Computer Networks: A Systems Approach, 5e

Larry L. Peterson and Bruce S. Davie

Chapter 3
Internetworking

Adapted from Savitch and Davie, Computer Networks: A System Approach, 5E

Chapter 3

Problems

In Chapter 2 we saw how to connect one node to

another, or to an existing network. How do we
build networks of global scale?
How do we interconnect different types of
networks to build a large global network?

n
n
n

Chapter 3

Chapter Outline
Switching and Bridging
Basic Internetworking (IP)
Routing

Chapter 3

Chapter Goal
Understanding the functions of switches, bridges
and routers
Discussing Internet Protocol (IP) for
interconnecting networks
Understanding the concept of routing

n
n
n
n

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Store-and-Forward Switches
Bridges and Extended LANs
Cell Switching
Segmentation and Reassembly

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

n

Switch
A mechanism that allows us to interconnect
links to form a large network
n A multi-input, multi-output device which
transfers packets from an input to one or more
outputs
n

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Adds the star topology to the point-to-point link,
bus (Ethernet), and ring (802.5 and FDDI)
topologies

Star topology

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Properties of this star topology
n

Even though a switch has a fixed number of inputs and outputs,

which limits the number of hosts that can be connected to a
single switch, large networks can be built by interconnecting a
number of switches
We can connect switches to each other and to hosts using pointto-point links, which typically means that we can build networks
of large geographic scope
Adding a new host to the network by connecting it to a switch
does not necessarily mean that the hosts already connected will
get worse performance from the network

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

The last claim cannot be made for the shared
media network (discussed in Chapter 2)
n

It is impossible for two hosts on the same Ethernet to

transmit continuously at 10Mbps because they share
the same transmission medium
Every host on a switched network has its own link to
the switch
n

So it may be entirely possible for many hosts to transmit at

the full link speed (bandwidth) provided that the switch is
designed with enough aggregate capacity

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

n

A switch is connected to a set of links and for

each of these links, runs the appropriate data link
protocol to communicate with that node
A switchs primary job is to receive incoming
packets on one of its links and to transmit them
on some other link
n
n

This function is referred as switching or forwarding

According to OSI architecture this is the main function
of the network layer

10

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

How does the switch decide which output
port to place each packet on?
It looks at the header of the packet for an
identifier that it uses to make the decision
n Two common approaches
n

n
n

Datagram or Connectionless approach

Virtual circuit or Connection-oriented approach

A third approach source routing is less

common

11

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Assumptions
Each host has a globally unique address
n There is some way to identify the input and
output ports of each switch
n

n
n

We can use numbers

We can use names

For now, we use numbering of the ports

12

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Datagrams
n

Key Idea
n

Every packet contains enough information to

enable any switch to decide how to get it to
destination
n

Every packet contains the complete destination address

13

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

An example network

To decide how to forward a packet, a switch consults a

forwarding table (sometimes called a routing table)

14

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Destination
Port
------------------------------------A
3
B
0
C
3
D
3
E
2
F
1
G
0
H
0
Forwarding Table for
Switch 2

15

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Characteristics of Connectionless (Datagram) Network
n

A host can send a packet anywhere at any time, since any

packet that turns up at the switch can be immediately forwarded
(assuming a correctly populated forwarding table)
When a host sends a packet, it has no way of knowing if the
network is capable of delivering it or if the destination host is
even up and running
Each packet is forwarded independently of previous packets that
might have been sent to the same destination.
n

Thus two successive packets from host A to host B may follow

completely different paths

A switch or link failure might not have any serious effect on

communication if it is possible to find an alternate route around
the failure and update the forwarding table accordingly

16

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Virtual Circuit Switching
n
n
n
n

Widely used technique for packet switching

Uses the concept of virtual circuit (VC)
Also called a connection-oriented model
First set up a virtual connection from the source host
to the destination host and then send the data

17

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Host A wants to send packets to host B

18

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Two-stage process
n
n

Connection setup
Data Transfer

Connection setup
n

Establish connection state in each of the switches

between the source and destination hosts
The connection state for a single connection consists
of an entry in the VC table in each switch through
which the connection passes

19

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

One entry in the VC table on a single switch contains
n

n
n
n

A virtual circuit identifier (VCI) that uniquely identifies the connection at

this switch and that will be carried inside the header of the packets that
belong to this connection
An incoming interface on which packets for this VC arrive at the switch
An outgoing interface in which packets for this VC leave the switch
A potentially different VCI that will be used for outgoing packets

The semantics for one such entry is

n

If a packet arrives on the designated incoming interface and that packet

contains the designated VCI value in its header, then the packet should
be sent out the specified outgoing interface with the specified outgoing
VCI value first having been placed in its header

20

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Note:
n

The combination of the VCI of the packets as they are received

at the switch and the interface on which they are received
uniquely identifies the virtual connection
There may be many virtual connections established in the switch
at one time
Incoming and outgoing VCI values are not generally the same
n

VCI is not a globally significant identifier for the connection; rather it

has significance only on a given link

Whenever a new connection is created, we need to assign a new

VCI for that connection on each link that the connection will
traverse
n

We also need to ensure that the chosen VCI on a given link is not
currently in use on that link by some existing connection.

21

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Two broad classes of approach to establishing connection state
n

Network Administrator will configure the state

n
n
n

The virtual circuit is permanent (PVC)

The network administrator can delete this
Can be thought of as a long-lived or administratively configured VC

A host can send messages into the network to cause the state to be
established
n

This is referred as signalling and the resulting virtual circuit is said to be

switched (SVC)
A host may set up and delete such a VC dynamically without the involvement
of a network administrator

22

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Lets assume that a network administrator wants to manually create a
new virtual connection from host A to host B
n

First the administrator identifies a path through the network from A to B

23

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

The administrator then picks a VCI value that is currently unused on
each link for the connection
n

For our example,

n
n
n

Suppose the VCI value 5 is chosen for the link from host A to switch 1
11 is chosen for the link from switch 1 to switch 2
So the switch 1 will have an entry in the VC table

Incoming
Interface

Incoming VCI

Outgoing
Interface

Outgoing VCI

11

VC Table Entry for Switch 1

24

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Similarly, suppose
n
n
n

VCI of 7 is chosen to identify this connection on the link from switch 2 to switch 3
VCI of 4 is chosen for the link from switch 3 to host B
Switches 2 and 3 are configured with the following VC table

Incoming
Interface

Incoming VCI

Outgoing
Interface

Outgoing VCI

11

VC Table Entry for Switch 2

Incoming
Interface

Incoming VCI

Outgoing
Interface

Outgoing VCI

VC Table Entry for Switch 3

25

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

For any packet that A wants to send to B, A puts the VCI value 5 in the
header of the packet and sends it to switch 1
Switch 1 receives any such packet on interface 2, and it uses the
combination of the interface and the VCI in the packet header to find the
appropriate VC table entry.
The table entry on switch 1 tells the switch to forward the packet out of
interface 1 and to put the VCI value 11 in the header

26

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

n
n

Packet will arrive at switch 2 on interface 3 bearing VCI 11

Switch 2 looks up interface 3 and VCI 11 in its VC table and sends the
packet on to switch 3 after updating the VCI value appropriately
This process continues until it arrives at host B with the VCI value of 4 in the
packet
To host B, this identifies the packet as having come from host A

27

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

n

In real networks of reasonable size, the burden of configuring VC

tables correctly in a large number of switches would quickly become
excessive
n

n
n

Thus, some sort of signalling is almost always used, even when setting
up permanent VCs
In case of PVCs, signalling is initiated by the network administrator
SVCs are usually set up using signalling by one of the hosts

28

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

n

How does the signalling work

n

To start the signalling process, host A sends a setup message into the
network (i.e. to switch 1)
n

The setup message contains (among other things) the complete destination
address of B.
The setup message needs to get all the way to B to create the necessary
connection state in every switch along the way
It is like sending a datagram to B where every switch knows which output to
send the setup message so that it eventually reaches B
Assume that every switch knows the topology to figure out how to do that

When switch 1 receives the connection request, in addition to sending it

on to switch 2, it creates a new entry in its VC table for this new
connection
n
n

The entry is exactly the same shown in the previous table

Switch 1 picks the value 5 for this connection

29

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

n

How does the signalling work (contd.)

n

When switch 2 receives the setup message, it performs the similar

process and it picks the value 11 as the incoming VCI
Similarly switch 3 picks 7 as the value for its incoming VCI
n

n
n

Each switch can pick any number it likes, as long as that number is not
currently in use for some other connection on that port of that switch

Finally the setup message arrives at host B.

Assuming that B is healthy and willing to accept a connection from host
A, it allocates an incoming VCI value, in this case 4.
n

This VCI value can be used by B to identify all packets coming from A

30

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

n

Now to complete the connection, everyone needs to be told what

their downstream neighbor is using as the VCI for this connection
n

Host B sends an acknowledgement of the connection setup to switch 3

and includes in that message the VCI value that it chose (4)
Switch 3 completes the VC table entry for this connection and sends the
acknowledgement on to switch 2 specifying the VCI of 7
Switch 2 completes the VC table entry for this connection and sends
acknowledgement on to switch 1 specifying the VCI of 11
Finally switch 1 passes the acknowledgement on to host A telling it to
use the VCI value of 5 for this connection

31

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

When host A no longer wants to send data to host B, it tears down

the connection by sending a teardown message to switch 1
The switch 1 removes the relevant entry from its table and forwards
the message on to the other switches in the path which similarly
delete the appropriate table entries
At this point, if host A were to send a packet with a VCI of 5 to switch
1, it would be dropped as if the connection had never existed

32

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

n

Characteristics of VC
n

Since host A has to wait for the connection request to reach the far side
of the network and return before it can send its first data packet, there is
at least one RTT of delay before data is sent
While the connection request contains the full address for host B (which
might be quite large, being a global identifier on the network), each data
packet contains only a small identifier, which is only unique on one link.
n

If a switch or a link in a connection fails, the connection is broken and a

new one will need to be established.
n

Thus the per-packet overhead caused by the header is reduced relative to

the datagram model

Also the old one needs to be torn down to free up table storage space in the
switches

The issue of how a switch decides which link to forward the connection
request on has similarities with the function of a routing algorithm

33

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

n

Good Properties of VC
n

By the time the host gets the go-ahead to send data, it knows quite a lot
about the networkn

For example, that there is really a route to the receiver and that the receiver
is willing to receive data

It is also possible to allocate resources to the virtual circuit at the time it

is established

34

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

For example, an X.25 network a packet-switched network that
uses the connection-oriented model employs the following threepart strategy
n
n

Buffers are allocated to each virtual circuit when the circuit is initialized
The sliding window protocol is run between each pair of nodes along the
virtual circuit, and this protocol is augmented with the flow control to
keep the sending node from overrunning the buffers allocated at the
receiving node
The circuit is rejected by a given node if not enough buffers are available
at that node when the connection request message is processed

35

Comparison with the Datagram Model

n

n
n

Datagram network has no connection establishment phase and each

switch processes each packet independently
Each arriving packet competes with all other packets for buffer space
If there are no buffers, the incoming packet must be dropped

In VC, we could imagine providing each circuit with a different quality

of service (QoS)
n

The network gives the user some kind of performance related guarantee
n

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Switches set aside the resources they need to meet this guarantee
n

For example, a percentage of each outgoing links bandwidth

Delay tolerance on each switch

Most popular examples of VC technologies are Frame Relay and

ATM
n

One of the applications of Frame Relay is the construction of VPN

36

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

n

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

n
n

Connection-oriented packet-switched network

Packets are called cells
n

5 byte header + 48 byte payload

Fixed length packets are easier to switch in

hardware
n
n

Simpler to design
Enables parallelism

37

ATM
n

User-Network Interface (UNI)

n
n
n
n
n
n
n

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Host-to-switch format
GFC: Generic Flow Control
VPI: Virtual Path Identifier
VCI: Virtual Circuit Identifier
Type: management, congestion control
CLP: Cell Loss Priority
HEC: Header Error Check (CRC-8)

Network-Network Interface (NNI)

n
n

Switch-to-switch format
GFC becomes part of VPI field

38

Chapter 3

ATM Switching
n

ATM uses a hierarchy at the VC: All the circuits with the same
VPI can be treated as a group (a virtual path) and can be
switched together looking at VPI reducing the size of VC
table
CRC-8 is used for error detection and single-bit error
correction on the cell header
ATM uses fixed size cells
n
n

Easier to build hardware to do simple jobs with fixed sized cells

You can have a lot of switching elements all doing much the
same thing in parallel, each of them taking the same time to do
its job
This principle of fixed cell size still applies in many switches and
routers today, by cutting the packets into some sort of cells for
switching

Large header-to-payload ratio (~10%) did lead to some

noticeable inefficiency in ATM networks, where people refer it
as cell tax.
39

Chapter 3

ATM Yesterday and Today

n

In 1980 and 1990, ATM seemed posed to take

over the world. The variable-length packets, such
as in Ethernet/IP, are looked at as legacy.
It has largely disappeared today, except in some
pockets of areas
n

Digital Subscriber Loops (xDSL) access networks use

ATM.
DSL modems take Ethernet frames and chop them
into cells for switching

ATM was replaced by 100 Mbps Ethernet, which

does not require expensive optics.
IP unifies the world by interconnecting all kinds of
different networks.
40

A thrid approach to switching that users neither VC nor conventional

datagrams is Source Routing
n

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

All the information about network topology that is required to switch a
packet across the network is provided by the source host

41

Chapter 3

Switching and Forwarding

Other approaches in Source Routing

Three ways to handle headers for source routting: (a) rotation; (b) stripping;
(c) pointer. The labels are read right to left.

42

Chapter 3

Source Routing
n

Source routing can be used in both datagram

networks and virtual circuit networks.
n

IP, which is datagram protocol, includes a source

route option
In some VC networks as a mean to get the initial
setup request along the path from the source to
destination.

Two categories of source routing

n

Strict (SSRR - Strict Source Record Route): every

node along the path must be specified.
Loose (LSRR Loose Source Record Route):
only specifies a set of nodes to be traversed
43

Chapter 3

Source Routing
Source Routing is useful in the following
situations
Mapping of the network: used in traceroute
(tracert in MS Windows) to find all the routes
between two points
n Troubleshooting: e.g., trying to find out from
point A why F cannot talk to L
n Performance: network manager might decide
to use a slower but less congested route
n Hacking: direct packets through a specific
machine
n

44

Chapter 3

Bridges and LAN Switches

n

Bridges and LAN Switches

n

Class of switches that is used to forward packets between shared-media

LANs such as Ethernets
n
n

Known as LAN switches

Referred to as Bridges in a historical sense

Suppose you have a pair of Ethernets that you want to interconnect

n

One approach is put a repeater in between them

n

It might exceed the physical limitation of the Ethernet

n
No more than four repeaters between any pair of hosts
n
No more than a total of 2500 m in length is allowed

An alternative would be to put a node between the two Ethernets and have
the node forward frames from one Ethernet to the other
n
n

This node is called a Bridge

A collection of LANs connected by one or more bridges is usually said to form an
Extended LAN

45

Chapter 3

Bridges and LAN Switches

n

Repeaters only move bits, not frames, and just blindly copy bits from
one interface to another
Bridges fully implement the Ethernets collision detection and media
access protocol on each interfaces.
n

Simplest Strategy for Bridges

n

Therefore, the Ethernet length and number-of-host restriction, which are all about
managing collisions, would not apply
Operates in promiscuous mode, accepting all frames transmitted on one interface
and forwarding them to the other.

Accept LAN frames on their inputs and forward them out to all other
outputs
Used by early bridges

Learning Bridges
n

Observe that there is no need to forward all the frames that a bridge
receives

46

Chapter 3

Bridges and LAN Switches

n

Consider the following figure

n

When a frame from host A that is addressed to host B arrives on port 1,

there is no need for the bridge to forward the frame out over port 2.

How does a bridge come to learn on which port the various hosts
reside?

47

Chapter 3

Bridges and LAN Switches

Solution
n

Download a table into the bridge

Host
A

-------------------A

Port 1

Port 2

Bridge

Who does the download?

n

Port

Human
n

Too much work for maintenance

48

Chapter 3

Bridges and LAN Switches

n

Can the bridge learn this information by itself?

n

Yes

How
n
n
n
n
n
n

Each bridge inspects the source address in all the frames it receives
Record the information at the bridge and build the table
When a bridge first boots, this table is empty
Entries are added over time
A timeout is associated with each entry
The bridge discards the entry after a specified period of time
n

To protect against the situation in which a host is moved from one network to
another

If the bridge receives a frame that is addressed to host not currently

in the table
n

Forward the frame out on all other ports

49

Chapter 3

Bridges and LAN Switches

Strategy works fine if the extended LAN does not have a loop in it
Why?
n Frames potentially loop through the extended LAN forever

Bridges B1, B4, and B6 form a loop

50

Chapter 3

Bridges and LAN Switches

n

How does an extended LAN come to have a loop in it?

n Network is managed by more than one administrator
n
n

For example, it spans multiple departments in an organization

It is possible that no single person knows the entire configuration of
the network
n

A bridge that closes a loop might be added without anyone knowing

Loops are built into the network to provide redundancy in case of

failures

Solution
n

Distributed Spanning Tree (DPT) Algorithm

51

Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

Think of the extended LAN as being represented by a graph that
possibly has loops (cycles)
n A graph contains a set of nodes (vertics) and a set of edges

A spanning tree is a sub-graph of this graph that covers

all the vertices but contains no cycles
n

Spanning tree keeps all the vertices of the original graph but
throws out some of the edges

Example of (a) a cyclic graph; (b) a corresponding spanning tree.

52

Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

Developed by Radia Perlman at Digital
n A protocol used by a set of bridges to agree upon a spanning
tree for a particular extended LAN
n IEEE 802.1 specification for LAN bridges is based on this
algorithm
n

Each bridge decides the ports over which it is and is not willing to
forward frames
n

In a sense, it is by removing ports from the topology that the

extended LAN is reduced to an acyclic tree
It is even possible that an entire bridge will not participate in
forwarding frames

53

Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

Algorithm is dynamic
n The bridges are always prepared to reconfigure themselves into
a new spanning tree if some bridges fail

Main idea
n

Each bridge selects the ports over which they will forward the
frames

54

Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

Algorithm selects ports as follows:
n Each bridge has a unique identifier
n

n
n

Elect the bridge with the smallest id as the root of the spanning
tree
The root bridge always forwards frames out over all of its ports
Each bridge computes the shortest path to the root and notes
which of its ports is on this path
n

B1, B2, B3,and so on.

This port is selected as the bridges preferred path to the root

Finally, all the bridges connected to a given LAN elect a single

designated bridge that will be responsible for forwarding frames
toward the root bridge

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Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

n
n

Each LANs designated bridge is the one that is closest to the root
If two or more bridges are equally close to the root,
n Then select bridge with the smallest id
Each bridge is connected to more than one LAN
n

So it participates in the election of a designated bridge for each LAN it is

connected to.
Each bridge decides if it is the designated bridge relative to each of its
ports
The bridge forwards frames over those ports for which it is the
designated bridge

56

n
n

B1 is the root bridge

B3 and B5 are connected to LAN A, but B5 is the designated bridge
n

Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

Because B5 has the shortest path from LAN A to root bridge B1

B5 and B7 are connected to LAN B, but B5 is the designated bridge

n

Because B5 and B7 have the same distance from LAN B to B1 but B5 has
smaller ID

57

Chapter 3
58

Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

Bridges dont have the global visibility of
the network topology so it relies on
configuration messages with each other
Configruation messages contains three
pieces of information
1.

2.

3.

The ID for the bridge that is sending the

message
The ID for what the sending bridge believes
to be the root bridge
The distance, measured in hops, from the
sending bridge to the root bridge
59

Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

n

Initially each bridge thinks it is the root, so it sends a configuration

message on each of its ports identifying itself as the root and giving
a distance to the root of 0
Upon receiving a configuration message over a particular port, the
bridge checks to see if the new message is better than the current
best configuration message recorded for that port
The new configuration is better than the currently recorded
information if
n
n
n

It identifies a root with a smaller id or

It identifies a root with an equal id but with a shorter distance or
The root id and distance are equal, but the sending bridge has a smaller
id

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Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

n

If the new message is better than the currently recorded one,

n
n

The bridge discards the old information and saves the new information
It first adds 1 to the distance-to-root field

When a bridge receives a configuration message indicating that it is

not the root bridge (that is, a message from a bridge with smaller id)
n
n

The bridge stops generating configuration messages on its own

Only forwards configuration messages from other bridges after 1 adding
to the distance field

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Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

n

When a bridge receives a configuration message that indicates it is

not the designated bridge for that port
=> a message from a bridge that is closer to the root or equally far from the
root but with a smaller id
n

The bridge stops sending configuration messages over that port

When the system stabilizes,

n
n

Only the root bridge is still generating configuration messages.

Other bridges are forwarding these messages only over ports for which
they are the designated bridge

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Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

n

Consider the situation when the power had just been restored to the
building housing the following network

All bridges would start off by claiming to be the root

63

Denote a configuration message from node X in which it claims to be

distance d from the root node Y as
n

Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

(root, hops to root, sender) (Y, d, X)

Consider the activity at node B3

64

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

B3 receives (B2, 0, B2)
Since 2 < 3, B3 accepts B2 as root
B3 adds 1 to the distance advertised
by B2 and sends (B2, 1, B3) to B5
Meanwhile B2 accepts B1 as root
because it has the lower id and it
sends (B1, 1, B2) toward B3
B5 accepts B1 as root and sends (B1,
1, B5) to B3
B3 accepts B1 as root and it notes
that both B2 and B5 are closer to the
root than it is.
n

Thus B3 stops forwarding messages

on both its interfaces
This leaves B3 with both ports not
selected

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Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

n

Even after the system has stabilized, the root bridge continues to
send configuration messages periodically
n

Other bridges continue to forward these messages

When a bridge fails, the downstream bridges will not receive the
configuration messages
After waiting a specified period of time, they will once again claim to
be the root and the algorithm starts again
Note
n

Although the algorithm is able to reconfigure the spanning tree

whenever a bridge fails, it is not able to forward frames over alternative
paths for the sake of routing around a congested bridge

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Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

n

Broadcast and Multicast

n

Forward all broadcast/multicast frames

n

n
n

Current practice

Learn when no group members downstream

Accomplished by having each member of group M
send a frame to bridge multicast address with M
in source field
n

DST algorithm can be extended to prune networks over

which multicast frames need not be forwarded.
In the previous example, if there is no host on LAN J
that belongs to group M where frames are sent from a
host on LAN A, then there is no need for bridge B4 to
forward the frames over to LAN J
67

Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

Limitation of Bridges
n

Do not scale
n
n

Spanning tree algorithm does not scale

Broadcast does not scale

Do not accommodate heterogeneity

68

Chapter 3

Spanning Tree Algorithm

Virtual LAN

69