to burn fuel completely in a high
velocity airstream. The combustion chamber liner is an extremely critical
engine part because of the high temperatures of the flame. The liner is usually
constructed of welded high-nickel steel or mnemonic ally and is normally
coated with a protective ceramic material.
The annular combustion chamber permits building an engine of a small and
compact design. Instead of individual combustion chambers, the primary
compressed air is introduced into an annular space formed by a chamber liner
around the turbine assembly, see the diagram below. A space is left between
the outer liner wall and the combustion chamber housing to permit the flow of
secondary cooling air from the compressor. Primary air is mixed with the fuel
for combustion. Secondary (cooling) air reduces the temperature of the hot
gases entering the turbine section to the proper level by forming a blanket of
cool air around these hot gases thus preventing them touch the side walls of
the combustor. Where airflows are incorrect through erosion or blockage the
combustor can be quickly damaged by the high flame temperature which can
exceed the melting point of the combustors base material.

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Typical Combustor Airflows Flows

TURBINE SECTION
A portion of the kinetic energy of the expanding gases is extracted by the
turbine section, and this energy is transformed into shaft horsepower which is
used to drive both the low and high pressure compressor assemblies and the
engine mounted accessories.

Typical Axial-flow Turbine Rotor

The axial-flow turbine consists of two main elements, a set of stationary vanes
followed by a turbine rotor. A stage consists of two main components: a
turbine nozzle and a turbine rotor or wheel, as shown above. Turbine blades
are of two basic types, the impulse and the reaction. Modern aircraft gas
turbines use blades that have both impulse and reaction sections, as shown
below.

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Impulse-Reaction Turbine Blade.

The stationary part of the turbine assembly consists of a row of contoured

vanes set at a predetermined angle to form a series of small nozzles which
direct the gases onto the blades of the turbine rotor. For this reason, the
stationary vane assembly is usually called the turbine nozzle, and the vanes
are called nozzle guide vanes.

Single-rotor turbine. Some gas turbine engines use a single-rotor turbine, with the power developed
by one rotor. This arrangement is used on engines where low weight and compactness are
necessary. A single-rotor, single-stage turbine engine is shown below.

Single-rotor, Single-stage Turbine.

And a multiple-rotor, multiple-stage turbine engine is shown below.

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Multiple-rotor, Multiple-stage Turbine.

Multiple-rotor turbine. In the multiple-rotor turbine the power is developed by
two or more rotors. As a general rule, multiple-rotor turbines increase the
total power generated in a unit of small diameter.

Multi-rotor & Multi-stage Turbine.

POWER TURBINE
The alternator assembly at Knapton is driven directly by the Low Pressure
rotor shaft. The LP turbine rotor has been extended at Knapton to 5 individual
stages. The purpose of the power turbine assembly is to extract as much
kinetic energy from the remaining gas flow to drive the alternator.

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SUMMARY
The LM6000 engine at Knapton has the following basic construction:

5 Stage Low Pressure Compressor

14 Stage High Pressure Compressor
Annular Combustion Chamber
2 Stage High Pressure Turbine
5 Stage Low Pressure Turbine

TURBINE CONSTRUCTION
The turbine rotor is one of the most highly stressed parts in the engine. It
operates at a temperature of approximately 1,700 F. Because of the high
rotational speeds, over 10,500 rpm for the engine at Knapton, the turbine
rotor is under severe centrifugal loads. Consequently, the turbine disk is made
of specially alloyed steel, usually containing large percentages of chromium,
nickel, and cobalt. The turbine rotor assembly is made of two main parts, the
disk and blades.
Nozzle vanes may be either cast or forged. Some vanes are made hollow to
allow cooling air to flow through them. All nozzle assemblies are made of very
high-strength steel that withstands the direct impact of the hot gases flowing
from the combustion chamber.
The turbine blades are attached to the disk by using the "fir tree" design,
shown below, to allow for expansion between the disk and the blade while
holding the blade firmly to the disk against centrifugal loads. The blade is
kept from moving axially either by rivets or special locking plate devices.
Turbine rotors are of the open-tip type as shown below left, or the shroud type
as shown below right.

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Figure 1.27. Turbine Wheel Open Tip.

Figure 1.28. Turbine Blade "Fir Tree

Root" Shroud.

The shroud acts to prevent gas losses over the blade tip and excessive blade
vibrations. Distortion under severe loads tends to untwist the blade toward
low pitch, and the shroud helps to reduce this tendency. The shrouded blade
has an aerodynamic advantage in that thinner blades can be used with the
support of the shroud. Shrouding, however, requires that the turbine run
cooler or at reduced rpm because of the extra mass at the tip.
Blades are forged or cast from alloy steel and machined and carefully
inspected before being certified for use. Manufacturers stamp a "moment
weight" number on the blade to retain rotor balance when replacement is
necessary. Blades are replaced with new items of a similar weight within a
specified tolerance.
Because vibration is such an important issue in any rotating assembly
particularly in high speed assemblies. Replacement turbine blades generally
come as matched pairs, if one blade is to replaced on the disc, then its
diametrically opposite brother is normally also replaced.

EXHAUST SECTION
The hot gases are exhausted overboard through the exhaust diffuser section.
Internally, this section supports the low pressure turbine bearing assemblies.
The exhaust diffuser is composed of an inner and outer housing, separated by
hollow struts across the exhaust passage. The inner housing is capped by
either a tailcone or a cover plate which provides a chamber for cooling the
rear bearing. A typical exhaust diffuser section is shown below.

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Exhaust Diffuser Section.

In the industrial power generation sector it is common to use the remaining
hot gases that pass through the power turbine assembly to heat water to
produce hot water, high temperature hot water or steam. These can be used
to drive other steam turbines or plant processes. The term used to describe
this multiple production is called Combined Heat and Power or CHP. This is an
area for future development at Knapton, the addition of a boiler, steam
turbine and associated alternator would increase power generation for a
similar fuel consumption to the engine in its current configuration. The
addition of the steam turbine and alternator could increase the power output
of the plant by up to 50%, thus greatly increasing the efficiency of the plant.

SUMMARY
The gas turbine engine has five major sections: inlet, compressor, combustion,
turbine, and exhaust. Engine terminology includes directional references,
engine stations, and model designations.
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The table below shows some of the engine abbreviations commonly used at
Knapton:
LP Low Pressure
HP High Pressure
N Spool speed
P - Pressure
T - Temperature
IGV Inlet Guide Vane
VSV Variable Stator Vane
VBV Variable Bleed Valve
T48 LP Turbine Exit Temperature
PTB Thrust Balance
OAT Outside Air Temperature
CDP Compressor Discharge Pressure
ISA International Standard Atmosphere (15 degrees C & 1013 millibars)
Engine station notation. The engine is divided into stations to designate
temperature (T) or pressure (P) measuring locations. Labeling the engine
stations with a number placed after the letter T or P denotes a specific
location in the engine.

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LM6000 Cross Section

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EUROPEAN POWER SYSTEMS LTD

Unit 17 Technology Centre, Epinal Way, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE11 3GE, United Kingdom
Company Number 4359653. VAT Number GB 789 3342 82.