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The Cell Cycle

The document discusses the cell cycle, mitosis, and meiosis. It describes the stages of the cell cycle including interphase and mitosis. Mitosis is defined as cell division that produces two daughter cells with identical genetic material. The stages of mitosis are then outlined. Meiosis is cell division that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes and involves two rounds of division. The stages of meiosis I and meiosis II are summarized. Meiosis generates genetic diversity through chromosome crossover in meiosis I, random alignment of homologs in meiosis I, and random sister chromatid alignment in meiosis II.

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270 views9 pages

The Cell Cycle

The document discusses the cell cycle, mitosis, and meiosis. It describes the stages of the cell cycle including interphase and mitosis. Mitosis is defined as cell division that produces two daughter cells with identical genetic material. The stages of mitosis are then outlined. Meiosis is cell division that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes and involves two rounds of division. The stages of meiosis I and meiosis II are summarized. Meiosis generates genetic diversity through chromosome crossover in meiosis I, random alignment of homologs in meiosis I, and random sister chromatid alignment in meiosis II.

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salahuddin_md5935
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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The cell cycle, mitosis and meiosis

The cell cycle


Actively dividing eukaryote cells pass through a series of stages known
collectively as thecell cycle: two gap phases (G1 and G2); an S (for
synthesis) phase, in which the genetic material is duplicated; and an M
phase, in which mitosis partitions the genetic material and the cell
divides.

G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a certain


point - the restriction point - the cell is committed to division and moves
into the S phase.
S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each
chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids.
G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials
necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis.
M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division
(cytokinesis).

The period between mitotic divisions - that is, G1, S and G2 - is known
as interphase.

Mitosis
Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two daughter
cells with the same genetic component as the parent cell.
Chromosomes replicated during the S phase are divided in such a way
as to ensure that each daughter cell receives a copy of every
chromosome. In actively dividing animal cells, the whole process takes
about one hour.
The replicated chromosomes are attached to a 'mitotic apparatus' that
aligns them and then separates the sister chromatids to produce an
even partitioning of the genetic material. This separation of the genetic
material in a mitotic nuclear division (or karyokinesis) is followed by a
separation of the cell cytoplasm in a cellular division (or cytokinesis) to
produce two daughter cells.
In some single-celled organisms mitosis forms the basis of asexual
reproduction. In diploid multicellular organisms sexual reproduction
involves the fusion of two haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote.
Mitotic divisions of the zygote and daughter cells are then responsible
for the subsequent growth and development of the organism. In the
adult organism, mitosis plays a role in cell replacement, wound healing
and tumour formation.
Mitosis, although a continuous process, is conventionally divided into
five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.

The phases of mitosis

Prophase
Prophase occupies over half of mitosis. The nuclear membrane breaks
down to form a number of small vesicles and the nucleolus
disintegrates. A structure known as the centrosomeduplicates itself to
form two daughter centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the
cell. The centrosomes organise the production of microtubules that
form the spindle fibres that constitute the mitotic spindle. The
chromosomes condense into compact structures. Each replicated
chromosome can now be seen to consist of two
identical chromatids (or sister chromatids) held together by a
structure known as the centromere.

Prometaphase
The chromosomes, led by their centromeres, migrate to the equatorial
plane in the mid-line of the cell - at right-angles to the axis formed by
the centrosomes. This region of the mitotic spindle is known as

the metaphase plate. The spindle fibres bind to a structure associated


with the centromere of each chromosome called a kinetochore.
Individual spindle fibres bind to akinetochore structure on each side of
the centromere. The chromosomes continue to condense.

Metaphase
The chromosomes align themselves along the metaphase plate of the
spindle apparatus.

Anaphase
The shortest stage of mitosis. The centromeres divide, and the sister
chromatids of each chromosome are pulled apart - or 'disjoin' - and
move to the opposite ends of the cell, pulled by spindle fibres attached
to the kinetochore regions. The separated sister chromatids are now
referred to as daughter chromosomes. (It is the alignment and
separation in metaphase and anaphase that is important in ensuring
that each daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome.)

Telophase
The final stage of mitosis, and a reversal of many of the processes
observed during prophase. The nuclear membrane reforms around the
chromosomes grouped at either pole of the cell, the chromosomes
uncoil and become diffuse, and the spindle fibres disappear.

Cytokinesis
The final cellular division to form two new cells. In plants a cell plate
forms along the line of the metaphase plate; in animals there is a
constriction of the cytoplasm. The cell then enters interphase - the
interval between mitotic divisions.

Meiosis
Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that produces haploid sex
cells or gametes (which contain a single copy of each chromosome)
from diploid cells (which contain two copies of each chromosome).
The process takes the form of one DNA replication followed by two
successive nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II). As

in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process of DNA replication that


converts each chromosome into two sister chromatids.

Meiosis I
Meiosis I separates the pairs of homologous chromosomes.

In Meiosis I a special cell division reduces the cell from diploid to


haploid.

Prophase I

The homologous chromosomes pair and exchange DNA to form


recombinant chromosomes. Prophase I is divided into five phases:

Leptotene: chromosomes start to condense.


Zygotene: homologous chromosomes become closely associated
(synapsis) to form pairs of chromosomes (bivalents) consisting of four
chromatids (tetrads).
Pachytene: crossing over between pairs of homologous chromosomes
to form chiasmata (sing. chiasma).
Diplotene: homologous chromosomes start to separate but remain
attached by chiasmata.
Diakinesis: homologous chromosomes continue to separate, and
chiasmata move to the ends of the chromosomes.

Prometaphase I
Spindle apparatus formed, and chromosomes attached to spindle fibres
by kinetochores.

Metaphase I
Homologous pairs of chromosomes (bivalents) arranged as a double
row along the metaphase plate. The arrangement of the paired
chromosomes with respect to the poles of the spindle apparatus is
random along the metaphase plate. (This is a source of genetic
variation through random assortment, as the paternal and maternal
chromosomes in a homologous pair are similar but not identical. The
number of possible arrangements is 2n, where n is the number of
chromosomes in a haploid set. Human beings have 23 different
chromosomes, so the number of possible combinations is 223, which is
over 8 million.)

Anaphase I
The homologous chromosomes in each bivalent are separated and
move to the opposite poles of the cell

Telophase I
The chromosomes become diffuse and the nuclear membrane reforms.

Cytokinesis

The final cellular division to form two new cells, followed by Meiosis II.
Meiosis I is a reduction division: the original diploid cell had two copies
of each chromosome; the newly formed haploid cells have one copy of
each chromosome.

Meiosis II
Meiosis II separates each chromosome into two chromatids.

The events of Meiosis II are analogous to those of a mitotic division,


although the number of chromosomes involved has been halved.

Meiosis generates genetic diversity through:


the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes
during Meiosis I

the random alignment of maternal and paternal chromosomes in


Meiosis I

the random alignment of the sister chromatids at Meiosis II

Meiosis in females

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