SOCIAL AND CULTURAL

HISTORY OF BRITAIN
BA ENGLISH
2011 Admission onwards

III Semester

COMPLEMENTARY COURSE

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
CALICUT UNIVERSITY.P.O., MALAPPURAM, KERALA, INDIA 673 635

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UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

STUDY MATERIAL
BA ENGLISH

III Semester
COMPLEMENTARY COURSE

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL HISTORY OF BRITAIN

Prepared by:
Sri.P.Abdul Gafoor
Assistant Professor
P.G. Dept. Of History
Govt. Arts and Science College
Calicut- 18
Scrutinised by:
Dr.N.PADMANABHAN
Associate Professor
P.G.Department of History
C.A.S.College, Madayi
P.O.Payangadi-RS-670358
Dt.Kannur-Kerala.
Layout & Settings
Computer Section, SDE

Reserved
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CONTENTS
Page No

UNIT I

COLONIALISM AND ITS IMPACT

05-26

UNIT II

IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

27-62

UNIT III ANTECEDENTS

63-87

UNIT IV SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF THE

COMMONWEALTH NATIONS
UNIT V

88-98

BACKGROUND OF LATIN AMERICAN

LITERATURE

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99-116

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UNIT- I
COLONIALISM AND ITS IMPACTS
The word colonialism, according to the Oxford English Dictionary comes from the
Roman Colonia which meant farm or settlement, and referred to Romans who settled in
other lands but still remained their citizenship. Oxford English Dictionary describes
colonialism as a settlement in a new country.. a body of people who settled in a new
locality, forming a community subject to or connected with the parent state.
Colonialism is a practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one
people to another. It is a process whereby the metro pole (mother city) claims sovereignty
over the colony, and the social structure, government, and economics, of the colony are
changed by colonisers from the metropolis. It is the policy or practice of acquiring full or
partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting
economically. Colonialism was a response to the economic needs of industrial capitalist
Europe. They exploited the colony for raw materials, markets for sale of manufactured
goods and field for the investment of surplus capital.
The colonial period was the era from the 1550s to, arguably, the 1990s when several
European powers like, Spain, Portugal, Dutch, Britain and France, established colonies in
Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The concept of colonialism is not a modern phenomenon.
The origin can be traced back to ancient period. The Egyptians Phoenicians, Greeks and
Romans had built colonies of their own. Colonialism is not restricted to a specific time or
space. With the spread of Hellenic and Roman culture and technology by the Roman
Empire, the renaissance and the enlightenment of the fifteen and sixteenth centuries and
the industrial revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, most of the world has
at some point been colonized by a European country. The most notable colonial powers
were Rome, Greece, Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands Belgium and
Denmark, whose combined empires covered at various times the whole of the North,
Central and South America, Africa, Australia, Indonesia, and Indian subcontinent.
By the 16th century colonialism had changed drastically due to the technological
developments in navigation that began to connect more remote parts of the world. After the
Spanish Armada in 1588 Britain emerged as a supreme naval force. Modern colonialism started
with the Age of Geographical Discovery. Colonialism arose out of the need for the strong
European powers to acquire direct political control over another country or territory. With the
industrial revolution in Europe, the economy of most industrialised nations became altered. In
Britain, inequalities in wealth and income distribution had weakened the consumption power
of the working classes and this did not create room for producers to utilise fully their individual
capacity. Lacking in domestic investment outlets, British capitalists turned their attention to the
economically under-exploited regions of the world. Great Britain then established colonies to
hike their surplus capital. The need to expand capital and boost the domestic economy
motivated European nations especially Great Britain, France and Portugal to explore into the
rest of the world where labour and raw materials were cheap.
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Following are the major features of colonialism:

* The complete subordination of the colony to meet the needs of the metropolis.
* Economic exploitation of the colony or the appropriation of the colonys economic
surplus by the metropolis.
The economic surplus in the colony is produced in many different ways, from
traditional agriculture to plantations to modern mining and factory production. The
essence of colonialism is appropriation of this surplus by various classes of the imperialist
country. The basic issue of the colonys economy and social and political development are
not determined by the colonys own needs but by the needs and interests of the
metropolitan economy and of the capitalist class. Thus colonialism is much more than
political control. It is best seen as a structure. Colonial interests and policies, colonial state
and administrative institutions, colonial culture and society, colonial ideas and ideologies,
all functions within the frame work of colonial structure.

Impact of colonialism
The impacts of colonialism are very immense and crucial. The impact can be
identified in various fields, including spread of various diseases, establishment of unequal
social relations, exploitation, enslavement, medical advances, establishment of new
institutions, spread of colonial education and technological advancement.
European nations entered their imperial projects with the goal of enriching the
European metro pole. Exploitation of non-Europeans and other Europeans to support
imperial goals were acceptable to the colonisers. The immediate impact was slavery and
indentured servitude. In the 17th century nearly two-thirds of English settlers came to
North America as indentured servants. African slavery was an exploitable means of
creating an inexpensive labour force for the colonies. Europeans brought large numbers of
African slaves to the Americas by sail. The British, French and Dutch joined in the slave
trade. Ultimately, around 11 million Africans were taken to the Caribbean and North and
South America as slaves by European colonisers. Their frantic demand for manpower to
meet their colonial needs led to cruel exploitation, and a flourishing but illicit slave-trade.
Encounters between the colonisers and populations in the rest of the world often
introduced new diseases, which caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence.
Smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever and others were unknown in pre-colonial
America. The native population of the European colony in the Americas were wiped out
by small pox, measles, and other diseases. The indigenous people had no immunities
because of their complete isolation from the rest of the world.
Colonialism arose out of the need for European nations to have direct political
control over their colonies. It aimed to ensure the protection of the economic interest of
metropolis. European nations desire colonies in order to have access to the raw materials
of the colonies, to have markets, for sale of manufactured goods of the home country and
field for the investment of surplus capital. The weapon used by the Europeans for the
realization of the purpose of colonialism was education. Education had been accepted
worldwide as the gate way to the development of society. European nations used force to
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suppress the traditional educational system. Instead of indigenous education the colonial
regime inaugurated a foreign educational system that is geared towards development of
an internal material base, with the result that technologically and in relation to the
developed world. Europeans rigorously applied their own curricula without considering
the indigenous people. As a bye-product of colonisation, the colonizing nation
implemented its own form of schooling within their colonies so as to suit their purpose.
The colonizing government realized that they gain strength not necessarily through
physical control but through mental control. This mental control is implemented through
the colonial education system. Colonial schools sought to extent foreign domination and
economic exploitation of the colony. Their education policy was an attempt to strip the
colonized people away from their indigenous learning structures and draw them the
structures of colonizers. The system of education was highlighted the glory of white mans
mythical racial superiority and oriental inferiority. The indigenous people were taught
about themselves was designed to enable them to internalise their inferiority and to
recognise the white man as their saviour. Colonial schooling was education for
subordination, exploitation, the creation of mental confusion and development of underdevelopment. The implementation of new education system leaves those who are
colonized with lack of identity and a limited sense of their past. The indigenous history
and customs once practices and observed slowly slipped away. The colonized became
hybrids of two vastly different cultural systems. Colonial education created a blurring that
makes it difficult to differentiate between the new enforced ideas of the colonizers and
formerly accepted native practices. European powers did not establish colonial states to
carry out a programme of political development or changes but to erect efficient and
effective administrative states for purposes of economic exploitation.
Dependency Theorists on Impact of Colonialism
Dependency theory is a body of social science theories developed on the notion
that resources flow from a periphery of poor and underdeveloped states to a core of
wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former (the colonised state). It is a
central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones
enriched by the way of poor states are integrated to the world system.
Dependency theorist Andre Gunder Frank argues that colonialism leads to transfer
of wealth from the colonised to the colonisers and inhibits successful economic
development. Frantz Fanon and E.A. Brett argue that colonialism does political,
psychological and moral damage to the colonised.
In short the effects of colonialism are:
* loss of political power
* blocked the further evolution of national solidarity
* destroyed craftsmanship and destroyed the growth of technology.
* destroyed internal trade
* destroyed indigenous culture
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* introduced new value system by imparting western education.

* transformed traditional agricultural system and introduced cash-crop production.
* destructed the traditional handicrafts.
* colonialism brought poverty and insecurity in the colonies through the introduction
of heavy taxes, paid employment, alienation from the land and environment and
discouragement of food-crop production.

Growth of British Empire

The growth of British Empire was due to the on-going competition for resources
and markets which existed over a period of centuries between England and her rivalsSpain, France and the Dutch. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, England set up
trading companies in Turkey, Russia and the East Indies, explored the coast of North
America, and established colonies there. The major feature of Victorian era was the
growth and expansion of British colonial empire.
Historians have distinguished three periods in the life of the British Empire. The
First Empire lasted up to 1776, was characterised by a colonial dependant empire of the
old type, like the empires of Spain, Portugal, and France. The Second Empire, dating from
the American Declaration of Independence (1776), was largely the creation of the 19th
century, characterised by the growth self-government; and the Third stage is characterised
by the formation of The British Commonwealth of Nations.
The first period was characterised with mercantile system. The mercantile system
was aimed at making a country rich and powerful by regulating its trade and commerce.
By this system each country tried to become self-sufficient by exporting the most possible
quantity of its own goods, and importing as little as possible of the goods of other
countries. During the reign of Charles II the mercantile system developed in a full-fledged
form. Most statesmen and merchants of England believed that the wealth of a nation
could be greatly increased by encouraging and protecting its manufacturers and shipping,
and by developing colonies. Those who held this concept were known as mercantilists.
The trade and commerce of the British Empire continued for a century to be regulated for
the benefit of England on the basis of mercantilist principles. Accumulation of more
wealth from the colonies and developing the trade and commerce of the mother country
were the pivotal concern of mercantilist policy. In the first stage of their colonial
expansion Great Britain followed this policy. But this first stage ended after the loss of 13
American colonies during the reign King George III. After which, began the policy of free
trade or laissez-faire.
After the Napoleonic wars in 1815, Britain found itself in an extraordinary
powerful position. The triumph of this war brought a new phase in the colonial history of
Britain. This stage is considered as the second phase. The period witnessed the
development of science and technology, industrial development and improved transport
and communication. This peculiar condition helped Britain to expand her colonies all over
the world. At this time the empires of Britains traditional rivals had been lost or
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diminished in size. As a result Britains imperial position remained unchallenged. To

make the matters smoother, Britain had become the leading industrial nation of Europe,
and more and more of the world came under the domination of British commercial,
financial, and naval power. During this stage Britain followed a very enlightened colonial
policy. They followed a very intelligent and reconciliation colonial policy, that helped
Britain to rule their colonies without facing much protest from the indigenous people.
Britain was ready to introduce some reforms and bring material developments in their
colonies.
The third stage denotes the end of British colonial regime. Due to the continuous
protests and national struggles Britain was forced to withdraw from their colonies. Now
British government redefined the nature of relations with their colonies. The result was
the formation of the British commonwealth of Nations. The process accelerated after the
First World War. The English-speaking colonies of Canada and Australia had already
acquired dominion status in 1907. In 1931 Britain and the self-governing dominions
namely, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the Irish Free State agreed to
form the Commonwealth of Nations.
From the above mentioned three stages, the second stage has been considered as
the most important and crucial one in the colonial history of Britain. The second stage was
confined in the 19th century. During this period one-third of the world came under the
clutches of British imperialism. The British suzerainty recognised in Canada, West Indies,
Africa, East Asia, Australia New Zealand, India and Fareast.

Justification for Colonialism and Imperialism

Colonial authorities always justified their deeds to convince the world that they
had been involved in the great duty of civilising the non-European people. They had to
justify their exploitation in the colonies. For this purpose they formed many fabricated
concepts concerned with the colonised state and people. George Bernard Shaw aptly
remarks thus: an English man never commit mistakes. What he has been doing is based
on some principles. In the name of nationalism he fights against you, in the name of trade
he exploits you, in the name of imperialism he makes you slave.
Imperial and colonial powers from ancient to modern times have often regarded
their rule over others as an aspect of their own destiny. The destiny is that to civilise,
educate and bring law and order in the world. The Spanish conquest of the Americas in
the 15th and 16th centuries sparked a theological, political and ethical debate about the use
of military force to acquire control over foreign lands. The debate took place within the
framework of a religious discourse that justified and legitimised military conquests as a
way to facilitate conversion and salvation of the indigenous peoples. The Spanish
conquerors and colonists openly justified their activities in the American colony in terms
of a religious mission to bring Christianity to the native peoples. The legitimacy of
colonialism and imperialism was a topic of debate among the French, German, and the
British philosophers in the 18th and 19th centuries. Enlightenment thinkers such as
Immanuel Kant, Smith and Diderot were severely criticised the barbarity of colonialism
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and challenged the idea that Europeans had the obligation to civilise the rest of the
world. The right to trade and commerce was used as a justification for colonisation by
Spanish thinkers in the 16th and 17th century. The imperialist thinkers used the theory of
historical development to justify their activities in the colonies. According to this theory,
all societies naturally moved from hunting, to herding, to farming, to commerce. It is a
developmental process that simultaneously tracked a cultural arc from savagery
through barbarism, to civilisation. The idea that civilisation is the culmination of a
process of historical development, proved useful in justifying colonialism and
imperialism. According to John Stuart Mill, savages do not have the capacity for selfgovernment. He further argued that, only commercial society produces the material and
cultural conditions that enable individual to realise their potential for freedom and selfgovernment. According to this concept, civilised societies like Great Britain are acting in
the interest of less-developed peoples by governing them. Colonialism, from this
perspective, is not primarily a form of political domination and economic exploitation. But
colonialism is a paternalistic practice of government that impart civilisation and
modernisation in order to foster the improvement of native peoples.
Another theory concerned with the justification for colonialism put forth by the
utilitarian scholars of early 19th century was known as oriental despotism. This visualised a
system of government consisting of a despotic ruler with absolute power, said to be
characteristic of Asian societies. Such societies featured the existence of isolated, selfsufficient village communities whose surplus produce was squeezed by the despotic ruler
and his court, governing through an autocratic bureaucracy. The Asian rulers depicted as
very cruel and barbarous. Their rule was without considering the welfare of the people; it
was according to only their whims and fancies. The Utilitarians further argued, the
oriental peoples suffered a lot due the autocratic rule, and they were waiting for a saviour
to break loose from the onslaughts of the despots, naturally the coming of a new power
was need of the hour to save the people from harsh rule. The situation was aptly utilised
by the Europeans, with their advanced civilisation and experience in modern
administrative apparatus they could provide peace and order in the conquered land. Thus
the colonial powers justified their exploitation in the disguise of providing peace and
order to the indigenous people.
The British Empire began as an extension of their trading interest, the need for raw
materials, as well as for markets. India, considered being the jewel in the crown of their
imperial project. It was initially colonised by a commercial enterprise, the British East
India Company which set up trading stations and factories in some parts of the country.
Later, these expanded in to whole provinces of India as conquests, treaties with Indian
princes and other means of expansion added territory until the whole sub-continent was
came to be under British control. A similar process is took place in Africa.
A moral argument was used to justify the continuation and expansion of
colonialism. This was famously expressed by Rudyard Kipling in his 1899 poem, The
White Mans Burden. The poem says: it was a moral responsibility to rule over people
who were half-devil and half child who therefore needed the discipline, oversight and
governance that only a superior race could provide. Britain believed that, they had the
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destiny to create a Pax Britannica (to provide peace and prosperity to all the citizens) as the
Romans had a Pax Romana. The British, they said, were by nature a ruling race, and were
destined to rule others. The so called moral justification of colonialism was predicated on
racist assumptions. The assumption is that some people were better and others were
genetically incapable of self-governance. They developed the argument that if the colonial
power departed, ancient animosities and tribal rivalry would create a blood-shed; thus
only colonial rule could keep the peace.
Great Britain often represented imperialism to itself in a highly idealised fashion.
When British took over a territory, they justified it by saying that they brought civilisation
to the Barbarian, enlightenment to the heathen, prosperity to the impoverished, law and
order to the brutish uncultured fellows. Imperialist expansion found further justification
in Britains self-appointed mission of spreading civilisation, commerce, and Christianity
across the globe.

Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936)

Joseph Rudyard Kipling was an English poet, shot-story writer, and novelist. He
was born in the year December 1865, in Bombay. He was chiefly remembered for his
advocacy of British-imperialism, tales and poems of British soldiers in India, and his tales
for children. He was born in Bombay, in the Bombay presidency of British India, and was
taken by his family to England when he was five years old. Kipling is best known for his
works of fiction, including the jungle Book, just So Stories and Kim. His short story The
Man Who Would Be King and his poem The White Mans Burden hiked his fame.
Kipling was one of the most popular writers in England, in both prose and verse. In
1907 he was awarded the Nobel Prise in Literature. Kiplings subsequent reputation has
changed according to the political and social climate of the age. He became the advocate
of colonialism and imperialism. He spent his energy for the long life of colonialism and
propagated the concept of white mans superiority and civilising mission through his
writings. Famous English writer George Orwell called him a prophet of imperialism.
His poem The White mans burden was published in the year 1899. It was originally
published in the popular magazine McClures in 1899, with the subtitle The United States
and the Philippine Islands. The imperialists found Kiplings white mans burden as a
characterisation for imperialism that justified the policy as a noble enterprise.

White Mans Burden and Civilising Mission

White Mans Burden and civilising mission are two interrelated concepts
constructed by Westerners to establish their dominance over the East. It proclaimed the
superiority of the white man and the West. The propagators of this idea believed that the
white man had a duty to uplift his less fortunate brothers. Inspired this ideology many
missionaries, soldiers and administrators tried to bring the light of western civilisation in
to the strange and unknown lands. This ideology later theorised by famous English poet
Rudyard Kipling in his poem The white Mans Burden. Kipling is referred to as the
prophet of imperialism. He exhorted his people to shoulder what he called the white
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mans burden- superior races have the duty of civilising the inferior races. These
concepts visualised the basis of imperialist ideology and created the notion that
imperialist expansion was very noble one. The concept white mans burden highlighted
that the white people have an obligation to rule over others, and encourage the cultural
development of people from other ethnic and cultural backgrounds until they can take
their place in the world economically and socially. Kiplings poem was written to inspire
brother imperialists across the Atlantic, identifies the civilising mission as one to be
undertaken by all right-minded people of European descent. They believed that the
British were especially suited for the governing of an Empire by virtue of their national,
racial, and cultural superiority.

Orientalism
Orientalism represents the body of knowledge created by the westerners about the
oriental societies in the period of colonialism. It is the European studies of the orient
(eastern countries) and an essential tool of colonialism. Orientalism represents the other.
Imperialists realised that the best way to dominate the East was to understand it by its
own languages and writings. As a body of knowledge it was created to mould the
imperial interests. The most readily accepted definition of Orientalism is an academic one.
Anyone who teaches, writes about, or researches the orient and this applies whether the
person is an anthropologist, sociologist, historian, or philologist- either in its specific or its
general aspects, is an Orientalist, and what he or she says or does is Orientalism. The
various phase of Orientalism tended to mould European understanding of the past of the
people of orient into a particular pattern. Major British scholars associated with Orientalist
studies in India were William Jones, Henry Colebrook, Nathaniel Halhead, Charles
Wilkins and H.H. Wilson. Their research and seminal papers were published as
monographs, with many more in Asiatic Researches, a periodical of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal established in 1784. There was much discussion at the meetings of Asiatic Society
in Calcutta, focussing largely on the religion and custom of Indian people.
From 18th through 19th century, the orientalists imaginatively divided the world in
to two rival camps- West and East. West imagined as superior to the East. They depicted
west as rational, democratic, free, progressive, dynamic, hardworking, honest, masculine,
and mature. East characterised having just opposite and branded as permanently
inferior.Orientalism thus acted as the cultural and ideological weapon with strong racial
foundation to establish western hegemony over the east and justify the colonial rule.

Critique of Orientalism
It was in post-colonial era that serious attempts began to critically examine the
orientalist construction of the east. Between 1950s and 1970s many scholars from different
parts of Asia came forward in such a critical venture. Scholars like Edward W Said, Talal
Asad, Abdulla Lahouri, Aijaz Ahamed, Romila Thapar, and K.N. Panikkar provided a
high pitch of critique against orientalist construction of the east. Here Edward Said
receives special attention. He was a Palestinian-American intellectual. He published his
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master work namely Orientalism, in the year 1978. The book severely criticised the
orientalist formulations and their exploitation of the east in the disguise of civilising
mission. Edward Said redefined orientalism thus: orientalism is a western style for
dominating, restructuring and having authority over the orient. According to Said, the West
has created a dichotomy between the reality of the East and romantic notion of the
orient. The Middle East and Asia are viewed with prejudice and racism. They are
backward and unaware of their own history and culture. To fill this void, the West has
created a culture, history, and future promise for them. On this frame work rests not only
the study of the Orient, but also the political imperialism of Europe in the East.

The Union Jack

The Union Jack is the flag of United Kingdom. It is a trans-national flag full of
historical significance. It represents the union of different countries and the growth of a
family of nations whose influence extends far beyond the British Isles. This far reaching
influence is still seen today in the incorporation of Union Jack in other national flags such
as that of Australia. The Union Jack is a fine expression of unity as well as diversity. The
British flag incorporates the national symbols of three distinct countries, England Scotland
and Northern Ireland. The name Union Jack emphasises the very nature of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland as a union of nations. Recognition of, and
respect for national identities are an essential ingredients for effective union. The Union
Jack symbolises all this - respect for individuality within a closely knit community. The
Union Jack or Union Flag is a composite design made up of three different national
symbols. The cross represented in each flag is named after the patron saint of each
country: St. George, patron saint of England, St. Andrew, patron saint of Scotland and St.
Patrick, patron saint of Ireland.
The first step taken in the creation of the flag of Great Britain was on 12th April
1606. It occurred when King James VI of Scotland became the king of England as King
James I. He decided that that the union of two realms under one king should be
represented symbolically by a new flag. Some argues that the jack part of the name may
also have come from the name of King James I. The term Union Flag is used in King
Charless proclamation of 1634, and King George IIIs proclamation of 1801 concerning the
arms and flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The name Union
Jack became official when it was approved in British Parliament in 1908. It was stated
that the Union Jack should be regarded as the National flag.
VICTORIAN ERA (1837-1901)

Queen Victoria
The Victorian era of British history was the period of Queen Victorias reign from
20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a long period of peace, prosperity,
refined sensibilities and national self-confidence for Britain. Queen Victoria was a popular
monarch who could win the affection and confidence of her subjects. Able administrators
and parliamentarians helped her to achieve great reputation. Two important figures in
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this period were the Prime ministers William Evart Gladstone, and Benjamin Disraeli,
represented Whig and Tory party respectively. In 1840 she married her German Cousin,
Albert of Saxe-Coburg. Victorias marriage to the earnest young German Prince, helped to
establish the modern role of the British monarchy. Victoria and Albert quickly grasped the
significance of the monarchys new functions. It was Albert whose growing domination
over his wife forced Victoria to take an interest in matters, such as science and literature
and even industrial progress. Albert was also interested in the welfare of British people
and a good companion of Queen. He devoted his life to the service of the English. He
proved to be much better counsellor for the queen than any politician. In 1861 Prince
Albert died. It was a heavy blow to the queen. For a long time she refused to live a public
life. The queen died in 1901. Victorias reign lasted for 63 years and 216 days, the longest
in British history up to the present day.
During her long tenure Great Britain witnessed stability, progress, prosperity,
reform and imperialism. Great economic growth and further development of science and
technology occurred in this period. Despite the continued existence of widespread
poverty, miserable slums and poor working conditions in many industries, the British
could take some real pride in the obvious fact that the vast majority of British subjects
were better fed, better house and enjoyed more of lifes amenities than ever before.

Major features of Victorian Era

Population Growth
The first and striking change was the increase in population. It was then regarded
as a source of pride in itself. Between the census of 1831 and that of 1891 the population of
Great Britain doubled (from 16 million in 1831 to 33 million in 1891). It shows the
unprecedented demographic increase. Two major factors affecting population growth are
fertility rates and mortality rates. Fertility rates in the Victorian era increased every decade
until 1901.With living standards improving, the percentage of women who were able to
have children increased. The mortality rate of England changed greatly throughout the
Victorian era. Environmental and health standards rose throughout the Victorian era.
Improvements in nutrition played a major role in it. Due to the necessary sewage woks
the quality of drinking water improved. With a healthier environment, diseases were
caught less easily and did not spread as much. Technology was also improving because
the population had more money to spend on medical technology. People had more money
and could improve their standards; therefore a population increase was sustainable.
Science and Technology
An important development during the Victorian era was the development of
science and technology. Due to this, the life style of English people drastically changed.
Transport and communication developed due to various inventions during the period.
Canals, steam ships, and most notably the railways rapidly developed trade and industry.
George Stephensons locomotive inaugurated Railway Age in England. One important
innovation in communications was the Penny Black by Rowland Hill, the first postage
stamp, which standardised postage to a low price regardless of distance.
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The Victorian era ushered in a tremendous surge of technological invention.

Victorians believed in progress and viewed with optimism their industrial revolution. The
Victorians were impressed by science and progress. They felt that they could improve
society in the same way as they were improving technology. During the Victorian era
science grew in to the discipline what it is today. Many Victorian scholars devoted their
time to the study of natural science. This study of natural science was most powerfully
advanced by Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution, first published in his book On
the Origin of Species in 1859.There had been many useful inventions which brightened the
lives of Victorians. Gas lighting became widespread during the Victorian era in industry,
homes, public buildings and streets. The invention of the incandescent gas mantle in the
1890s greatly improved light output and survived up to 1960s.The lives of Victorians were
brightened by the inventions of camera, gas, bicycle, typewriter, etc. Victorians were
introduced to the bicycle, a symbol of freedom that both men and women enjoyed. Other
inventions of the era include Isaac Singers sewing machine; john Hyatts celluloid, a
substance that was used in Victorian shirt collars.
Health and Medicine
Among the greatest benefits conferred by science on humanity was that resulting
from the labours of doctors and Chemists. Dr.James Simpson of Edinburgh discovered the
effects of administering chloroform. He proved that operations could be painlessly
performed with the aid of this drug. From this onwards an immense burden of human
suffering was lifted. Chloroform gained popularity in England and Germany after Dr.
John Snow gave Queen Victoria, chloroform for the birth of her eighth chid. Another
momentous discovery was made by French chemist, Louis Pasteur. His experiment
eventually led to the adoption of inoculation (vaccination). A great English surgeon,
Joseph Lister advocated the need of keeping wounds free from germs by the use of
antiseptics. He introduced antiseptics in 1867 in the form of Carbolic Acid (phenol). He
instructed the hospital staff to wear gloves and wash their hands, instruments, and
dressings with a phenol solution. In 1869, he invented a machine that would spray
carbolic acid in the operation theatre during surgery. In 1897 Sir Ronald Ross discovered
that malaria was to be traced to the bite of mosquito, whose haunts could henceforth be
destroyed.
Literature
Victorian Age was also an age of great literary revival. Many of the great Victorian
writers were concerned with criticising the time in which they lived. In particularly many of
them felt deeply about the social problems of the day. In poetry Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892)
was the most popular writer. He was the son of a clergyman and left Cambridge University
without completing his degree. He was a poet laureate of the United Kingdom during the much
of Queen Victorias reign and remains one of the most popular poets in the English language.
Tennyson used a wide range of subject matter, ranging from medieval legends to classical
myths and from domestic Romantic poets. Although he wrote many beautiful poems in his
early years, it was his longer poems, namely; The princess, In Memoriam, Maud and The Idylls
of the King, that Tennyson earned his name as a distinguished man of letters.
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His Locksley Hall is full of the restless spirit of young England and of its faith in
science, commerce and the progress of mankind. Locksley Hall Sixty Years After depicts
the strong disgust which had occurred in the minds of English people when the rapid
growth of science and technology seemed to threaten the very foundations of religion and
was filling the world with materialistic greed.
In The Princess, Tennyson deals with one of the rising questions of the day
concerned with higher education of women and their place in the fast changing situation
of modern society. Maud is full of patriotic passion of the time of the Crimean War and
with the general ferment which followed this war.
Mathew Arnold (1822-1888) was a distinguished poet and prose critic. He was the
son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. Some of his famous works are Sohrab and Rustum, Dover
Beach, The scholar Gypsy, Balder Dead, and Thyrsis. He has written more elegies and
they express his inherent pessimism and sense of loneliness. Rugby Chapel is a personal
elegy in which the poet mourns the death of his father. The loss of faith and old values
and the absence of new ones acceptable were deeply felt by Arnold. He found himself and
his countrymen standing between two worlds, One dead and other powerless to be born
In his Culture and Anarchy, Arnold severely criticised the upper and middle
classes of England, calling them Barbarians and Philistines. Mathew Arnold, in his
writings tried to save England through education, through Culture, from the Anarchy
which he feared would result from materialism.
Novels were not so numerous during most of the Victorian period. In 1870 the
largest group of books was that on religious subjects; novels came fifth on the list. But by
1887 the novel headed the list. The novels of Charles Dickens cover the early Victorian
period. His novels were passionate pleas for sympathy with the unfortunate men and
women who inhabited the underworld of London which he knew so well. (For more
details on Dickens see Unit II)
Other Victorian novelists were Thackeray, George Elliot, George Meredith, and
Bronte Sisters. George Elliots books Scene of Clerical Life and The Mill on the Floss
portray rural and clerical society. Anthony Trollope also described the life of provincial
England. As important from the historical point of view two remarkable names can be
identified Mrs. Gaskell and Benjamin Disraeli (later British Prime Minister)
Mrs. Gaskell whose, North and South (1855) stressed the contrast between
industrial and rural England. Disraeli wrote the novel Sybil. He depicts the division of
England as two nations- rich and poor. In this novel he contrasts the pomp and luxury of
Mowbray Castle with the utter wretchedness of the weaver and his starving family,
ground under the heel of the mill owners, to whom the author give the critical names
Shuffle and Screw.

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VICTORIAN SOCIETY
The Rise of the Victorian Middle Class
The Victorian middle-class is largely associated with the growth of cities and the
expansion of the economy. The term middle-class was used from around the mideighteenth century to describe those people below the aristocracy but above the working
class. The Victorian era witnessed the increased numbers of small entrepreneurs; shop
keepers and merchants who undertook to transport and retail fruits of industry and
empire. The development of industry and overseas trade in the Victorian period caused
the proliferation of commerce and finances such as banks, insurance companies shipping
and railways. This system needed administrating by clerks, managers and salaried
professionals. The Victorian period witnessed the massive expansion of local government
and centralised state. This peculiar situation provided occupations for vast strata of civil
servants, teachers, doctors, lawyers and government officials as well as the clerks and
assistants which helped these institutions and services to operate. The success of the
middle-class in the Victorian period can be seen in their ability to universalise a set of
principles based on individuality and progress. Most middle-class Victorians believed that
the environment had an influence on mens behaviour. In fact, the rise of the middleclasses in the Victorian period has as much to do with this recognition as the promotion of
political economy. Improvement was a key part of middle-class culture. Thrift,
responsibility and self-reliance were important aspect of Victorian middle-class culture.
These ideas asserted the triumph of middle class and proved success was contingent on
individual perseverance and energy.

Middle Class Values

The Victorian era was a time when the middle class grew rapidly in influence. The
middle class valued, progress, laissez-faire politics, sportsmanship, business competition,
religious piety, hope, honesty, decency, charity, materialism, class consciousness, and selfrespect. The middle class came into dominate life because of the new enthusiasm it
generated among the growing population. The middle class was stratified based on
earnings.
The new middle class was often overtly materialistic and enjoyed showing off its
wealth through houses filled with such things as expensive furniture, wall coverings and
paintings. Thus, reflecting a behaviour known as conspicuous consumption. The idea of
self-made man became dominant in the Victorian middle class- the idea is that if they
work hard enough, all men can become wealthy.

Upper Class Values

The Victorian era began with the elite in total control over society and its politics.
The upper class was made up of 300 families which were firmly established as the
traditional ruling class. However, the development of new types of values, such as
individualism, introduced changes throughout the Victorian era.
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The upper class valued history, heritage, lineage and the continuity of their family
line. The elite believed that they were born to rule through divine right and they wanted
this right to continue. They had paternalistic view of society, seeing themselves as the
father in the family of society. Noblesse Oblige was their belief that it was the elites duty
to take care of society. The upper class hoped to continue tradition and the status quo;
through institutions such as the law of primogeniture (first born son inherits everything).
The elite intended to stay on top and wealthy. However, when a financial crisis threatened
their position, they adapted and opened up their ranks to the wealthiest of the middle
class. The elite were landed gentry and so they did not have to work. Instead they enjoyed
a life of luxury and leisure. While, the elite maintained their traditional values, Victorian
values and attitudes changed and elite began to recognize and promote the middle class.

Victorian Morality
Victorian morality is described as the moral view of people living at the time of
Queen Victorias reign and of the moral climate of Great Britain throughout the 19 th
century in general. Victorian morality can describe any set of values that highlight sexual
restriction, low tolerance of crime and strict social code of conduct. Due to the prominence
of the British Empire, many of these values were spread across the world. Victorian values
were developed in all facets of Victorian living. The morality and values of the Victorians
can be classed under Religion, Elitism, Industrialism and Improvement. The values take
root in Victorian morality created an overall change in the British Empire.
Several scholars have severely criticised the strict implementation Victorian
morality. Marxists have analysed it as a function of capitalism and class domination.
Feminists have indicated Victorian morality as an instrument of sexual politics: a way in
which men kept their wives in servitude. The Victorians felt so uncomfortable about
human sexuality. A lady or gentleman of the Victorian era simply could not discuss the
topic in polite company.
It was also a period of social restrictions and taboos. Women had only inferior
position in the society. It was thought indecorous for a lady to ride a bicycle. The
subordinate position of women in Victorian society is clearly expressed by Lord Alfred
Tennyson in his poem The Princess. The poem suggests that a womans role is to good
house wife and enjoy the blessed life of home. He aptly remarks the general trend by
saying Nature had ordained:Man for the field and woman for the hearth
Man for the sword and for the needle she
Man to command and woman to obey!

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Discourse on Religion in the Victorian Era: Charles Darwin and

The Theory of Evolution
During the earlier time of Queen Victoria, people were highly religious and gave more
importance to spiritual life. They were very strict in the religious matters. The great Victorians
like William Gladstone, Thomas Carlyle, John Bright, Alfred Tennyson, and Henry Newman
were all remarkable for their serious religious outlook. The Victorians took their work, their
politics, and their religion seriously. They put their faith in Progress and in the Evangelical
religion. The period was in its essence, a reaction from the irreligious, easy-going eighteenth
century. Most Victorians went to church every day. In the house hold there were daily prayers.
On Sunday, the Sabbath Day, all entertainments and games were prohibited.
When Queen Victoria took the throne the Anglican Church was very powerful. The
church conducted schools and universities, and with high ranking church men held offices in
the House of Lords. The Churchs power continued to rule in rural areas throughout the
Victorian era, but the situation was not same in the case of industrial cities. Many voices came
forward against the intervention of state in the religious affairs of the people. Some believers
were highly reluctant to obey the new rules imposed by the state on religious affairs. Naturally
there emerged many movements in England against the State control, and also started revival
of the religion based on the Gospels. The Anglican Church demanded obedience to God, and
submissiveness with the goal of making people more allegiance to the will of the Church. The
church stood with the whims of elites, it cared little about the needs and wants of lower,
peasant class. The result was the emergence of Methodism, Congregationalism, The Society of
Friends (Quakers), Presbyterianism and Anglo Catholic Movement (Oxford Movement). The
Methodists and Presbyterians in particular stressed personal salvation through direct
individual faith in Jesus Christs sacrificial and resurrection on the behalf of the sinners, as
taught in the New Testament Gospels and the writings of the Apostles Peter, James and Paul.
There were three major aspects in Victorian religion- the Anglo-Catholic movement, the
Christian Socialist experiment and the controversy over the theory of Evolution.
Anglo-Catholicism (Oxford Movement) started as a protest against the narrowness of
Evangelicalism. (For details see below, Oxford Movement).
Christian Socialism stressed the practical rather than the dogmatic side of Christianity. Its
leaders were Charles Kingsley, F.D. Maurice, and Thomas Hughes. Kingsley and Maurice
started clubs for working men and boy in London. Kingsley was the author of the books
namely Westward Ho! and The Water Babies. These books criticised the evils of industrialism. He
believed that only practical Christianity could save the people from the evils and materialism
created by the industrial revolution.
The strongholds of faith in Christianity were rudely shaken by the conflict in the middle
of the 19th century. A lasting struggle between the Church and the leaders of the science began
to start. A Crisis of Faith occurred in the minds of Victorians. Hitherto, science had not come
into conflict with religion. It appeared that scientific thought was leading people to doubt
the literal truth of the Bible. The controversy arose over the problem of Evolution. The Crisis of
Faith was brought about in 1859 with Charles Darwins book Origin of Species. His theory
of evolution based on empirical evidence questioned Christian beliefs and Victorian values.
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Darwin and Theory of Evolution

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) was an English naturalist. He established that all
species of life have descended over time from common ancestors. He proposed the scientific
theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural
selection. His early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University
of Edinburgh. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural
science. His five -year voyage, on HMS Beagle established him as an eminent geologist.
Publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author. Darwin
published his theory with ample evidence for evolution in his book namely Origin of Species,
in 1859.
Charles Darwin was the first to formulate scientific argument for the theory of evolution
by means of natural selection. Evolution by natural selection is a process that is inferred from
three facts about populations: 1) more offspring are produced than can possibly survive 2) traits
vary among individuals, leading to differential rates of survival and reproduction 3) trait
differences are heritable. Thus, when members of a population die they replaced by the
progeny of parents that were better adapted to survive and reproduce in the environment in
which natural selection took places. This process creates and preserves traits that are seemingly
fitted for the functional roles they perform. He proposed that small changes over billions of
years created the species we have today. Darwin argued that it was a survival of the fittest.
Species that could adapt to their changing environment most effectively survive, while the
weaker genetic lines of species died off.
Impact of Darwins theory
The impact of the Origin of Species on the public mind was profound. The religious
leaders found that the Darwinian Theory was at variance with the literal terms of the story of
the Creation as given in the Book of Genesis. Darwins theory of evolution questioned the
Biblical story of Creation. The main critics of Darwins theory of evolution were the supporters
of Creationism. These supporters argue that a divine entity played role in human development,
and not science. The churches attacked Darwin and his theory. Two groups emerged out of this
chaotic situation, one supported the argument of Church and the other stood for the triumph of
science over religion. There had been heating debates and arguments in England and other
European countries over the issue. Men like Huxley went far in defending the scientific
position. Darwin himself published his controversial work namely Descent of Man in 1871. The
motive was to defend his earlier arguments, but it again hikes the issue. The book suggested
that men and the apes were both descended from some parent stock. The most controversial
aspect of evolutionary biology was the implication of human evolution that human beings
share common ancestry with apes and that the moral faculties of humanity have the same types
of natural causes as other inherited traits in animals. These formulations caused more ridicule
and ill feeling among the English people.
Church men of both England and other European countries took up the challenges
thrown down by the new science and tried to rejuvenate Christian faith. Oxford
movement severely opposed the arguments put forth by Darwin and his supporters, and
stood strongly to defend any challenges that may arise from science on religion.
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Social and political organisation was also deeply influenced by Darwins ideology.
The biblical story of Creation was questioned by the theory of evolution. Due to the
material progress provided in the Victorian era, the English people began to think in a
new way. Their spirituality began to fade; they had been eagerly waiting for receiving
new ideas. The result was the growth of scepticism and materialism among the
intellectuals of the period. This clearly depicted in the writings of Mathew Arnold, Alfred
Tennyson, Lecky and Huxley. The conflict destroyed much of the certainty and stability of
Victorian religion. The doubts of Victorian thinkers are best seen in Alfred Tennyson.
Instead of writing lyrical poetry, Tennyson, in later life turned philosopher, and tried to
interpret the Victorian mind to itself. His doubts and difficulties were best expressed in
the pathetic stanzas of In Memoriam, written in sorrow at the death of his friend, Arthur
Hallam. The opening stanza of the poem begins thus: Strong son of God,
Immortal Love
In short, the impact of Darwins theory of evolution was very profound. It affected
all facets of the life of English people. The very foundation of Christianity was questioned
by the men of science. A long lasting conflict started between the church and science over
the issue of evolution of human beings.

The Oxford Movement

The Anglo Catholic or Oxford movement was started in the 1830s by some clergy
men, chiefly Oxford veterans. The major protagonists of this movement were E.B.Pusey,
John Henry Newman, and John Keble. The Anglo Catholics were also known as Oxford
Reformers, Ritualists and Tractarians. The main motive behind the Oxford movement was
to curtail the interference of State in the affairs of the church. The British parliament
passed a Bill in 1833 and it had a wide impact on English religious life. The Bill abolished
two archbishoprics and eight bishoprics in Ireland. Many religious leaders came forward
against this Bill and severely criticised the intervention of State in the religious matters.
John Keble responded with a sermon in the university church in Oxford. He called the
introduction of the Bill by the British government as National Apostasy. He received
support from three other oxford men namely, John Henry New man, Harrell Froude and
William Palmer. In September 1833 these leaders began to publish Tracts (Tract is known as
a short piece of writing on religious, moral subjects intended to influence peoples ideas) which
were referred to known as The Oxford Tracts. Thus gave rise to the name Oxford
movement.
The chief concern of the Oxford movement was to hike the glory and dignity of the
church. Newman and Keble wrote a series of Tracts for the times with the object of
arousing the clergy of the Church of England in defence of their order. In 1841 Newman
published his famous Tract 90 attempting to support Roman Catholic doctrine. The
clergy according to Newman, would only regain and deserve the respect of the Catholic
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Church and, if they returned, in spirit and in practice, to catholic doctrines and rituals.
The Tractarians also disliked the connection between the Church of England and the state.
They feared that the State would use its power to weaken the church. To justify their
argument they mentioned the Parliament Bill of 1833 that curtailed and suppressed the
bishoprics.
The activities of Oxford movement displeased Queen Victoria. The queen
persuaded Benjamin Disraeli, the then British Prime Minister, to support a Bill namely
Public Worship Regulation Bill (1874), introduced by the Archbishop of Canterbury. This
Bill was designed to limit the activities of Oxford movement, especially Ritualism. But it
was not widely affected; the leaders could resist the pressure imposed by the authorities.
Henry Newman took a strong decision that to leave the Church of England. He left
the Church of England in 1845, and joined the Church of Rome. Father Newman was later
honoured by the church he joined, and was made a cardinal. His wonderful person
charm, his excellent character, and his saintly life, mark him as one of the greatest of
Victorians and veteran leader of Oxford movement. He was also an admirable writer. His
Apologia Pro Vita Sua (1864), in which he explained the reason for his conversion to Roman
Catholicism. He died in 1890.
In short over a century and half after its high point, the Oxford movement
continues to stand out as a powerful example of religion in action. Led by four young
Oxford veterans- John Henry Newman, John Keble, Richard Harrell Froude, and Edward
Pusey- this renewal movement within the Church of England was a central event in the
political, religious, and social life of the early Victorian era.

Development of Liberalism and Utilitarianism

The concept of Liberalism developed in England during the 17th and 18thcenturies.
British philosophers, political thinkers, and economists had a vital influence of
government policies. Many English scholars had played a remarkable role to develop the
concept of liberalism. John Locke, Adam Smith, David Ricardo, and John Stuart Mill were
the earlier proponents of liberal thought. They were responsible for developing the main
components of liberalism. The liberalists were against the state intervention in social and
economic affairs. They argued state should ensure the protection of personal freedom as
well as the respecting of property rights.
The development of liberalism in England as a political programme goes back to
the period between Glorious Revolution (1688) and the Reform Act of 1867. The new
vigour created by Renaissance and Reformation also played a role in the development of
liberalism. These movements gave importance to individuals and hiked the dignity of
man. The development of middle class in England also strengthened the liberal thoughts.
They became an important vehicle of the liberal doctrine. The liberalists in England
strongly demanded religious freedom, constitutional guarantees and individual rights.
The liberalists also stood for rule of law, right of opposition, and separation of powers.

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The best exposition of Liberalism is found in John Locke .He has been considered
as the most influential philosopher of his age and the founder of Liberalism. He was a
revolutionary and his cause ultimately triumphed in Glorious Revolution of 1688. His
works are mainly confined in opposition to authoritarianism. He gave more importance
to reason in the day to day life and wanted people to use reason to search truth rather
than simply accept the opinion of a higher authority. Lockes Two Treatises of
Government gives some idea about his views on Liberalism. He was a strong supporter of
constitutional government. He put forth the theory that government is to be founded on
the consent t of the people.
Liberalism stood for restricting the state intervention to the minimum. Liberalism
favoured policies which led to the promotion of liberties of individuals and groups. In the
1870s Liberalism in Great Britain had a noticeable effect upon social and economic policies
carried out by British governments. During the 1870s British government passed
legislation to introduce compulsory primary school education, reduce working hours
within industries and various factory reforms. These were introduced due to the pressure
imposed by the Liberals upon the government.
Utilitarianism is generally viewed that morally right action is the action that
produce the most good. Utilitarians believed that an action is right if it tends to promote
happiness, and wrong if it tends to produce the reverse of happiness. Utilitarians brought
the slogan greatest amount of happiness to the greatest number of people. Jeremy
Bentham was the major propagator of the utilitarian philosophy. He identified the good
with pleasure. He also held that we ought to maximise the good, that is, bring about
greatest amount of good for the greatest number.
Though the first systematic account of utilitarianism was developed by Jeremy
Bentham, the core insight motivating the theory occurred much earlier. The insight is that
morally appropriate behaviours will not harm others, but instead increase happiness or
utility. The early pioneers of the classical utilitarians include the British moralists
Richard Cumberland, Shaftesbury, Francis Hutcheson, David Hume and John Gay. Some
historians have identified Richard Cumberland, a 17th century moral philosopher, as the
first to have a utilitarian philosophy. David Hume, famous philosopher and historian
attempted to analyse the origin of the virtues in terms of their contribution to utility. John
Gay, a biblical scholar and philosopher, held the view that the will of God to be the
criterion of virtue; but from Gods goodness he inferred that God willed that men promote
human happiness.

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

Jeremy Bentham was an English utilitarian philosopher and social reformer.
Benthams formulations on Utilitarian philosophy can be seen in his Introduction to the
Principles of Morals and Legislation, published in 1789. Benthams campaign for social and
political reforms in all fields, most notably the criminal law, had its theoretical basis in his
Utilitarianism. He formulated the principles of utility, which approves an action is so far
an action has an overall tendency to promote the greatest amount of happiness.
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Happiness is identified with pleasure and the absence of pain. For Bentham, the greatest
happiness of the greatest number would play a role primarily in the art of legislation, in
which the legislator would seek to maximise the happiness of entire community by
creating an identity of interest between each individual and his fellows. With Bentham,
utilitarianism became the ideological foundation of a reform movement, later known as
philosophical radicalism. It tests all intuitions and policies by the principle of utility.
Bentham believed that enlightened and public-spirited statesmen would overcome
conservative stupidity and institute progressive reforms to promote public happiness. He
developed greater sympathy for democratic reform and an extension of the franchise. He
believed that with the gradual improvement in the level of education in society, people
would more likely to decide and vote on the basis of rational calculation of what would
for their own long-term benefit. Bentham had best knowledge of the legal profession and
criticised it vehemently. Bentham attracted as his disciples a number of younger scholars
of early 19th century. They include David Ricardo, James Mill and John Austin.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

John Stuart Mill was a follower of Bentham. Through most of his life, Mill greatly
admired Benthams work even though he disagreed with some of Benthams claimsparticularly on the nature of happiness. Mill sought to use utilitarian to inform law and
social policy. The aim of increasing happiness underlies his arguments for womens
suffrage and free speech. Mill attacked social traditions that were justified by appeals to
natural order; the correct appeal is to utility itself. He strongly argued for the
parliamentary reform in England in the early 19th century. He was a spokesman for
womens suffrage, state supported education for all, and other proposals that were
considered radical in their day. He argued on utilitarian grounds for freedom of speech
and expression and for the non-interference of government in individual behaviour that
did not harm anyone else.
His famous essay named, Utilitarianism published in 1861, is an elegant defence of
the general utilitarian doctrine. This essay also highlights various underpinnings
concerned with the utilitarian philosophy. In it utilitarianism is viewed as an ethics for
ordinary individual behaviour as well as for legislation.

Henry Sid wick (1838-1900)

Henry Sid Wick was a great utilitarian philosopher of the 19th century. His famous
book on the subject was The Methods of Ethics, published in 1874.It is one of the most
well-known works in utilitarian moral philosophy and offers a defence of utilitarianism. It
is a comparative examination of egoism, the ethics of common sense, and utilitarianism.
The book contains the most careful discussion to be found of the implications of
utilitarianism as a principle of individual moral action.
In short the influence of utilitarianism has been widespread. it widely influenced
Englands intellectual life of the last two centuries. Its significance in law, politics and
economics of the English people is especially notable. In its political philosophy,
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utilitarianism bases authority of government and sanctity of individual rights upon their
utility. The utilitarian scholars persuaded government to implement some reforms
beneficiary to English citizens. In response to their demand British parliament introduced
many social reform Acts. The utilitarians ascribed a best government as the government
that provides greatest amount of happiness to the greatest number of people.
Utilitarians supported democracy as a way of making the interest of government
coincided with the general interest. They believed in the possibility and the desirability of
progressive social change through peaceful political process. Classical economics received
some of its most important statements from utilitarian writes, especially David Ricardo,
and John Stuart Mill. The Marginal Utility School of analysis, derived many of its ideas
from Jeremy Bentham, and welfare economics reflects the basic spirit of the utilitarian
philosophy.
As a movement for the reform of social institutions, 19th century utilitarianism was
remarkably successful in the long run. Most of their recommendations have been
implemented and utilitarian arguments are commonly employed to advocate institutional
or policy changes.

Beginning of party system in England

The last ten years of Charles IIs reign (1660-1685) form one of the most complicated
periods in British political history. It was then that the two great historic parties, the
Whigs and Tories were formed. Danby played a remarkable role to form a Court party
(Later called Tory and then Conservative), based on devotion to the Crown and the
Church of England.
In opposition to the court party a Country party (Later called Whig and then
Liberal) was formed. The founder of this party was Anthony Ashley-cooper, Earl of
Shaftsbury. He was one of the greatest pioneers in English politics. He was the first
organiser of popular opinion outside the House of Commons. He formed the Green
Ribbon Club in Chancery Lane, and from there organised a system of propaganda, carried
on by writers and speakers all over the country.

Exclusion Bill Crisis (1679-1681)

The development of party system in England was closely associated with the issue
over the Exclusion Bill. In the English political usage, the terms Whig and Tory derived
from the factional conflict of the Exclusion Bill crisis. When one faction (the Whigs) sought
to exclude Charles IIs brother, James, Duke of York, who was professed Roman Catholic,
from eligibility to succeed to the throne and the other faction (the Tories) insisted the
inviolability of the chain of succession and the necessity of acceptance of the legitimate
heir. The Whigs asserted the right of parliament to determine the succession to the throne
and the peoples right. The Tories highlighted the older view that kings and queens are
Gods regent on earth or in any case, are placed on the throne by God and must be obeyed
by their subjects under all circumstances. Tory thus became a label for political
conservatives and Royalists and Whigs for political revisionists and parliamentary-men.
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Shaftsburys aim was to exclude the Duke of York (James II) from the succession to
the throne, on the ground that he was a Roman Catholic. An Exclusion Bill was brought
in, and read it before the parliament. It was during the Exclusion Bill debates that the
famous names Whig and Tory were first applied to the rival parties. Both names were
terms of abuse. Whig originally meant a rebel Scottish Presbyterian; Tory a rebel Irish
Papist. At first the parties were known as Petitioners and Abhorrers. Those who
petitioned the king to summon the parliament were called Petitioners. Abhorrers resented
such interference with kings prerogative.
EXERCISES
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

What is Colonialism?
Explain the Impact of Colonialism?
How did the Europeans Justified colonialism
Explain the growth of British Empire in the 19th Century?
Why Rudyard Kipling is called the Prophet of Imperialism
Explain the concepts of White Mans Burden and Civilising Mission
What is Orientalism?
Give an account of Victorian society with special reference to Upper Class and
Middle Class Values.
9) Illustrate the development of English literature during the Victorian era.
10) What was the impact of Charles Darwins Theory of Evolution on English
society?
11) Give a brief not on Oxford Movement
12) Briefly describe the development of Liberalism and Utilitarianism in England?
13) Account the beginning of party system in England

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UNIT - II
IMPACT OF INDUSTIRAL REVOLUTION
The Industrial Revolution was fundamentally the replacement of handicrafts by
power-driven machinery. It was a change unique in human history. In its broader aspects
this change involved the development of large scale capitalistic enterprise, changes in the
status of labouring man, population shifts and increase, economic and political problems.
England in 1700 was chiefly a land of villages; there were no big towns except
London, and agriculture was the occupation of vast majority of people. Two tremendous
changes, both took place during the second half of the eighteenth century, altered this old
England drastically. These two changes were the enclosure of the common-fields and the
coming of power-driven machinery. The enclosure process destroyed the age-long system
of strip-farming; the introduction of power-driven machinery gradually destroyed the
domestic or house hold system, as applied to the cloth industry, as well as minor village
industries, and substituted for these factory system which still dominate British industry.
Industrial Revolution primarily denotes the transition from the manufactory based
on manual labour to large-scale machine industry, resulting in the triumph of capitalism
over feudalism. It was a revolution in the technology and organisation of production. It
involved the application of machinery and power for industrial production. But the
change does not confined only in economic and technological, but occurred in social
intellectual and political spheres.
The concept of Industrial Revolution is generally associated with the following changes
and developments:
*Change from hand work to machine work
*From work at home (domestic production) to work in factories
*Extensive application of water, steam and electrical power.
*Revolutionary changes in transport and communication.
*Disappearance of subsistence agriculture.
*Transition from a rural, handicrafts economy to an urban machine- based
economy with new social classes (bourgeoisie and proletariat).

Why Industrial Revolution started in England?

Great Britain was the frits country to experience Industrial Revolution. Many
favourable conditions prevailed in Britain during the time helped her to acquire the credit
to become the first industrial nation. Following are the major factors that brought
Industrial Revolution in England.

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Influence of Agrarian Revolution

Before Industrial Revolution, an Agrarian Revolution took place in England. The
agrarian revolution marks the striking increase in agricultural production. It ensured the
constant food supply to the growing urban population. New systems, implements and
measures were invented in the field of agriculture. As a result of the agrarian revolution, a
large number of agricultural labourers were ousted from their job. These unemployed
people could be made available in the factories at very cheap rate. Due to their severe
poverty and unemployment they were forced to accept any job at any rate. In fact the
industrial revolution flourished in England due to availability of cheap labour on a large
scale.

Expanding Trade and Markets

In the 18th century the English trading world was quite widened in comparison to
other countries of the world. England had an ever expanding market for whatever goods
it manufactured. An expanding market both at home and abroad prompted Britain to
introduce drastic changes in production. The English colonies played a significant role in
the extension of the trade of England and it established a balance between the production
and demand. Exploitation of the colonies started to collect raw materials, especially cotton
to feed the industries at home. The vast colonial empire helped the British
industrialisation by providing raw materials and markets.

Geographical peculiarity of England

The favourable natural and geographical situation also helped the progress of
Industrial Revolution in England. Since England is surrounded by the sea there had been
number of natural ports and it helped the development of trade. The island facilitated
shipping of raw materials and gave the British a lead in the distribution of manufactured
goods.
England possesses many natural advantages such as the abundance of coal and
iron, the two materials essential for industries. Mines of both coal and iron were found in
the north-west of England. It helped a lot in the making of machines and in the
production of various items in a great number at very cheap rate. Britain became supreme
in metal industry. Thus natures gift encouraged the industrial development in England.

Supreme Naval Force

After the Spanish Armada England had become supreme naval force during the time
of Queen Elizabeth. England maintained a strong naval force. The merchants of England
could carry their goods to any place by the help of the fleets of England. Due to this
reason the trade and commerce flourished.

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Favourable socio-political conditions

The spirit of individual freedom developed in England earlier than the other
countries of European continent. The people of England had the freedom of speech, press
and writing. The economic policy of British government was favourable to
industrialisation. The government did not undertake trade and commercial activities, but
it left to private business men. They supported Laissez- faire policy. Government never
imposed taxes on domestic trade. They only imparted tax on imported goods to England
to promote internal trade. No restrictions were imposed by the government regarding the
process of production. Thus new ways of production were invented which helped in the
outbreak of Industrial Revolution in England.
All the factors mentioned above, made suitable atmosphere for the Industrial
Revolution in England. Simultaneously inventions were made by the scientists to improve
the production. The following mechanical inventions were made during 18th century.
John Kays Flying Shuttle: it was in 1733 that John Kay invented flying shuttle. It was a
mechanical device which greatly increased the speed at which the weavers of cloth could
work. Kays invention led to the gradual disappearance of the old hand-loom, and the
adoption of the power loom.
Spinning Jenny: James Hargreaves invented a new Spinning Jenny in 1764. It made
possible for one man to work at first eight, and later hundred spindles.
The Jenny was soon improved by Richard Arkwright, who developed the spinning frame
in 1771. The spinning frame was worked by water power.
Cromptons Mule: Samuel Crompton improved the Spinning Jenny and invented Spinning
Mule in 1779 to make the fine and strong yarn. It combined the merits of both Hargreaves
and Arkwrights machines.
The Power Loom: it was invented by Cartwright in 1785.
The Cotton Gin: It was invented by Whitney in 1793 to remove seeds from the cotton
fibre.
Steam Engine: The invention of steam engine proved very beneficial for industrial
revolution. The Inventor of Steam engine was James Watt, an instrument-maker of
Glasgow. He invented the steam engine in the year 1769.
The steam engine supplied motive power for all the industries which transformed
England. By 1800 the steam engine was being used in coal-mines, iron furnaces, and in the
textile industries.

Impact of Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution brought about profound changes in the social, economic and
political life of the people of England. The following are the major impact of Industrial
Revolution.
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1. Development of New means of Transport and communication

One of the important aspects of Industrial Revolution was drastic changes in transport
and communication. New scientific inventions hiked the production of England to a large
extent. The new age ushered in by the machines could not have flourished under the old
condition of transport. The coming of machinery coincided with an improvement in the
transport of goods. The production of coal, iron and other heavy materials necessitated the
construction of canals and railways. An efficient system of transportation was the need of the
hour to carry raw materials to factories and finished goods to markets. Hence revolution in the
means of transport became inevitable. It first occurred in the construction and improvement of
roads and canals.
A network of hard-surfaced roads built in the 17th and 18th centuries. The 18th century
produced three great road engineers namely, Metcalfe, Telford and Macadam. Metcalf
designed many of the chief roads in Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cheshire. Thomas Telford, built
the Holy head Road, and constructed the iron suspension-bridge over the Menai Straits.
It was John Loudon Macadam (1756-1836) who invented an entirely new process of
road-making. It consisted in using small stones, which could be easily crushed to form a hard
fairly smooth surface. It transformed travelling condition in England.
Canal construction received much impetus during this period. Canals were initially built
to transport coal to cities. Later this also used to transport goods from one place to another.
More closely connected with Industrial Revolution was the era of canal building, which had
been preceded by a good deal of canalisation of rivers. English canal, constructed during the
second half of the 18th century, were chiefly for the transport of coal. The Grand Trunk Canal
linked Manchester and Hull with Birmingham and Bristol. Telford, the road engineer, built
number of canals in England and Wales. He built the famous Caledonian Canal. During the
first phase of Industrial Revolution, canals were the principal means of transport for coal, iron
and products of the new industries.
Railway was another outstanding innovation in transportation. The coming of the
Railway produced a drastic change in the ordinary habits of English people. George
Stephenson has been considered as the founder of railway locomotives. As a result of his
inventive genius, he became the instrument by which the Railway Era began in England. He
was appointed engineer of the first two railways built in Great Britain. It was the Stockton and
Darlington Railway (1825) and the Liverpool and Manchester (1830). The railways accelerated
the growth of nascent industries in Britain. The Railways have greatly increased the speed at
which business can be transacted. It made possible the quick distribution of goods throughout
the country.
Industrial Revolution also brought fundamental changes in the field of communication
also. Development of telegraph and postage system can be considered as the offshoot of
Industrial Revolution. It was Rowland Hill who suggested penny postage for all letters in the
United Kingdom, regardless of distance. The government took up the suggestion and
introduced penny postage in 1840. The penny post provided fast and cheap communication by
letter. Business concerns took advantages of the penny post in their commercial transactions far
and near.
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The telegraph was the product of the work of several different inventors. In 1837,
Sir.C.Wheatstone made the earliest practical telegraph used in Britain. Soon the telegraph
and railway were spreading together throughout the world. The year 1851 was a land
mark in telegraph history. In that year the first electric cable was laid from Dover to Calais
and Reuters News Agency was established in London.
2. Social Effects of Industrial Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution produced two social classes in Britain-capitalist and the
proletariat (Labour class). The difference between the two groups increased day by day.
The capitalist led a very luxurious life with great pomp and show at the expense of the
labour class. The labour class suffered a lot; they led a very miserable life.
Urbanisation was a most striking feature of Industrial Revolution. It altered the
village agricultural life and witnessed the emergence of city life. Large scale migration
from village to new industrial cities started in search of new jobs. By 1830 Britain was the
most urban society the world had known. In 1750 there had been only two cities London
and Edinburgh. By 1851 there were 29 cities and majority of people lived in towns. The
crowded towns and smoky factories were disastrous to the workers.
3. Economic Effects
The economic condition of England was drastically changed as the result of
Industrial Revolution. An agricultural country turned into industrial country. Various
industries were established in England. The consequence was the decline of small-scale
industries and capitalists monopolised the entire industries of England.The increasing
wealth after the industrialisation enabled England to meet the requirements of her rising
population. The invention of machines threw a large number of workers out of job and
problem of unemployment created distress among them. Prior to the Industrial
Revolution there had no such sharp contrast among the people of different classes. But
after the Industrial Revolution an unbridgeable gap was created between the capitalists
and labourers.
4. Political Effects
The influence of capitalists began to increase in the administration due to Industrial
Revolution. The rich people began to interfere in the political affairs of the country by
using their money power. They purchase votes in order to acquire the membership of the
Parliament. They also began to neglect the interests of the people of lower class for
safeguarding their own interests.
The ideology of socialism and communism received much attention in England
during the time. The movement emerged against the onslaughts of capitalism. The
socialists raised voice against the atrocities of the capitalists, and the government was
force to pass some Acts beneficiary to the working class. The parliamentary Reforms in
England during the 19th century were the direct outcome of Industrial Revolution.
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5. Impact of Ecology and Environment

Process of Industrial revolution brought far reaching changes in the field of production
which raised major ecological and environment problems. Industrialisation created
environmental and ecological damage. Exploitation of natural resources in a greedy way
created problems. With the rapid industrialisation, unscrupulous destruction of nature and
natural resources set in. Large scale deforestation and biological depletion from a variety of
habitats occurred due to the industrialisation process. Famous environmental historian Donald
Worster, in his book The End of the Earth points out: The most dramatic environmental alterations
came from the conversion of wooded or forest lands into the cultivable traits. Large scale coal mining
undertook to meet the need of industry created major land slides. These landslides destroyed
neighbouring farm lands.
Growing industrialisation resulted in the pollution of the environment. Air, water, and
soil were gravely polluted. Environmental pollutions led to critical diseases and disorders. The
factories were like smoking volcanoes. The smoke along with the heat, dust, humidity and
noisome smells polluted the air and created health hazards. Air pollution caused respiratory
difficulties, chronic bronchitis, lung cancer and respiratory allergies.
6. Factory System
Advent of modern factory system was a significant feature of Industrial Revolution.
Factory was the site of the new machinery and power that made industrialism possible. Prior to
Industrial Revolution production was carried out by the artisans in their own homes. This was
known as domestic system of production. But after industrialisation people realised the
insufficiency of domestic production system. The change from old pre-machine world to the
world of factories was a very gradual process. Production was now carried on in a factory in
place of workshops in home, with the help of machines in place of simple tools. Water or steam
power replaced human muscle and animal energy as the source of power. Power-driven
machines were bulky and complicated. Naturally the new machines were not suited to house
hold use. They required buildings of big size to install them. The separate buildings known as
factories came to be constructed. The factory system of production with machines, division of
labour, large scale production, capital and labour, became the dominant features of the new
industrial society. The first industry in Britain that factory system was fully established was
cotton industry.
The factory system was a transition from dispersed to centralised production. In
factories many worked under a single roof. The transition to factory system curtailed the
independence of workers. The factory owners arranged the workers in a machine-like set up
and enforced rigid discipline. The system brought about subordination of the worker to the
machine and capital.
The sufferings of the working class people during the first phase of Industrial
Revolution were undoubtedly severe. The workers had to live near the factories. They were
also compelled to suffer the strict discipline of the factory itself. The men, women, and small
children were made to work 12, 14, or even 16hours a day. Dangerous machines, breathing foul
air, low wages, under-nourished, lacking the ordinary comforts of life, lacking sleep, were all
the hall-marks of factory system.
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The condition of workers in and outside the factory was quite miserable. The
factory system created what has been described as seven deadly evils: 1) In sanitary
factories 2) Urban slums 3) Long hours of work 4) Low wages 5) exploitation of women
and children 6) Un propertied working class 7) unemployment.

Growth of Trade Unionism and Chartist Movement

Industrial Revolution gave the workers class-consciousness, made them into a
community, and induced them to organise. The pathetic condition of working class in the
industrial era gave rise to the formation of trade unions. As already mentioned above, the
working class had suffered a lot. The factory owners severely exploited the working class. The
misery of the poor was very severe in the 1830s and 1840s. In 1837, the year of Victorias
accession, one-tenth of the population of Manchester, and one-seventh of the population of
Liverpool, lived in cellars. In such circumstances many people grew impatient of the existing
system. Many Acts introduced by the British parliament were pro-capitalist. For example the
Act of 1832 never considered the working class; it enfranchised not the working class, but the
middle classes. This great disappointment, coupled with the continuance of public distress, led
to several revolutionary movements. Of these movements the most important were Socialism,
early Trade Unionism and Chartism.
The early Trade Union movement was much influenced by the ideas of Robert Owen. In
1834, Owen formed a Grand National Consolidated Trade Union. About half a million working
people joined this trade union. His ideas embodied the first attempt to achieve Socialism in
England. Owen has been considered as the Father of English Socialism. He believed that the
evils of his day were all due to the mad competition for wealth among manufacturers, which
led them to put all human consideration on one side. He proclaimed all individual
competition is to cease; all manufactures are to be carried on by National Companies. In these
two statements may be found the germ of much modern socialist thought.
The working class used collective bargaining and strikes as their method of struggle. In
order to get redeem from their grievances they used mass demonstrations and formed trade
unions. There were three distinct types of trade unions- 1) Craft Union 2) Industrial Union 3)
Revolutionary union.
Crafts Unions were organisation of skilled workers, particularly machinists. Their
activities were confined in collective bargaining and organisation of peaceful strikes. They
provided medical insurance and educational benefits to their members. They were not against
the existing system and never considered the unskilled workers.
Industrial Unions were militant in nature. Their leaders were hostile to capitalism. They
regarded strike as necessary weapon to be used against the factory owners and evils of factory
system. They undertook many strikes when factory owners were reluctant to increase their
wages, and whenever an unnecessary dismissal of the worker occurred. Revolutionary Unions
were derived from the socialist ides of Robert Owen and Karl Marx. They strongly worked for
the changing of existing system. Instead of capitalism they sought to the development of
socialism.
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Chartist Movement
The peculiar misery of the 1830-50 periods produced a strong working class
movement known as Chartist movement. Radical trade union leaders started movement
for political and social reform. Unlike socialism, Chartism did not aim at altering the
conditions of industry. It was a political movement. Its chief aim was to make the working
class politically equal to their masters. The Reform Acts introduced by the British
Parliament in 1832 and 1833 never considered the working class. Both Acts ignored the
demands of workings class. Betrayed by the government, the workers decided to continue
their struggle until their grievances redressed. The leaders of Chartist Movement began to
publish a newspaper namely The Northern Star. It popularised the ideas of Chartist
Movement among English people.
Six Points of Chartism
In 1838 a working men association was formed in London to fight for universal
suffrage and solve the problems of working class. This Working Men Association
prepared a charter of political democracy in 1838, which was called peoples charter;
hence the name chartist movement. The peoples charter was prepared by William
Lovett and Francis Place. They put forth six objectives of chartist movement. The six
points were:1. Annual parliamentary election
2. Universal manhood suffrage
3. Voting by secret ballot
4. No property qualification for membership in parliament.
5. Payment of salaries to members of parliament.
6. Equal electoral constituencies
This charter circulated across the country by the committees of chartists and signed
by millions. This was presented before House of Commons in 1839. But parliament
rejected the charter and voted even not to hear the petitioners.
The policy of Chartists was to hold large mass meetings in various towns, with the
object of getting the Government, and the ruling class generally, to listen to their
grievances. The government followed an indifference towards the demand put forth by
the Chartists. The rejection of their first Charter created great disappointment among
some leaders. When petitions were refused, some leaders advocated violent struggles as
the only means of attaining their aim. A veteran chartist leader OConner was very
disappointed with the Parliaments decision. He exhorted the working class to take arm
against the government and factory owners. The Chartists met in Birmingham in 1839,
where there was a riot in the Bull Ring, followed by the sacking of several shops; and at
Newport, the Chartists tried to seize the town. In both events military severely oppressed
the struggle and restored peace and order.

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During the 1840s Chartism steadily gained support. The militant physical forces
under OConner engaged in strikes and riots, which government countered by police
force and imprisonment of chief leaders. In May 1842, when the economic crisis and
unemployment became severe, the chartist leaders presented a further petition, signed by
three million persons. But it was also rejected by the government. In the same year a
general strike was proclaimed by the leaders. Robert Peels government arrested several
hundreds of Chartist and Trade Union leaders; 500 of them were imprisoned. After this
second failure Chartism began to slowly decline.
But in 1848 there was a last flash of old fire. It was the year of revolutions all over
Europe. This inspired the Chartist leaders to make a last direct challenge to the
government. OConnor came forward and demanded his followers to organise a huge
procession. They prepared a new petition signed by five million persons. OConnor
claimed that half a million men would bring it to the House of Commons. But the
Government forbade the procession. The parliament examined the petition and found that
it contain not five million, but less than two million signatures, some of which were
plainly fake. The discovery was a great set back to Chartism, which shortly after wards
faded out of existence.
Why Chartism failed?
The failure of Chartism either to gain immediate acceptance of its demands or to
transform itself into an effective revolutionary movement can be attributed to various
factors. The emerging middle class were not ready to support the cause of working class.
They followed a very lukewarm mentality towards the methods and activities of
Chartism.
The incompetent leadership also caused the failure of Chartism. The main leaders
William Lovett and OConnor had no any coordination in their policies and programmes.
They adopted different policies and programmes. For example William Lovett advocated
peaceful methods and cooperation with the government to win the Charter. But OConner
advocated extreme policies. He proclaimed for violent struggles to win the demands of
Chartists. The emergence of these two wings Moral force and Physical force-within the
chartist movement adversely affected the unity and strength of Chartist movement.
The response of government was also very negative. The authorities severely
suppressed their works, used military and police force to curtail them. Especially Robert
Peels government followed very severe measures against the works of Chartist
movement.
To conclude, Chartism was perhaps the first mass working class movement in the
world. It emerged out of strong reaction against a changing economy and society that
created by the Industrial Revolution. The new scenario was unjust to the working class.
The movement was seen as a protest against poverty and physical sufferings. Though
failed, the Chartist Movement produced far reaching effects. It gave a great impetus to the
early socialist movements by upholding ideas like democracy, equality and collectivism.

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Agrarian Revolution
In the 18th century two great revolutions took place in England, which affected the
social and economic life of the people tremendously. Famous historian Ramsay Muir
remarks: the big landowners were adding field to field, the small holders were slowly
disappearing. English rural society was ceasing to be homogeneous society. A gulf was
gradually opening between mass of landless labourers and a small group of great
landowners.
Meaning of Agrarian Revolution
The substantial changes in agriculture, in the farming method and processing of
grains, which occurred in the 18th century England is known as Agrarian Revolution.
Agrarian Revolution gave birth to the system of enclosures and organising of huge farms.
Refined implements were introduced and new measures for taming the animal were
imparted which brought drastic changes in the sphere agriculture.
The Agrarian Revolution included two kinds of changes. These were: 1)
Technological changes in agriculture 2) Growth of capitalist relations in agriculture and
impact on village life.
There were various defects in the old system of agriculture prevalent in England.
Every year one-third of the land was left uncultivated to regain its fertility. The land of
farmers remained divided into small scattered pieces. These conditions were not suitable
to cope up with the changing scenario. The problem with the agricultural tools and
implements were also very acute. Prior to the Agricultural Revolution the English farmers
used old implements, which never produced better harvest. At the same time the growing
industries of England needed large quantities of raw materials and also required an
increasing supply of food stuffs to the growing population. Thus reforms in the
agricultural field were urgently needed.
Major Inventions
Pioneers of scientific farming found that the old methods of farming were wasteful
and inefficient and set about devising improvements. Sir Robert Western was a pioneer in
this field. He stressed the need for the sowing of turnip and other root crops. He proved
that it would hike the fertility of the land without leaving uncultivated. It also would
solve the problem of fodder for the animals.
Jethro Tull was an important figure who played a remarkable role in bringing
about the agrarian revolution in England. He invented a machine for sowing seed, which
took place of the human sower, scattering seed from a basket. Tulls machine was called a
drill. He described about the drill in these words: it makes the channels, sows the seeds
into them and covers them at the same time, with great exactness and precision. Thus it
not only spread the seeds on fixed distance but also covered it with soil.
Lord Townshend was a close associate of Sir Robert Walpole, the first British Prime
Minister, and was a minister in his Ministry. He retired from politics in 1730, and then till
his death (1738) devoted himself to farming on his Norfolk estate. He introduced a new
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rotation of crops. It is known as the Norfolk or four-course system. Under the old system,
the English farmers followed the system of one-third of land left untilled each year, since
the soil would not bear corn crops more than two years running. Townshend proved that,
by planting root crops (turnips etc.) and clover all the lands could always be kept under
cultivation. The planting of the turnips and clover had beneficial effects on the soil.
Townshends rotation of crops was turnips; barley or oats; clover; and wheat. This
system not only had the effect of improving the land but provided winter food for cattle.
The new agricultural innovations introduced by Townshend increased the production.
There came many improvements in the breeding of sheep and cattle. Robert
Bakewell paid his attention towards the improvement of the condition of animals. He
succeeded in breeding a new kind of sheep known as New Leicester. The Leicestershire
sheep which he bred were very fine animals. It gave much meat and wool. He specialised
in producing large, fat sheep, paying less attention to the quality of the wool. The new
breed of sheep was two or even three times as heavy as the old. Beside sheep, he also
improved the breed of cows, calves and goats.
Charles Colling of Ketton followed Bakewells methods. He succeeded in
producing the Shorthorn breed of cattle, which are famous all over the world.
Sir Arthur Young was very famous person among the reformers of the agricultural
sphere. He studied the problems concerned with the agriculture, and wrote books and
pamphlets to convince the people about the need for improving agriculture. He edited a
magazine named Annals of Agriculture to propagate his experience and innovations in
agriculture. He founded several Agricultural Societies and Farmers Clubs, and worked
for the establishment of Board of Agriculture. He was supporter of consolidation of
scattered agricultural lands. Enclosure Act was passed due to his efforts. G.M. Trevelyan
Calls him as the Prophet of New Agriculture.

Agrarian Revolution- Impact on Village Life

Enclosure Acts
It was found that, as soon as the new methods of farming became widely accepted,
the old system of English agriculture collapsed. The major change occurred in the
consolidation of scattered lands into big estates, enclosing them with walls or wirefencing. During the second half of the 18th century, thousands of acres of scattered
agricultural lands were enclosed to make compact fields and farms. Enclosures were
carried out by the rich for the rich. Though they improved farming and the food supply
they destroyed the independence of the poor villagers. Enclosures were sometimes
brought about by mutual consent, but often it was necessary to promote special Act of
Parliament in order to overcome the resistance from villagers. The General Enclosure Act
of 1801 made the process of enclosure easier. During the time, nearly 3 million acres of
common-fields, and 1 million acres of waste lands were enclosed by Act of Parliament.
The enclosure movement by the big landowners with the state support caused the greatest
amount of distress. The big land lords evicted the peasants from their lands. The growth
of capitalist relations in agriculture created the appropriation of common lands which
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were used by all villagers for grazing their animals and to collect fuels. Thus the old village
system, under which every house holder had his little bit of land, disappeared from England.
Its place was taken by a new system of farming, with the peculiarities of less wasteful and
producing far better results. The big landowners now encouraged the production of cash crops
for the market and raw materials for industries.
Sir Arthur Young had played a remarkable role to advocate Enclosure. He spent most of
his life urging improvements in farming and advocating Enclosure. But in his later years he
was also aware of the sufferings of the villagers due to the Enclosure Act. He remarked in 1801
thus: By nineteen out of twenty Enclosure Acts, the poor are injured and in some cases grossly
injured.
The loss of the land of villagers made them great distress. They forced to move in to the
towns in search of a new way of life. It was also conspicuous that the village industries were
declining when Enclosures were taking place, owing to the rise of the new industries. This also
caused the poor to move into the towns. This was a great change occurred in the Englands
social and economic history. The mass of the English population was driven from the
countryside. England in 1750 was largely rural, but by 1850 the country became largely urban.
In short, the Agrarian Revolution affected the social and economic life of the English
people to a great extent. G.M. Trevelyan, famous English historian, in his English Social
History aptly wrote: Indeed, the connection of the Agricultural with Industrial Revolution was more
than a coincidence in time. Each helped in the other. They may indeed be regarded as a single effort by
which society was so reconstructed as to be able to feed and employ a population that was rising in
numbers with unexampled rapidity, owing to improved material conditions.

Laissez-faire and English Economists

The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain marked the victory of business magnates.
They created their own business worlds and managed their affairs in their own way. The
growth and prosperity of the capitalist class prompted them to introduce theories protecting
their rights and vested interests. The theory of Laissez-faire was one of them. The term Laissezfaire was coined by the French economists known as the physiocrats. The term Laissez-faire
meant Leave things alone or Let us alone. Laissez-faire upholds the idea of economic
liberalism. By economic liberalism the advocates of Laissez-faire theory upholds that trade and
commerce free from under the clutches of governmental interference. It meant that they were to
be given a completely free hand, and State should abandon its right to regulate trade. They
argued that the State should not interfere in businesses. To sweep away all the regulations in
connection with trade and commerce was the aim of the Laissez-faire school. Thus they
demanded absolute freedom in business and opposed governmental intervention of any kind.
They strongly argued to the government that let them do, i.e., conducting trade and
commercial activities according to the whims and fancies of the private enthusiastic
individuals. They assigned to the government the duty of a modest police- to provide law and
order in the country for the smooth conducting of business, and save the country from all the
internal and external threats. The doctrine stood for a free market, free trade and free economic
activity.
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The Laissez-faire philosophy was strongly supported by English scholars and

economists. Adam Smith and other free trade economists played a pivotal role in
popularising Laissez-faire economic theory in English speaking countries. It was further
developed by Utilitarians like Jeremy Bentham and classical economists like Thomas
Malthus and David Ricardo.

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

Adam smith is considered as the champion of the doctrine of laissez-faire theory.
He was born in Scotland in the year 1723. With Adam smith, a new era ushered in the
science of Economics. He was the first to make systematic study of the subject and
considered to be the father of economics. His famous book An Inquiry into the Nature
and Causes of Wealth of Nations (Wealth of Nations), published in 1776, heralded a new
era in British commerce. He was the prophet of Free Trade. He severely criticised the
earlier State policy of mercantilism. He argued for the development of a capitalist system
based on free trade. His Wealth of Nations was the first book to systematically theorise
capitalism, and came to be called the Bible of Capitalism. He argued that all government
interference is harmful to trade. He remarked Let the merchant alone (laissez-faire), and they
will make Britain a rich country. He persuaded William Pitt, the then British Prime
Minister, to reduce many trade restrictions, and prepare the way for the Free Trade of
the new century. To justify the theory of Laissez-faire Smith put forth the concepts of laws
of market and laws of motion. With the law of market Adam Smith analysed the
underpinning of a market. He postulated that a market is governed by two forces:1) selfinterest and 2) competition. The natural sentiment of self-interest, in a society of similarly
motivated individuals, results in competition. With this automatic mechanism of a
competitive market which controls the economic activities of all individuals of the society.
In this way the ultimate result is the maximum social welfare.
His work The Theory of Moral Sentiments contains the philosophical tendencies.
The work gives details about the general principles of law and government and also
provide accounts on various revolutions they undergone in the different ages and periods
of society. In this way Adam Smith provided a strong base for Englands economic
thought. He remains a towering figure in the history of economic thought. All social
scientists, particularly economists admitted and admired his breadth of knowledge, the
cutting edge of his generalisation, and boldness of his vision.
David Ricardo (1772-1823)
Adam Smiths arguments were further reinforced by David Ricardo, a liberal
classical economist. He was born in London, in the year April 18, 1772. His interest in
economic questions arose in the year 1779 when he happened to read Adam Smiths
Wealth of Nations. Ricardo came to be known as the great representative of classical
economics and the leading expert on the problems of economic policy of his time. He
contributed his ideas through the publication of several books and pamphlets. His first
published work was The High Price of Bullion; a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes
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(published in the year 1810).He followed the ideas of Smith to interpret the new economic
and social problems caused by industrialisation and population growth. He viewed
economic liberty of the individual as the greatest value and advocated laissez-faire as the
best way to achieve it. He also stood for the government inaction by an appeal to natural
laws. He argued the government should shrink itself to the role of a modest policemen
preserving law and order and protecting property for the smooth conducting of the
business.
Ricardo formulated his ideas on Laissez-faire in his famous book namely On the
Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. The book was published in the year 1817.
He advocated for economic individualism and argued that private individuals were better
qualified than the State to run the economy. Therefore, according to Ricardo State should
never interfere with the operation of economic process. He also advocated the abolition of
all restriction and regulations on foreign trade.
In short Laissez-faire was a social theory designed to promote the vested interests
of the capitalist class. It is closely associated with classical liberalism. The theory defended
the interest of capitalist class with the assertion that the individual entrepreneurs were the
major producers of wealth. They upheld the view that money spent on social welfare
schemes would adversely affect new capital investments. The advocates for the new
capitalist elites were very indifferent to the predicament of the masses.

British Parliamentary Reforms in the 19th Century

What was the need for parliamentary reforms during the 19th century?
The first half of the 19th century was characterised by the introduction of a number
of reforms in England. In spite of the general prosperity there had been much unrest
among the English people. The twin Revolutions Agrarian and Industrial- had created
much chaos and confusion. These revolutions ultimately proved the superiority of
wealthy class. There had an urgent need for reform of the existing parliamentary system
of England. Many scholars and social activists realised the need for immediate reforms.
Famous Utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham exposed the follies and absurdities of
existing parliamentary system. He understood that the English parliament was not in
favour of the common mass while introducing laws and other major Acts. He argued that
the government of a country should give the greatest amount of happiness to the greatest
number of peoples. There was a demand for parliamentary reforms in England as the
people believed that the old unreformed conservative parliament was the root cause of all
evils of the period.
The existing English parliamentary system was the result of a long process of
political evolution. Here the Glorious Revolution of 1688 plays a remarkable role. The
English revolution of 1688 followed and confirmed by the accession of the Hanoverian
dynasty, exercised a great influence on European thought. The Glorious Revolution was
the overthrow of King James II of England by a union of English parliamentarians with
William III of Orange. The revolution resulted in achieving such benefits as religious
toleration, the freedom of expression and parliamentary government. After the revolution
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of 1688 it was recognised British parliament as supreme authority over the king. English
kings agreed to govern through an upper class parliament. Though the revolt highlighted
the rights of common people, in real sense it had not represented their will. Even John
Lock, the major protagonist of the Revolution of 1688 had criticised the structure and
functioning of British parliament.
18th century British parliamentary system had given wide privileges to big
landlords. The membership and franchise to parliament was purely based on wealth and
status of persons. These aristocrats controlled the day to day affairs of parliament and
misused the parliamentary affairs for increasing their wealth and prosperity. But there
came a change in the existing condition after the Industrial Revolution. In the changing
scenario the old electoral system to British parliament was not adequate to satisfy the
needs of working class and poor sections of the society. Due to growth in population and
emergence of new towns as a result of Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions, the
reorganisation and restructuring of old constituencies became inevitable and
indispensable one. The fact is that, till 1831 the new emerging industrial and thickly
populated cities like Manchester, Birmingham, and Leeds were unrepresented in British
parliament. But at the same time, even very less populated areas had minimum two
representatives to parliament. These less populated constituencies were called Rotten
Boroughs. (Granton and Surrey were Rotten Boroughs). The absurdity of allowing the
rotten-borough system to continue in existence, while large and growing towns like
Manchester, Birmingham and Leeds were entirely unrepresented, had been questioned by
the reformers.
In some other boroughs the big landlords had the power to select members to
parliament. These boroughs were called Pocket Boroughs or Nomination Boroughs.
In the nomination boroughs the owner had the absolute right to nominate his own
Members of Parliament. The owners of nomination boroughs regarded these places as
their own property, and sold them like houses or land if they so desired. The half of
House of Commons of British parliament represented by members from rotten and
pocket boroughs.
Thus a thorough reform in existing parliamentary system was the need of the
hour. There emerged hue and cry from every corner to fulfil the demands of working class
and poor sections of the society- a clamour for reforms in British parliament started. But
their demand was highly opposed and criticised by the land lords and self-interested
groups. They severely opposed the entering of working class people in to British
parliament. But they couldnt cope up with the new situation. After the French Revolution
the conditions in Europe had completely changed, people became more revolutionary and
began to think more democratically and politically. The emergence of a vibrant middle
calls after the industrial Revolution was also another turning point. They highlighted the
rights of working class and clamoured for parliamentary reforms.
The debate and schism over the issue on parliamentary reforms between two
political parties in England (Whig and Tory) also helped the reformers to continue their
work smoothly. The Whig party leaders namely Lord Grey, Lord John Russell, and proSocial and Cultural History of Britain (III Semester)

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Whig industrialists and business class were in favour of introducing reforms and
reorganisation of British parliament. Some members of Whig party went further ahead and
strongly exhorted for the abolition of rotten and pocket boroughs. The followers of Jeremy
Bentham called philosophical Radicals were also stood for parliamentary reforms. Jeremy
Bentham demanded the British government to implement a voting system in which all
individuals who completed the age of 21 should be given the right to vote without considering
their wealth, property, and social status. The revolutionary organisations like National Union
of Working Class and National Political Union played a remarkable role outside the parliament
for attaining the goal of universal franchise.

The Passage of the Reform Act of 1832

The Representation of the People Act of 1832(commonly known as the Reform Act of
1832 or as the Great Reform Act) was an Act of British parliament that introduced drastic
changes in the electoral system of England and Wales. The preamble of the Act asserts that it
was designed to take effective Measure for correcting diverse Abuses that have long prevailed
in the choice of Members to serve in the Commons Hose of parliament.
As mentioned earlier the demand for reform in the parliament had started long before
1832. But all attempts were sabotaged by the self-interested Lords. The Act which finally
succeeded was proposed by the Whigs, under the auspices of Prime Minister Charles Lord
Grey. He faced severe opposition from many groups especially the opposition Tories in
parliament. Nevertheless, as a result of public pressure, the Bill was eventually passed.
The full title of the Act is An Act to amend the representation of the people in the England and
Wales. The Act provided a great impetus to further reforms in England. Other reform measures
were passed later during the 19th century were highly inspired by this Act. Thus the Reform Act
of 1832 is sometimes called First or Great Reform Act.
Debate over the Reform Bill
The pro-reformers, especially Lord Grey had to face severe opposition from the Tories
and Lords to pass the Bill in the parliament. There took place heated debate over the issue. The
Whig ministry under Lord Grey took up the question of parliamentary reform and after heated
debates and discussions the first Reform Act of Parliament was passed in 1832. The discussion
in parliament had started 1830 onwards and after the third attempt the reformers finally
triumphed to make the Bill as an Act.
First Reform Bill
The death of King George IV on 26 June 1830 dissolved parliament by law and a general
election was held. Urgent need for electoral reforms became a major campaign issue. Several
pro-reform political unions were for formed in England. The political unions were mainly
confined with middle and working class individuals. The most influential of these was the
Birmingham Political Union led by Thomas Attwood. These groups demanded reforms and
their method of activity was petitioning and public oratory. These groups achieved a great level
of public support.
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In the election, the Tories won a majority. But the party remained divided, and
support for Prime Minister (Arthur Wellesley) was weak. When the Whig members raised
the issue of reform during one of first debate of the year, the Prime Minister responded
very arrogantly and made controversial statements in defending the existing
parliamentary system. The Prime Ministers autocratic view proved extremely unpopular,
even with his own party. Finally he was forced to resign after adverse vote in a confidence
motion. Thus Tory Prime Minster was replaced by the Whig reformer Charles Grey.
Lord Greys first announcement as Prime Minister was a pledge to impart
favourable action in parliamentary reforms. On 1 March 1831, Lord John Russell brought
forward the first Reform Bill in the House of Commons on the governments behalf. The
Bill disfranchised sixty of the smallest boroughs, and reduced the representation fortyseven others. Some seats were completely abolished. Thus gained seats were redistributed
to the London Suburbs, and to large cities. The Bill standardised and expanded the
borough franchise, increasing the size of the electorate.
On 22nd March 1831, the debate and discussion on the Bill started in parliament.
Most of the parliament members attended, and it was record of 608 members. Despite the
high attendance, the second reading(A reading of a Bill is a debate on the Bill held before the
general body of legislature, as opposed to before a committee or group. In the British parliamentary
system, there are several readings of a bill among the stages it passes through before becoming law
as an Act.) was approved by only one vote and further progress on the Reform Bill was
difficult. A few weeks later the Reform Bill was defeated in the Committee stage of the
Bill. Lord Grey asked the King to dissolve parliament and parliament was dissolved.
These divisions indicate that parliament was against the Reform Bill. The Whig leaders
decided to take its appeal to the people.
Second Reform Bill
The political and popular pressure for reform had grown so great that pro-reform
Whigs won an overwhelming House of Commons majority in the second general election
of 1831. The Whig party won almost all constituencies with genuine electorate, the Tories
were satisfied with some rotten-boroughs.
When the new Parliament assembled, the Government introduced a second Reform
Bill. The second Reform Bill was brought before the House of Commons, which agreed to
the second reading by a large majority. During the Committee stage, opponents of the Bill
slowed its progress through unnecessary discussions to its details. But it was finally
passed by a margin of more than one hundred votes. The Bill was then forwarded to the
Hose of Lords. A majority of the members of House of Lords were very hostile to this Bill.
The House of Lords rejected the Bill by a majority of 41 votes. When the Lords rejected the
Reform Bill, public violence occurred in England. The whole country became in an uproar;
scenes of indescribable excitement took place at Bristol the mob burnt down the Mansion
House, at Nottingham the Castle; in the north people prepared for an armed fight. At
Derby a mob attacked the city jail and freed several prisoners.

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Third Reform Bill- Reform Bill passed 1832

After the second Reform Bill was rejected in the House of Lords, the House of
Commons immediately passed a motion of confidence affirming their support for Lord
Greys administration. As soon as the new session of the parliament began in December
1831, the Third Reform Bill was brought forward. The new version of the Bill passed in the
House of Commons by even a larger majority in March 1832. The Bill was once again sent
to the House of Lords. The month of May 1832, witnessed the final and most dramatic
scenes. The Lords rejected the Bill and Lord Grey told the King he must destroy the Tory
majority in the Lords or the government would resign. He asked King William IV to
create a sufficient number of Whig peers. The King refused the request and Lord Grey
resigned. Realising that another rejection would be politically unfeasible, opponents of
reform decided to use amendments to change the Bills essential character. The privilege
of creating peerages rested with King William IV. The king rejected the unanimous
advises of his cabinet, at which Lord Grey resigned, and Crown called upon the Duke of
Wellington to form a new government.
The ensuing period became known as the Days of May. The period witnessed
strong political agitations. Some protestors advocated non-payment of taxes. Some
demonstration called for the abolition of the nobility, and some even of the monarchy. At
this critical juncture, Duke of Wellington faced great difficulty in building support for his
Prime Ministership. He was unable to form a government. The King therefore had to ask
Grey to return. The King consented to fill the House of Lords with Whigs. King circulated
a letter among Tory peers, encouraging them to desist from further opposition.
Wellington saved the King from this necessity; he at last withdrew his opposition to the
Bill. When the Bill brought for its final reading, Wellington and about a hundred Tory
peers left the House. The Bill finally passed, and received the Royal Assent on June 1832,
thereby becoming law.

Major Provisions of the Act of 1832

1. The Act granted seats in the House of Commons to large cities (Manchester, Leads,
Glasgow, and Birmingham) that had emerged during the Industrial Revolution. The act
took away seats from the rotten-boroughs (those with very small population). The Act
also increased the number of individuals entitled to vote, increasing the size of the
electorate from about 400,000to 6500, 00.
2. The Reform Acts major object was the reduction of the number of nomination
boroughs. Two hundred and three boroughs existed in England before the Act. The 56
boroughs were completely abolished. Another 36 boroughs lost one of their two
members of parliament. In total the Act disfranchised nearly 143 boroughs seats in
England.
3. The Act extended the franchise of the English people. The franchise was extended to
townsmen owning an occupying a house of ten pounds value.

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4. The Act introduced a system of voter registration in every Parish and township. It
instituted a system of special courts to review disputes relating to voter qualifications.
It also authorised the use of multiple polling places within the same constituency, and
limited the duration of polling to two days. (Formerly, polls could remain open for up
to forty days).

Impact of the Act of 1832

The Passage of the Reform Act of 1832 ranks in importance with the Glorious
Revolution of 1688.The act had the effect of transferring political power from the
aristocracy to the middle classes. Several historians credit the Act of 1832 with launching
modern democracy in Britain. G.M. Trevelyan remarked the Act of 1832 as the watershed
moment at which the sovereignty of the people had been established. The reformed
parliament was unquestionably, more liberal and progressive in its policy than the
parliaments of old. After the reform Act the English parliament became more vigorous
and active, more susceptible to the influence of public opinion and more secure in the
confidence of the people. The reform Act opened a door on a new political world.
The Act brings forth drastic changes in the organisation and structure of political
parties in England. Whig and Tory parties became more innovative in their political
programmes and policies. They became more serious and established central
headquarters for their party. It was only after the Act of 1832 all the parties in England
became more organised and disciplined. Sir Robert Peel and Benjamin Disraeli played
very crucial role to reorganise Tory party in new form.
The act increased the gap between House of Commons and House of Lords. During
the debate on the Act there took place strong ideological fight among the House of Lords
and Commons. It helped to reduce the importance of the House of Lords. The Act
decreased and made some control over the King. This caused the decaying of Kings
influence in British parliament. The result was the increase in the power of British Prime
Minister and Cabinet. Cabinet became closer to House of Commons and House of
Commons to people.
One of the negative aspect of the Act was it neglected the demands of working
class. It did very little to appease to working class. Since Voters were required to possess
property worth 10 pounds, a substantial sum at that time, they could not enter into the
new arena of franchise. This split the alliance between the working class and the middle
class. Betrayed by the government the working class decided to form chartist movement
to get their grievances redressed.

William Gladstone and Benjamin Disraeli in English Politics

William Evart Gladstone (1809 - 1898)
William Evart Gladstone, Four times Liberal prime minister of Great Britain was
one of the dominant political figures of the Victorian era and a passionate campaigner on
a huge variety of issues, including home rule for Ireland. In 1859, he joined the Liberals,
becoming their leader in 1867 and the following year, prime minister for the first time. His
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government created a national elementary programme and made major reforms in the
justice system and the civil service. Ireland was always a focus for Gladstone. In 1869 he
disestablished the Irish Protestant church and passed an Irish Land Act to rein-in unfair
landlords. A heavy defeat in the 1874 general election led to Gladstone's arch-rival
Benjamin Disraeli becoming Conservative prime minister, and Gladstone retired as
Liberal leader. He remained a formidable government opponent, attacking the
Conservatives over their failure to respond to Turkish brutality in the Balkans - the
'Eastern Crisis. In 1880, Gladstone became prime minister for the second time.
Gladstones third (1886) and fourth (1892 - 1894) terms as prime minister were dominated
by his sincere attempts for home rule in Ireland. The years he was out of office were
devoted to the issue as well. His first home rule bill in 1886 split the Liberal Party and was
rejected. In 1893, another home rule bill was rejected by the House of Lords. Gladstone
found himself increasingly isolated with his cabinet and, in 1894, he resigned. He died on
19 May 1898 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Major Reforms Introduced by Gladstone

Irish Policy
Gladstone first turned his attention to Ireland. He determined to impart sweeping
changes. His Irish policy brought to light all his liberal principles. The problems of Irish
people were both religious and economic. In 1869 he brought a Bill to disestablish (put an
end the official status of a church) the Anglican Church of Ireland. This was implemented
because he came to know that the Catholic majority in Ireland rejected the payment of
taxes to an alien church.
His next move was to remove the economic distress of the Irish people. The
economic problems in Ireland were more severe. The lively hood of Irish people was
mainly depended upon agriculture. But agriculture became less and less profitable. The
land lords treated the peasants very harshly. Land lords often evicted tenants mercilessly.
Evictions caused more poverty and more emigrations to other countries. Chaos and
confusion prevailed everywhere in Ireland. Rejection of law and order and the murder of
cruel land lords became a regular feature of Irish life. A revolutionary society named,
Fenians formed to establish an Irish republic. It was from this background that Gladstone
decided to redress the grievances of Irish people. Gladstone passed Irish Land Act in the
year1870. This Act made the landlord pay compensation to the evicted tenants. Gladstone
also tried to bring a Home Rule Bill for Ireland. But even the members of his own party
disagreed with him and the measure was rejected. These were Gladstones first hopeful
measures dealing with the problem of Ireland.

Educational Reforms
In 1870 Gladstone brought the greatest of all the reform measures. This was in the
field of Education. It proved more than anything else to change the future of England.
Before 1870, there was no national system of education in England. There were some
expensive public schools. Some schools were run by Christian missionaries. The majority
of working class and common people in England were illiterate. One of the most
important measures of reform in the field was the passing of the Forsters Education Act
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(1870). W.E.Forster was the Vice-President of the Privy Council. Forsters act made
primary education available for every child in England. It divided England into various
educational districts. These districts were controlled by School Boards. The School Boards
were empowered to levy education taxes and to set up primary schools wherever no
schools already existed. Gladstone declared a school should be placed within the reach of
every English child. But schooling was not yet made compulsory or free. However, ten
years later, Gladstones government made elementary school compulsory and free.
Gladstone imparted other two memorable reforms in education. In 1870 he
introduced competitive examinations for selecting candidates in the Civil Services. The
result was the government received most suitable personalities for smooth conducting of
administration.
Gladstone introduced an Act, namely Test Act in the year 1871.The Act abolished
the religious tests which had hitherto kept Nonconformists and Roman Catholics out of
Oxford and Cambridge Universities. Only Anglicans were allowed to study and hold
positions in the Universities. But Test Act threw open universities to all including
Catholics. This was a very revolutionary reform imparted by Gladstone.
It was during his time that several important reforms were taken towards the
education of women. Due to his efforts considerable improvement in the education of
women were occurred. Some womens colleges were founded; but they were not allowed
to take degrees. In 1878 London University for the first time conferred degrees on women.
To conclude, Gladstone was always a lover of peace and the policy he took in
foreign affairs was that of non-intervention. He was not an imperialist. He was not eager
to annex colonies to British Empire. Above all Gladstone was a great reformer.

Benjamin Disraeli and His Reforms (1804-1881)

Benjamin Disraeli was born in the year 1804 and he was of Jewish descent. He was
very famous statesman of England and belongs to conservative party. He was not the
product of an English public school and university. But he raised himself by sheer native
ability and determination to the first place in England. He was also a well-known writer
and his two novels coningsby and Sybil became famous. In 1837 he became a member of
British parliament and became veteran leader of Tory (Conservative) party. He elected
Chancellor of Exchequer three times and Prime Minister of Great Britain twice. Though he
was a member of Conservative party he was in favour of the introduction of reforms.
Disraeli played a vital role to rejuvenate Tory party.
Known as a novelist, a brilliant orator and England's first and only Jewish Prime
Minister, Disraeli (Earl of Beaconsfield) is best remembered for bringing India and the
Suez Canal under control of the British crown. A Conservative, he was elected to
Parliament in 1837 after failing to win election in four earlier elections. After Robert Peel
formed a government in 1841, Disraeli was on the outs until 1846. He wrote a trilogy
"Coningsby", "Sybil" and "Tancred to expound his ideas. He formed the Young England
group as watchdogs over Peel's brand of conservatism. When Peel's government fell,
Disraeli gradually became known as the leader of the Conservatives in the Commons.
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Disraeli served as Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Derby as prime minister
in Conservative governments of 1852, 1858-59 and 1866-68. The 1858-59 Parliament made
the admission of Jews to Parliament legal, clearing the way for a Disraeli's prime
ministership following Lord Derby's retirement in 1868. Defeated in a general election by
William Gladstone that same year, Disraeli faced another six years of opposition which
produced another novel entitled "Lothair" in 1870. He also established the Conservative
Central Office, considered by some as the forerunner of modern party organization.
Disraeli became prime minister for the second time in 1874 at the age of 70.He
purchased a controlling interest in the Suez Canal, conferring the title of Empress of India
upon the Queen Victoria and in so doing earning himself the title of Earl of Beaconsfield
in 1876. During the next two years, Disraeli and liberal Leader William Gladstone clashed
over issues surrounding the Bulgarian revolt and the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78).
Disraeli represented British interests in the Congress of Berlin, 1878, which brought peace
as well as Cyprus under British flag. His government was defeated in 1880. Disraeli died
the following year.

Important Reform Acts Introduced by Disraeli

Even though Disraeli was a member of Conservative party he was in favour of the
introduction of reforms. The famous Parliamentary Reform Act of 1867 was passed
during his time. This act gave voting right to industrial workers and artisans in town or
urban area and also doubled the electorate to British parliament. The Trade Union Act of
1875 passed by Disraelis ministry made strikes and peaceful picketing legal. His Public
Health Act of 1875 was very famous. It gave power to Boroughs and Country Councils to
take measures for the promotion of public health. This Act laid down certain sanitary
rules to which all owners of houses had to follow. It amended and consolidated existing
laws on public health, and added some new rules and regulations. The Act dealt with
sewage, water-supply, nuisances, scavenging, and infectious diseases. The appointment of
Medical Officers of Health was made compulsory in districts. The Artisans Dwelling Act
(1875) was another milestone in the reforms put forth by Disraeli. It gave power Local
authorities to purchase slum-dwelling for destruction. This was a measure intended to do
away with the in sanitary slums of large towns. The aim was to improve the conditions of
urban slums. This Act empowered the Local authorities to pull down slum dwellings and
construct better houses for the workers and artisans.

The Reform Act of 1867

The Representation of the People Act 1867, (known informally as the Reform Act
of 1867 or the Second Reform Act) was a piece of British legislation that enfranchised the
urban male working class in England and Wales. Before the Act, only one million of the
five million adult males in England and Wales could vote; the act doubled that number. In
its final form, the Reform Act of 1867 enfranchised all male householders.

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There had been moves toward electoral reform in the early 1860s by Lord John
Russell. However, his attempts were criticised by Britains most powerful politician of the
time Lord Palmerstone who was against any form of change. The death of Palmerstone
in 1865 gave Russell the opportunity he needed as he became Prime Minister. Russell
wanted to give the vote to respectable working men but excluded unskilled workers
and the poor.
Russells Bill split the Liberal Party. There were those who favoured his Reform Bill
as the right move ahead. But there were some Liberals who were more conservative and
sided with the Conservative Party to defeat the Bill. Parliaments lack of enthusiasm for
change led to Russells resignation in June 1866.The new Prime Minister was Lord Derby,
a Conservative. His Chancellor of the Exchequer was Benjamin Disraeli. Ironically
Gladstone was supported by Disraeli in his desire to extend the franchise.
The Conservatives introduced a bill that was more far-reaching that many
politicians had expected. Russells desire to enfranchise the respectable working men
was expanded to effectively include most men who lived in urban areas. Disraeli believed
that the newly enfranchised men would thank the Conservatives for their new found
political status and would vote for the party. In this he was correct as the Conservatives
won the 1874 election.

Major Provisions of the Act of 1867

The 1867 Reform Act enfranchised 1,500,000 men. Voting right was given to
industrial workers and artisans in town area. The Act extended the voting right to people
those who are living in a Borough for one year and paying the poor tax, and owning
and occupying a house of ten pounds value.
The Act doubled electorate to British parliament.52 seats were redistributed from
small towns (less than a population of 10,000 such as Chichester, Harwich and Windsor)
to the growing industrial towns or counties. Birmingham, Leeds, Liverpool and
Manchester saw their representation increase from 2 MPs to 3 MPs. The University of
London was also given a seat. The counties of Cheshire, Kent, Norfolk, Somerset,
Staffordshire and Surrey were all given 6 MPs instead of 4.

The Co-operative Movement

The early part of the 19th century witnessed the growth of co-operative movement
in England. It was emerged as an offshoot of trade unionism. The earliest co-operative
societies were established among the weavers, workers in cottage industries, who were
suffered by moneylenders and mercantile economy during the industrial revolution. The
real co-operative movement can be credited to Rochdale Pioneers who established the
co-operative consumer store in North England, which can be called as the first in the
co-operative consumer movement. Around this time the co-operative movement was
more at a practical level. In Great Britain, Robert Owen (1771-1858) established selfcontained semi-agricultural, semi-industrial communities. Robert Owen is considered as the
father of co-operative movement. Owen was sure that working-class people, given the right
environment, possibly will form Co-operative communities. He put this into practice in
New Lanark, Scotland, where his own business was based.Dr William King (1757-1865)
helped to spread Owens doctrines .His ideas were more reasonable than Owens and
achieved more results.
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In England, the beginning of co-operation goes back to the middle of the eighteenth
century. The originators of co-operation were the workmen employed by the government
in the dockyard of Woolwich and Chatham, who, as early as 1760, had found corn mills on a
co-operative basis as a move against the high prices charged by the corn-millers who held the
local monopoly. As early as 1760, there were groups of workers in the naval dockyard of
Wool wick and Chatham had set up the first co-operative flour mill. In 19th century, new
inventions in industrial field were introduced whose quality and cheapness of products
ousted those of the cottage industries. Working class, thus thrown out of work, was left
entirely at the mercy of the factory owners. Their condition was extremely miserable, their
hours of work were long and wages small. Their living conditions were wretched. Robert
Owen (1771-1858), is generally regarded as the founder of the modern co-operative
movement with the workers of Bellers.His ideas put together have been named doctrine of
circumstances. Owen started his practice work by introducing reforms in his own factory as
a measure to improve the conditions of workers. He reduced the hours of work, increase
wages, abolished child labour, provide housing colonies and aid many other things in order
to improve the conditions of workers. These reforms increased the production and profit of
the factory. He wrote that the competition must be replaced by co-operation. His ideas had long
lasting effects. A group of Rockdale weavers called Rockdale Pioneers borrowed his ideas,
clubbed together to open a little shop for the supply of food stuffs for themselves and their
neighbours. The society was called Toad Lane Store. The important peculiarity of this store
was the profits were shared by all customers in proportion to the amount of their purchases
and thus they had an interest in promoting its sales.
William King (1786-1865) was another pioneer who helped a lot in building up cooperative ideology. He advocated smaller institutions to be organized on the co-operative
basis. Most of the co-operative societies were founded under Kings influence. William King
took the ideas of Owen and made them more workable and practical. King realized that the
working classes would need to set up co-operatives for themselves, so he saw his role as one
of instruction. He founded a monthly periodical called The Co-operator, the first edition of
which appeared on 1 May 1828. This gave a mixture of co-operative philosophy and practical
advice about running a shop using cooperative principles. King advised people not to cut
themselves off from society, but rather to form a society within a society, and to start with a
shop because, "We must go to a shop every day to buy food and necessaries - why then
should we not go to our own shop?" He proposed sensible rules, such as having a weekly
account audit, having trustees, and not having meetings in pubs (to avoid the temptation of
drinking)
The co-operative movement has played a remarkable part in the political development
of Britain. It gave the working class a motive for thrift, a sense of having a stake in the country
and valuable experience of working together for a common cause.
John Wesley (1703-1791)
John Wesley was an Anglican cleric and Christian theologian. Wesley is largely
credited, along with his brother Charles Wesley, as founding the Methodist movement in
England. Wesley embraced the Armenian doctrines that were dominant in the 18th-century
Church of England. Methodism in both forms was a highly successful evangelical movement
in the United Kingdom, which encouraged people to experience Jesus Christ personally.
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Wesley's teachings, known as Wesleyanism, provided the seeds for the modern
Methodist movement, the Holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the Charismatic
Movement, and Neo-charismatic churches, which encompass numerous denominations
across the world. In addition, he refined Armenianism with a strong evangelical emphasis
on the Reformed doctrine of justification by faith. Wesley worked to organize and form
societies of Christians throughout England, Scotland, Wales, North America and Ireland
as small groups that developed intensive, personal accountability, discipleship and
religious instruction among members. His great contribution was to appoint itinerant
preachers who travelled widely to evangelise and care for people in the societies.
Under Wesley's direction, Methodists became leaders in many social issues of the
day, including the prison reform and abolitionism movements. Wesley's contribution as a
theologian was to propose a system of opposing theological stances. His greatest
theological achievement was his promotion of what he termed "Christian Perfection", or
holiness of heart and life. Wesley held that, in this life, Christians could come to a state in
which the love of God, or perfect love, reigned supreme in their hearts. His evangelical
theology, especially his understanding of Christian perfection, was firmly grounded in his
sacramental theology. He continually insisted on the general use of the means of grace
(prayer, scripture, meditation, Eucharist, etc.) as the means by which God sanctifies and
transforms the believer.
Later in his career Wesley was a keen abolitionist. He spoke out and wrote against
the slave trade. He published a pamphlet on slavery titled, Thoughts upon Slavery, (1774).
He once remarked against the slave trade thus: "Liberty is the right of every human creature,
as soon as he breathes the vital air; and no human law can deprive him of that right which he
derives from the law of nature". Wesley was a friend of John Newton and William
Wilberforce who were also influential in the abolition of slavery in Britain. Throughout his
life Wesley remained within the Church of England and insisted that his movement was
well within the bounds of the Anglican tradition. Toward the end of his life he was widely
respected and referred to as "the best loved man in England."

Development of Socialist Ideas in England

The History of socialism in Great Britain is generally stretch back to the 19th
century. The term socialism derived from the Latin word sociare which meant to compine
or to share. The philosophers and philanthropists of the earlier centuries had expressed
their resentment against the inequalities of the society and put forth the concept of an
egalitarian society. Socialism emerged as a radical revolutionary ideological movement in
the early 19th century. The Industrial Revolution in England had created many sufferings
among common people; especially the working class suffered a lot due to the harsh
exploitation of the bourgeois capitalist class. Naturally socialist ideologies first appeared
in England against the evils of capitalism. The birth of socialist ideas was closely
associated with the growth of industrial capitalism and a new class of industrial workers.
Industrial capitalism produced severe injustice in the society. The money and power got
concentrated in the hands of a few group. Small group of capitalists acquired huge profits
by exploiting the poor working class. The majority of the workers lived in conditions of
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extreme poverty. Majority of the people of Manchester and Liverpool (newly emerged
industrial cities) lived in cellars. In Rochdale, in1840, five-sixths of the population had
hardly a blanket between them; at Paisley, 15000 nearly starving persons had little or no
clothing, and no bedding on which to lie. At the same time the capitalist class led a very
luxurious life with great pomp and show. Low wages, long hours of work, exploitation of
women and children and the threat of unemployment made the life of working class
harsh and miserable. In such circumstances many people grew impatient of Government
efforts to deal with the public distress. They decided to organise themselves. People began
to realise why there had been much poverty in the midst of plenty. They found capitalism
as a system of oppression and exploitation. Thus many social thinkers and political
activists proposed a revolutionary alternative to capitalism and exhorted for forming
revolutionary movements. Of these movements the most important were Socialism, early
Trade Unionism and Chartism. Socialism thus emerged as a counter ideology of
capitalism.
Socialism believed that capitalism is a negation of egalitarianism. The socialists
therefore proposed the establishment of an egalitarian society. They argued for equal
rights, benefits and opportunity for everybody in the society. Socialism severely attacked
the basic concept of capitalism namely, the private ownership of the means of production.
Socialists strongly believed that all the means of production would be owned by the
society as a whole and utilised for the welfare of the people. Profit motivation, another
basis of capitalism was also attacked by the socialists. They argued the motive of profit
should be replaced by the motive of service. In short, socialism exalted the community
above individual and stood for human equality.

Robert Owen and His Socialist Ideas

The pioneering work of Robert Owen (1771-1858), a Welsh radical, at New Lanark
in Scotland, is credited as being the birth of British Socialism. He also lobbied Parliament
over child labour, and helped to create the co-operative movement, before attempting to
create a utopian community at New Lanark.
In 1800 Robert Owen became the manager of a textile mill at New Lanark, Scotland.
He transformed the textile mill in to a model community. He stopped employing children
under the age of 10, and instead arranged for their education, and improved the working
and living conditions of all his workers. Besides, he provided pension, a savings bank,
health insurance, and recreation facilities to the workers. New Lanark became famous as a
model community and a miracle among industries. He emphasised the value of
co-operation rather than of competition. He proposed the establishment of village
cooperation for poor people and unemployed, in which work and its products would be
shared in common.
The early Trade Union movement was much influenced by the ideas of Robert
Owen. After the success of his experiments at New Lanark, Owen tried to extend his ideas
of industrial government to the rest of the country. He tried to do so through the medium
of the trades unions. In 1834 Owen formed a Grand National Consolidated Trade Union.
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This was joined by about half a million working people. Owens ideas, which he tried to
enforce through the medium of this Union, are interesting, although they failed at the
time. His ideas embodied the first attempt to achieve Socialism in England. Indeed, Owen
is called the father of English Socialism. He believed that the evils of his time were all due
to the mad race for wealth among manufacturers, which led them to put all human
considerations on one side. Therefore, Owen remarked all individual competitions are to
cease; all manufacturers are to be carried on by National Companies. In these two statements
may be found the germ of much modern socialist thought.

Impact of 1848 Revolution (February Revolution)

19th century Europe was an era of various alterations. Due to industrialization,
people's lifestyle changed a lot and rapid urbanization greatly changed social as well as
economic circumstances of whole Europe. Several side effects of such changes intensified
peoples discontent toward society and people started to change government by their
hands under the name of 'Revolution of 1848-1849.' It was first systematically organized in
France and then spread across the whole European continent. However, there were some
nations that avoided its effect and Great Britain was one of them.
The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of
Nations, springtime of the Peoples or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political
upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It was the only Europe-wide collapse of traditional
authority to date, but within a year reactionary forces had won out and the revolutions
collapsed. This revolutionary wave began in France in February, and immediately spread
to most of Europe and parts of Latin America. Over 50 countries were affected, but there
was no coordination or cooperation among the revolutionaries in different countries. The
following are the major factors caused the Revolution-1) The widespread dissatisfaction
with the political leadership 2) The demand for more participation and democracy 3) The
demands of the working classes 4) The upsurge of nationalism 5) The regrouping of the
reactionary forces based in the royalty, the aristocracy, the army, and the peasants. The
uprisings were led by the middle classes and workers, but it could not hold together for
long. Tens of thousands of people were killed and many more forced into exile. The only
significant lasting reforms were the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end
of absolute monarchy in Denmark, as well as the definitive end of the monarchy in France.
The revolutions were most important in France, Germany, Poland, Italy, and the Austrian
Empire, and did not reach Russia, Great Britain, Spain, Sweden, Portugal, or the Ottoman
Empire.
Course of the Revolution in France
The French autocratic ruler Louis Philips reactionary and anti-democratic policies
provided an occasion for the 1848 Revolution in France. Since 1830 onwards France was
ruled by the bourgeois monarchy of Louis Philip. Really, Louis Philip was only a puppet
in the hands of Guizot, the Minister of Foreign Affairs. The government was dominated
by capitalists. The French government neglected the welfare of the common people and
working class. The government oppressed trade unions and implemented harsh laws
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upon them. Processions and demonstrations of working class were severely

suppressed.19th century intellectuals of France namely, Saint Simon, Louis Blanc and
Proudhon supported the cause of working class and common people. They gave a moral
and intellectual backing to the revolutionaries. The public decided to undertake a direct
agitation against Louis Philip and wanted to oust him from the throne. The mob gained
control over Paris on February 24th and Louis Philip was forced to abdicate the throne.
The same day (24th Feb 1848) a provisional government was formed and France was
proclaimed a Republic. In the presidential election, Louis Napoleon, the nephew of
Napoleon Bonaparte was elected with great majority.

How the Revolution of 1848 affected in Britain

During this Revolutionary period, Great Britain was one of the only countries that
were not affected by 1848 revolution. In Great Britain, the middle classes had been
pacified by general enfranchisement in the Reform Act of 1832, with consequent
agitations, violence, and petitions of the Chartist movement. The repeal of the
protectionist agricultural tariffs - called the "Corn Laws" - in 1846, had defused some
proletarian fervour. Governments rapid and satisfactory reaction toward people's request
prevented itself from threat in 1848 when the whole Europe was under the clutches of
Revolutions.
However, some internal issues occurred in Britain in connection with the
revolution. In England the response to the 1848 Revolution was a mixed one. Working
class and common people were whole heartedly supported the revolt. But the capitalist
class criticised the revolt and tried their best to prevent the reflections of revolution in
England. Another interesting matter concerned with the revolution of 1848 was the
conflict between the then British Foreign Minister Lord Palmerstone and Queen Victoria.
Lord Palmerstone supported the national revolt in France and gave appreciation to Louis
Napoleon, who came to power in France after the revolution. This provoked queen
Victoria, she was already not satisfied with the events in France. The Prime Minister Lord
Russell also sided with Queen in criticising Palmerstones policy. Queen Victoria gave an
ultimatum to Palmerstone to withdraw his earlier commends on Revolution. But
Palmerstone was not ready to agree with Queen and at her persuasion he was removed
from ministry.

Impact of Corn Laws

The Corn Laws were trade laws designed to protect cereal producers in the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland against competition from less expensive foreign
imports between 1815 and 1846. British landowners reaped all financial profits from
farming, the Corn Laws made it too expensive for anyone to import grain from other
countries, even when the people of Great Britain and Ireland needed the food, as in times
of famine. The laws were introduced by the Importation Act of 1815 and repealed by the
Importation Act of 1846. These laws are often considered as examples of British
mercantilism. The Corn Laws enhanced the profits and political power associated with
land ownership; their abolition was a significant increase of free trade.
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What is Corn Law?

During the ministry of Lord Liverpool, the British parliament in 1815 passed the
Corn Law to forbid the import of corn into Britain. Parliament in 1815 was a parliament of
landowners, and landowners were dependent on farmers who could pay their rents. Prior
to the introduction of Corn Law German and other foreign corns began to import in to
Britain. The result was the price of British corn fell rapidly. British farmers suffered in
consequence, and many ruined. In 1815, therefore parliament passed a Corn Law, which
stated that no foreign corn should be imported in to England. Thus the British farmer was
protected by law from foreign competition. The Corn Laws were passed in order to
protect the interest of the landowning classes and peasants. But the middle classes and
working men were against the Corn Laws. The land owners and peasants of England and
Ireland supported the Corn Laws because they thought that the import of foreign corn
would reduce the price of corn and it would affect them badly. But industrialists and
middle class wanted the repeal of the existing Corn Laws to get corn in a cheaper price.
There emerged heated debates and controversy over Corn Laws. Many political leaders
and economists of the time came forward to expose their arguments on Corn Laws.
Famous English economist David Ricardo strongly criticised the Corn Laws and
published a book namely Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of
Stock (1815). Ricardo argued that raising the tariff on grain imports would increase the
rents of the country gentlemen while decreasing the profit of manufacturers. He wanted
the immediate repeal of the existing Corn Law in England.

Repeal of Corn Law

When Robert Peels second ministry came in to power, people of England and
Ireland had been agitating for the Repeal of Corn Laws. Though Peel had abolished or
lowered the tariff on various goods, he was not dared to abolish Corn Laws. These laws,
kept in force to protect the English farmer, were supported by the Tory Squires who
backed Peel in the House of Commons. But the demand from the common people made it
obvious that a constant and steady supply of foreign corn was becoming essential to feed
the increasing population. In 1839 an association was form in England known as AntiCorn Law League and its chief aim was to work for the import of corn and immediate
repeal of the Corn Laws. The Anti-Corn Law League was founded at Manchester by
Richard Cobden and John Bright. Cobden and Bright were both fine speakers and were
men of high perseverance. They were elected to parliament and their influence soon
reflected in amending the Corn Laws.
Robert Peel was anxious to ease the hardship of the masses. In 1845 the English
harvest was poor. The Irish potato crop failed completely from blight. Irish men were
dying in thousands, though their landlords were exporting corn to England where they
obtained a higher price. This was the circumstances that prompted Robert Peel to think
seriously on Repeal of Corn Law. By the end of 1845 Peel was prepared to repeal the Corn
Laws. Peel had no choice but to repeal the Corn Laws. In 1846, after much difficulty in his
cabinet, he introduced and carried a Bill for the Repeal of Corn Laws. By this Act all taxes
on corn were to be abolished in three years and permitted import of corn into England.
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Though Robert Peel belonged to Tory part he could carry the repeal of Corn Laws
Bill only with the support of Whig party. When his own members rejected his proposal of
repeal he was ready to resign in favour of the Whigs. Nearly two hundred members of his
own party voted against the Bill. The repeal of Corn Laws split the Tory party. The Whigs
came in under Lord John Russell. The Tories were divided into Peelites and Protectionists.
The supporters of free trade came to be called Peelites. The other was composed of the
landowners, opposed the repeal of Corn Laws and was called Protectionists.
The Repeal of the Corn Law was not immediately followed by a fall in the price of
corn. But the importation of foreign corn, which doubled in the next five years, prevented
a rise in price.

Representation of Social Problems in Literature: Charles Dickens,

Thackeray and Oscar Wilde.
Charles Dickens (1812-1870)
Charles John Huffam Dickens (7 February 1812 9 June 1870) was an English
writer and social critic who is generally regarded as the greatest novelist of the Victorian
period and the creator of some of the world's most memorable fictional characters. During
his lifetime Dickens's works enjoyed unprecedented popularity and fame, and by the
twentieth century his literary genius was fully recognized by critics and scholars. His
novels and short stories continue to enjoy an enduring popularity among the general
reading public.
Charles Dickens was not only the first great urban novelist in England, but also one
of the most important social commentators who used fiction effectively to criticize
economic, social, and moral abuses in the Victorian era. Dickens showed compassion and
empathy towards the vulnerable and disadvantaged segments of English society, and
contributed to several important social reforms. Dickenss deep social commitment and
awareness of social ills are derived from his traumatic childhood experiences when his
father was imprisoned in the Marshal sea Debtors Prison under the Insolvent Debtors Act
of 1813, and he at the age of twelve worked in a shoe-blacking factory. In his adult life
Dickens developed a strong social conscience, an ability to empathise with the victims of
social and economic injustices.
Dickens believed in the ethical and political potential of literature, and the novel in
particular, and he treated his fiction as a springboard for debates about moral and social
reform. In his novels of social analysis Dickens became an outspoken critic of unjust
economic and social conditions. His deeply-felt social commentaries helped raise the
collective awareness of the reading public. Dickens contributed significantly to the
emergence of public opinion which was gaining an increasing influence on the decisions
of the authorities. Indirectly, he contributed to a series of legal reforms, including the
abolition of the inhumane imprisonment for debts, purification of the Magistrates courts,
a better management of criminal prisons, and the restriction of the capital punishment.

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All his novels depict the predicament of the poor and oppressed people. Oliver
Twist, a Tale of Two Cities, Nicholas Nickleby, a Christmas Carol, Great Expectations,
and The Old Curiosity Shop are some of his notable novels. His David Copperfield is an
autobiography. He was always with side of oppressed people. Many of his novels are
passionate pleas for sympathy with the unfortunate men and women who inhabited in the
suburbs of London. The sufferings of prisoners are scattered all over his novels. The
education system of the period also criticised. The life of David at Salem house and the
depiction of Mr Creakle who is very harsh and callous to the boys in David Copperfield
point out the defects of the educational system prevailed at that time. Oliver Twist and
Nicholas Nickleby reflected Dickens' understanding of the lower classes as well as his
comic genius. In 1843, Dickens published one of his most famous works, A Christmas
Carol. His disenchantment with the world's economic drives is clear in this work; he
blames much of society's ills on people's obsession with earning money and acquiring
status based on money.
His travels abroad in the 1840s, first to America and then through Europe, marked
the beginning of a new stage in Dickens' life. His writings became longer and more
serious. In David Copperfield (1849-50), readers find the same flawed world that Dickens
discovered as a young boy. Dickens published some of his best-known novels including A
Tale of Two Cities and Great Expectations in his own weekly periodicals. A Tale of Two
Cities published in 1859. Its popularity was based not only on the fame of its author, but
also on its short length and radical subject matter.
On June 9, 1870, Charles Dickens died. He was buried in Poet's Corner of
Westminster Abbey. Though he left The Mystery of Edwin Drood unfinished, he had
already written fifteen substantial novels and countless shorter pieces. His legacy is clear.
In a whimsical and unique fashion, Dickens pointed out society's flaws in terms of its
blinding greed for money and its neglect of the lower classes of society. Through his
books, we come to understand the virtues of a loving heart and the pleasures of home in a
flawed, cruelly indifferent world. Among English writers, in terms of his fame and of the
public's recognition of his characters and stories, he is second only to William
Shakespeare.

William M. Thackeray (1811-1863)

William Thackeray was born on July 18, 1811, in Calcutta, India, the only son of a
British civil servant of the East India Company. His father died when he was five years
old and his mother remarried so he was sent home to England. He was educated in
England in London and then at Cambridge University, which he left without a degree.
Later, he studied law in London and art in Paris. In 1836 he married a poor Irish girl,
Isabella Shaw. They had three daughters.
Thackeray was one of the greatest English novelists of the 19th century and the
contemporary of Charles Dickens. He was also a comic illustrator and a journalist. He was
a prolific writer and famous for satirical works, particularly Vanity Fair, a panoramic
portrait of 19th century English society. His other major works include Barry Lyndon,
Henry Esmond, The Virginians and The New Comes. His witty and humorous sketches of
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London characters written for the famous satirical magazine Punch reappeared in 1848 as
The Book of Snobs. Thackerays best stories are funny, satirical and historical, carefully
observed studies of the society he lived in. His books were more realistic than most other
novels of his time, showing his characters with a balanced bad points as well as good. As
in real life, the bad characters sometimes succeeded and prosper more than the good ones.
He died on December 24, 1863 at the age of 52.

Vanity Fair
The novel Vanity Fair made Thackeray famous. This tale of two middle-class
London families has two heroines: scheming ambitious Becky Sharp and gentle, goodnatured but nave and often 'silly' Amelia Sedley. Thackeray did not believe in ideal hero
or heroine because to him no one is perfect. Vanity Fair is a novel without a Hero, first
published in 184748, satirizing society in early 19th-century Britain. Vanity Fair refers to
a stop along the pilgrim's progress: a never-ending fair held in a town called Vanity,
which is meant to represent man's sinful attachment to worldly things. The novel is
considered a classic, and has inspired several film adaptations. Though Thackeray set his
novel a generation earlier he was really writing about his own society (he even used
contemporary clothing in his illustrations for the novel). Thackeray saw how capitalism
and imperialism with their emphasis on wealth, material goods, and ostentation had
corrupted society and how the inherited social order and institutions, including the
aristocracy, the church, the military, and the foreign service, regarded only family, rank,
power, and appearance. These values morally crippled and emotionally bankrupted every
social class from servants through the middle classes to the aristocracy. High and low,
individuals were selfish and incapable of loving .In his own words we come across the
Vanity Fair a set of people living without God in the world, greedy pompous men
perfectly well satisfied for the most part and ease about their superior nature.

Oscar Wilde (1854-1900)

Oscar Fingal OFlaherty Wills Wilde was born in Dublin in 1854.He was an Irish
playwright, poet and author of numerous short stories and one novel. Known for his
biting wit, he became one of the most successful playwrights of the late Victorian era in
London, and one of the greatest celebrities of his day. A gifted poet, playwright, and wit;
Oscar Wilde was a phenomenon in 19th century England. He was illustrious for preaching
the importance of style in life and art, and of attacking Victorian narrow mindedness. He
studied at Trinity College, Dublin, before leaving his native Ireland to study at Oxford
University when he was in his early twenties. Several of his plays continue to be widely
performed, especially The Importance of Being Earnest. As the result of a widely covered
series of trials, Wilde suffered a dramatic downfall and was imprisoned for two years
hard labour after being convicted of "gross indecency" with other men. Wilde is
immortalised through his works, and the stories he wrote for children such as "The Happy
Prince" and "The Selfish Giant" are still vibrant in the imagination of the public. His novel,
"The Picture of Dorian Gray" (1890) is a widely discussed one. It depicts the story of a
young handsome man who sells his soul to a picture to have eternal youth and beauty,
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only to face the hideousness of his own portrait as it ages, which entails his evil nature
and degradation."The Picture of Dorian Gray, which caused controversy as the book
evidently, attacked the hypocrisy of Victorian England. The book was later used as
incriminating evidence at Oscar Wilde's trail, on the basis of its evident homosexual
content. The book has been interpreted on stage dramas, films, television, and is currently
being filmed twice. Oscar Wilde's very personality inspired the 1997 film, 'Wilde', which
told the story of his homosexual life, and which had Stephen Fry as Oscar Wilde and Jude
Law as Lord Alfred Douglas.
Collective Works of Oscar Wilde
Prose
Historical Criticism of Hoboeroticism in Ancient Greek Literature
The Picture of Dorian Gray
House of Pomegranates
The Soul of Man under Socialism
Poetry
Ballad of Reading Gaol
Ballad of Wands worth Gaol
The Sphinxter
Plays
Lady Windermere's Fan
The Importance of Being Earnest

Pre- Raphaelite Brotherhood

The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (also known as the Pre-Raphaelites) was a group
of English painters, poets, and critics, founded in 1848 by William Holman Hunt, John
Everett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. The three founders were soon joined by
William Michael Rossetti, James Collinson, Frederic George Stephens and Thomas
Woolner to form a seven-member "brotherhood".
The group's intention was to reform art by rejecting what they considered to be the
mechanistic approach first adopted by the Mannerist artists who succeeded Raphael and
Michelangelo. They believed that the Classical poses and elegant compositions of Raphael
in particular had been a corrupting influence on the academic teaching of art. Hence the
name: Pre-Raphaelite.
The Pre-Raphaelites have been considered the first avant-garde movement in art,
though they have also been denied that status, because they continued to accept both the
concepts of history painting and of mimesis, or imitation of nature, as central to the
purpose of art. However, the Pre-Raphaelites undoubtedly defined themselves as a
reform-movement, created a distinct name for their form of art, and published a
periodical, The Germ, to promote their ideas. Their debates were recorded in the PreRaphaelite Journal.
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The Brotherhoods doctrines were expressed in four declarations:

1. To have genuine ideas to express
2. To study Nature attentively, so as to know how to express them
3. To sympathise with what is direct and serious and heartfelt in previous art, to the
exclusion of what is conventional and self-parodying and learned by rote
4. Most indispensable of all, to produce thoroughly good pictures and statues

William Wilberforce and Abolition of Slavery

William Wilberforce (24 August 1759 29 July 1833) was a British politician,
philanthropist, and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade. He was born on
24 August 1759 in Hull, the son of a wealthy merchant. He studied at Cambridge
University where he began a lasting friendship with the future British prime minister,
William Pitt the Younger. He became interested in Pitts views on radical reform. In 1780,
Wilberforce became Member of Parliament for Hull, later representing Yorkshire. His
dissolute lifestyle changed completely when he became an evangelical Christian, and in
1790 joined a leading group known as the Clapham Sect. His Christian faith prompted
him to become interested in social reform, particularly the improvement of factory
conditions in Britain.
The abolitionist Thomas Clarkson had an enormous influence on Wilberforce. He
and others were campaigning for an end to the trade in which British ships were carrying
slaves from Africa, in terrible conditions, to the West Indies as goods to be bought and
sold. Wilberforce was persuaded to lobby for the abolition of the slave trade and for 18
years he regularly introduced anti-slavery motions in parliament. The campaign was
supported by many members of the Clapham Sect and other abolitionists who raised
public awareness of their cause with pamphlets, books, rallies and petitions.
In 1784, Wilberforce declared that he had been converted to Evangelical
Christianity. He helped to found the Society for the Reformation of Manners, known as
the Proclamation Society, whose aim was the suppression of obscene publications. Here
he drew the attention of Lady Middleton, sister of Home Secretary, Lord Sydney, who
asked Wilberforce to join the newly formed Society for Effecting the Abolition of the
Slave Trade, known as the Anti-Slavery Society. Slavery was, at that time, illegal in
Britain but prevailed in the colonies. Slaves were purchased in West Africa and shipped in
British vessels to the West Indies where they were sold to plantation owners.
The Anti-Slavery Society was a broad group, discretely controlled by a select
group of influential people, known as the Clapham Sect, of whom Wilberforce became the
natural leader due to his prominence in the House of Commons. The Clapham Sect, were
mostly Anglican, whose Christian zeal was directed to projects such as the curbing of
gambling, alcohol, cruel sports, pornography and licentiousness. The suppression of
slavery became top of their agenda. They sought to achieve their object by campaigning in
Parliament and by using their wealth and influence to gain support in the country.
Wilberforce was the most prominent member of the group. He campaigned tirelessly in
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the House of Commons. In 1791, Wilberforce introduced an Anti-Slavery Bill to the

House, but it was rejected. In 1805, after much canvassing, a similar Bill passed the
Commons but was rejected in the Lords. In 1807, Wilberforce achieved his first success
with the passing of the Slave Trade Act, which prohibited the carrying of slaves from
Africa to the British West Indies. The Act, however, did not abolish slavery as nothing was
done to alleviate the condition of existing slaves. The legislation provided for a fine of
100 per slave, levied on any ships captain found transporting slaves. The Act did not
work efficiently as many ships continued to transport slaves. Wilberforce carried on the
fight for total abolition. He also tried to reform the East India Company, with a view to
introducing Christian Light into India. He was unable to compel the Company to
introduce religious teachers but Wilberforce did send missionaries to India and founded
the bishopric of Calcutta.
Eventually the campaign for abolition was a success. Wilberforce persuaded his
colleagues that a Bill to abolish slavery must contain a clause providing compensation to
slave owners for the loss of their property. On 29 July 1833, a Bill containing such a clause
passed through Parliament. The Slavery Abolition Act gave freedom to all slaves in the
British Empire and eradicated slavery permanently. Slave owners were compensated for
their losses.
Wilberforce did not live to see the end of slavery. He died of influenza on 29 July
1833, one month before the Act was passed. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, in
Statesmans Corner'.
EXERCISES
1)
2)
3)
4)

What is Industrial Revolution?

Analyse the Impact of Industrial Revolution.
What are the features of Factory System?
Explain the growth of Trade Unionism with special reference to Chartist
Movement.
5) What is Agrarian Revolution? What was its impact on English society?
6) What is Enclosure Movement?
7) Give a brief account on Laissez-faire theory.
8) Explain the background of British Parliamentary Reforms in the 19th century.
9) The Act of 1832 as the watershed moment at which the sovereignty of the people
had established. Analyse this statement by looking into the major provisions and
effect of the Act of 1832 on English society.
10) William Gladstone
11) Discuss the major reforms introduced by William Gladstone.
12) Forsters Education Act of 1870.
13) Benjamin Disraeli

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14) Critically examine Benjamin Disraeli as a man of staunch imperialist and a great
reformer.
15) Give a brief account of the Reform Act of 1867.
16) Discuss the development of co-operative movement in Britain.
17) Explain the role of Robert Owen in the development of socialist ideas in Britain.
18) Revolution of 1848.
19) How did the Revolution of 1848 affected in Great Britain.
20) What is Corn Law?
21) What was the impact of the Repeal of Corn laws in 19th century English politics?
22) Charles dickens
23) Oscar wilde
24) William Thackeray
25) Vanity Fair
26) Describe the triumph of Anti-slavery movement in England under the leadership of
William Wilberforce.

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UNIT-III
ANTECEDENTS
England between Two World Wars

First World War (1914-1918)

World War I was a global war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and
lasted until 11 November 1918. It was predominantly called the World War or the Great
War from its occurrence until the start of World War II in 1939, and the First World War or
World War I thereafter. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in
two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom,
France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred on the Triple Alliance of
Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy).These alliances both reorganised and expanded as
more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel,
including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More
than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of enormous increases in lethality
of weapons.
The long term effects of imperialism, nationalism and militarism created tensions
that lasted for years in Europe. However the immediate causes of the war was from the
alliance system, tensions on the Balkan Peninsula, and the assassination of Archduke
Ferdinand. The alliance system was the main reason for expanding the small war between
Austria-Hungary and Serbia to the entire world.

Causes of the First World War

Secret and Diplomatic Alliances
Before the start of the war, several treaties had been signed and several wars had
been fought that created great animosity in Europe and led to the formation of alliance
systems. Ever since German unification, the Chancellor of Germany, Otto von Bismarck
had realized that Germany would need a strong ally for protection because of Germany's
big disadvantage in geography. In case of a war or conflict, Germany could be attacked on
all sides by its enemies. In 1879, Germany signed an alliance treaty with Austria-Hungary.
Germany felt that this alliance would ensure security and survival of their empire. In
addition, the treaty served as a way of preventing a Russian attack on Germany because of
Russian outrage at Germany from the Congress of Berlin. In 1878 Germany set up a
Congress in Berlin between the European nations. In the Congress, the treaty of San Stefan
was nullified and Bosnia-Herzegovina was given to Austria-Hungary. Germany knew
that if Russia attacked, it would easily be defeated by both Germany and
Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary signed the treaty with Germany because it wanted to
prevent a Russian attack on it from tension between the nations on the Balkan Peninsula.
The treaty was very significant because it was one of the first alliances signed between
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two superpowers in Europe. In1882; Italy had made an alliance with Germany and
Austria-Hungary. These three countries made up the Triple Alliance of Europe. Against
this military alliance, there emerged another group. In 1907, England made an alliance
with Russia. The Triple Entente came into force which included three great powers of
Europe- Great Britain, Russia and France. The Triple Alliance confronted with the Triple
Entente and the rivalry between the two became one of the major causes of the First
World War.

Nationalism
The rise of the feeling of narrow and ultra-nationalism was, to a great extent,
responsible for the outbreak of First World War. Nationalism is a political ideology that
involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a nation. Ultra nationalism
is a zealous nationalism that expresses extremist support for one's nationalist ideals. It is
often characterized by authoritarianism, efforts toward reduction or stoppage of
immigration, expulsion and or oppression of non-native populations within the nation or
its territories. Prevalent ultra-nationalism typically leads to or is the result of conflict
within a state, and or between states, and is identified as a condition of pre-war in
national politics. In its extremist forms ultra-nationalism is characterized as a call to war
against enemies of the nation. From this point of view, Germany was leading country at
that time. The people and the government were so blinded by the ultra-nationalistic zeal
that they regarded their country as the best nation of the world. This feeling was definitely
an alarm of danger for the world peace and internationalism. The internal politics of
Balkan states were also affected by the emergence of extreme nationalism. This factor also
played major role in the growth of tension and rivalry in the relations between Germany
and England.

The problem of Alsace-Lorraine

The problem related with Alsace and Lorraine was also prominent factor
responsible for the outbreak of World War I. The problem had created rivalry between
France and Germany for a long period. In 1870, France was defeated in the battle of Sedan,
and therefore she had to give up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. These
provinces were very importance from the industrial point of view. Due to the high
relevance of these places, Bismarck compelled France to surrender these provinces to
Germany, and France was forced to give these places. The people of France wanted get
these provinces back from Germany. But Bismarck was not ready to agree with the
desperate demand of France. After the fall of Bismarck, the political scenario of Europe
changed rapidly. France succeeded in entering an alliance with Russia and England. These
circumstances hiked the strength of France. People of France now demanded the
government that the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine should be captured away from
Germany. National sentiments were being roused in France. This led to hatred and rivalry
between France and Germany and finally led to the disastrous world war.

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Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand

Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian
throne, on 28 June 1914, led to the outbreak of war in Europe at the end of July 1914.
Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were killed by Serb nationalist Gavrilo Princip while on a
formal visit to Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. Princip shot Ferdinand at point blank range
while the latter was travelling in his car from a town hall reception. The relations between
Austria and Serbia were already bitter and hostile on the issue of annexation of Bosnia
and Herzegovina to the Austrian empire. The assassination of the Prince gave a chance to
Austria take revenge on Serbia. The Austrian Medias expressed their opinion in favour of
war between the two. Germany utilised this peculiar situation and promised Austria her
unconditional support in any action that she might see fit to take in regard for Serbia.
Austria was highly inspired by the promise of Germany and decided to take revenge on
Serbia. On July 23, 1914, Austria delivered a despatch to Serbia which was destined to
shake the very foundations of the world. The despatch contained ten demands upon the
Serbian government concerning the suppression of anti-Austrian propaganda carried on
by the newspapers and secret societies of Serbia. The despatch was an ultimatum to Serbia
to accept it within forty-eight hours. But Serbia was not ready to accept the terms and
conditions put forth by Austrian government. This ultimatum created a big crisis. It gave
Serbia the alternative of accepting the humiliating conditions or acceptance of war. Serbia
did not accept the entire despatch of Austria. However, due to the pressure of the big
powers, she accepted major part of the despatch. But Austria was not satisfied with the
answers of Serbia and prepared for war. At last on July 28, 1914, Austria declared war on
Serbia and began military attack on that country.

Impact of First World War

The World War of 1914 was the most disastrous event of the world. It was the most
destructive of all fought ever before. About thirty-six nations took part in it. More than
sixty-five million soldiers fought in the war from both sides in which about thirteen
million were killed, twenty two million wounded, and about seven million lost their
limbs. It was the first war in which many new and modern weapons like tanks,
aeroplanes, aerial bombing, submarines and poisonous gases were used on a very large
scale. The war had far reaching consequences which affected the political, economic and
social structure of nations.

Economic effects
One of the most dramatic effects of the war was the expansion of governmental
powers and responsibilities in Britain, France, the United States, and the Dominions of the
British Empire. In order to harness all the power of their societies, governments created
new ministries and powers. New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed to
bolster the war effort.

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In Britain, rationing was imposed in early 1918, limited to meat, sugar, and butter.
From 1914 to 1918 trade union membership doubled, from a little over four million to a
little over eight million. Work stoppages and strikes became frequent in 19171918 as the
unions expressed grievances regarding prices, alcohol control, pay disputes, fatigue from
overtime and working on Sundays, and inadequate housing. Britain turned to her colonies
for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply had become difficult from
traditional sources.
As the governments of all nations directed their endeavours to the war and
invested all money in the war, they could not pay much attention to the welfare of the
people. The governments became indifferent towards the improvement of their industries,
trade, agriculture and commerce. It led to the decrease of food production to a
considerable extent. In order to meet the financial requirements, the governments of
different countries imposed taxes of various types. It caused an overwhelming burden
upon the people, who were already suffering from many economic problems. Due to the
heavy taxes, the financial condition of the people deteriorated further. This caused the
beginning a wave of resentment among the people.

Social Consequences
The world war created some profound effects in the social field also. Its social
consequences are follows:
During the course of war, the demand for soldiers to fight in the battlefield and to
work in the industries producing war materials gradually increased. As a result of this
urgent need of human labour, many people left their jobs and joined in the army. The
vacancies which occurred due to the above reason had to be filled up by women. Due to
the peculiar situations created by the war, the women came out of their homes and began
to work in factories, mills and offices. In this way, the scope of work for women was
expanded and they realised their importance. They also took active part in political
movements. The feelings of self-determination, self-confidence and courage grew in them.
As a consequence of the change, the women demanded equal status with men. They also
demanded that the government should provide all those facilities and concede rights to
them which were being enjoyed by men. In this way, there came about a revolutionary
change in the lives of the women and their social status greatly improved after the war.
Another important consequence of the war which affected the social setup of the
Europe was the great setback to education. Due to the high demand for the soldier to fight
at the battle fields, many students joined in the army. Governments implemented forced
labour to avail soldiers in the battle field. The military training was made compulsory for
all. It adversely affected the progress of education. Most of the educational institutions
were closed due to the decreasing number of students. Thus the education system was
badly affected by the war.

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Womens Movements in the 20th century England

First World War and Women
World War I played a significant part in developing women's political rights. On
June 19th 1917, the House of Commons voted by 385 to 55 to accept the Representation of
the People Bills womens suffrage clause. Suffragists were astonished by the margin of
support given to them by the still all-male Commons. There had been no guarantee that
the bill would be passed, as government whips were not used in the vote. To try to ensure
that the bill was passed, Suffragists were encouraged to contact their MPs to support the
bill. On the day that the vote was taken in the House of Commons, members of the
NUWSS made sure that known supporters of the bill did not leave the House until the
vote had been taken. The strategies used by the Suffragists were important when the size
of the support given to the bill is taken into account. The huge majority of 330 were to
play an important part when it came to the bill moving to the House of Lords.
Womens Suffrage and Political Activity in England after World War I
Womens suffrage emerged as a political issue in Britain in the 1860s when
Parliament voted against an amendment proposed by John Stuart Mill that person
replace man in the bill that would become the 1867 Reform Act. That failure to include
women in an expanded electorate resulted in the creation of the organized campaign for
womens suffrage. The 19th century womens suffrage movement drew ideas and
personnel from a number of earlier political campaigns, including the anti-slavery
movement and Chartism. No single organization or individual dominated the 19th
century womens suffrage movement. Around the turn of the century, new groupings of
suffragists emerged from within domestic opposition to Britains prosecution of war with
the South African Republics. These suffragists, who would come to be known as
militants, continued to use the methods developed by 19th century suffragists, including
lobbying members of parliament and gathering signatures on petitions, but they
advocated the use of more confrontational tactics as well. In the first decade of the
twentieth century, militants garnered both more attention and more controversy for their
campaign through their new tactics, which included resistance to payment of income tax
and registration for the census, various forms of property damage, and the hunger-strike
as a protest against their imprisonment for political activism. By 1914, the organized
campaign for womens parliamentary enfranchisement was in turmoil over how best to
conduct a political campaign devoted to acquiring political rights for women. Militants
existed along a continuum, from those who believed that women held a responsibility to
resist passively the governments operation so long as women remained un-enfranchised,
to those who believed that forms of terrorism like arson were justified as long as women
could not participate in choosing their government. Numerous other suffrage
organizations advocated forms of resistance to government authority. Some argued for
violence and others promoting non-violence. The National Union of Womens Suffrage
Societies (NUWSS), with over 50,000 members, vehemently rejected the use of violence.
An impasse of sorts had been reached by late 1914 as members of the Womens Social and
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Political Union (WSPU) escalated their use of violence, and the government increasingly
clamped down on all women suffragists, imposing longer prison terms and prosecuting
suffragists, publishers of suffrage newspapers, and even financial supporters of the
suffragist. The impasse between the government and suffragists was broken in August
1914 when Britain declared war on Germany, and the great majority of womens suffrage
organizations declared a political truce and ceased all propaganda. The NUWSS led the
way, with its president, Millicent Garrett Fawcett exhorting its members: Let us show
ourselves worthy of citizenship whether our claim is to be recognized or not. The WSPU
also ceased all suffrage activity and began aggressively to champion the British cause,
both at home and abroad. Christabel and Emmeline Pankhurst, leaders of the WSPU
during the war, travelled to the United States and all over Britain, encouraging the active
engagement of men and women, civilian and non-combatant, in the war effort. Suffragists
in the National Liberal Federation, the Conservative and Unionist Womens Franchise
Association, the Church League for Womens Suffrage, and the National League for
Opposing Womens Suffrage similarly ceased propaganda work on the issue of womens
political rights and worked to support the nation during the war. A minority of suffragists
worked actively against the war. Emmeline Pethick Lawrence, and other former WSPU
members, joined former NUWSS and active WFL members in forming the Womens
International League of Great Britain. Many of these anti-war suffragists attended the
International Womens Peace Congress at The Hague in 1915 that led to creation of the
Womens International League for Peace and Freedom, which continued their work
against war efforts of Britain
Womens suffrage organizations also remained politically active during the war in
their attempts to monitor the status of women at home. Most worked against the
governments attempts to erode womens civil liberties during the national crisis. The
NUWSS held a watching brief against any interference with womens personal liberties.
Womens war service and the parliamentary franchise
The relationship between womens war service and passage of legislation granting
a limited measure of womens enfranchisement in 1918 has been closely connected.
Womens work for the nation during the war led directly to their enfranchisement in 1918.
In August 1916, the issue of electoral reform was handed to a special conference chaired
by the Speaker of the House of Commons, James W.Lowther. The committee reported in
January 1917, recommending the enfranchisement of women who held the household
qualification in their own right or who were married to men who did. Parliamentary
enfranchisement was thus granted to those women over the age of thirty who already
possessed the local government vote, or to those who were married to men who already
possessed the local government vote. Men, however, were enfranchised at the age of
twenty-one. Significantly, this legislation looked very much like a bill proposed by a
member of parliament in 1913, a bill that suffragists had rejected because under its
provisions, men would hold the vote from an earlier age than would women. The bill that
became the Representation of the People Act (1918) thus granted a form of female suffrage
that would have been unacceptable to suffragists prior to the war and which was, on the
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whole, greeted with little enthusiasm by suffragists in 1918.Passage of the Representation of

the People Act (1918) resulted in significant changes in the structure and organization of the
womens suffrage societies after the war. The NUWSS became the National Union of Societies
for Equal Citizenship (NUSEC) in 1919. Under the leadership of Eleanor Rathbone, its new
programme included campaigning to extend the vote to men and women from the same age,
and expanded to include legal equality for married women in the areas of the guardianship of
children, nationality, income tax, and property. The Womens Freedom League maintained its
name and defined its agenda in ways similar to the NUWSS. In November 1917, remaining
members of the WSPU formed the Womens Party.

THE SUFFRAGETTES
The Suffragettes wanted the right for women to vote. The move for women to have the
vote had really started in 1897 when Millicent Fawcett founded the National Union of
Women's Suffrage (NUWS). "Suffrage" means the right to vote and that is what women
wanted.
Millicent Fawcett believed in peaceful protest. She felt that any violence or trouble
would persuade men that women could not be trusted to have the right to vote. Her plan was
patience and logical arguments. Fawcett argued that women could hold responsible posts in
society such as sitting on school boards - but could not be trusted to vote; she argued that if
parliament made laws and if women had to obey those laws, then women should be part of
the process of making those laws; she argued that as women had to pay taxes as men, they
should have the same rights as men and one of her most powerful arguments was that
wealthy mistresses of large manors and estates employed gardeners, workmen and labourers
who could vote........but the women could not regardless of their wealth..... However,
Fawcett's progress was very slow. She converted some of the members of the Labour
Representation Committee (soon to be the Labour Party) but most men in Parliament
believed that women simply would not understand how Parliament worked and therefore
should not take part in the electoral process. This left many women angry and in 1903 the
Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) was founded by Emmeline Pankhurst and her
daughters Christabel and Sylvia. They wanted women to have the right to vote and they were
not prepared to wait. The Union became better known as the Suffragettes. Members of the
Suffragettes were prepared to use violence to get what they wanted.
In fact, the Suffragettes started off relatively peacefully. It was only in 1905 that the
organisation created a stir when Christabel Pankhurst and Annie Kenney interrupted a
political meeting in Manchester to ask two Liberal politicians (Winston Churchill and Sir
Edward Grey) if they believed women should have the right to vote. Neither man replied. As
a result, the two women got out a banner which had on it "Votes for Women" and shouted at
the two politicians to answer their questions. Such actions were all but unheard of then when
public speakers were usually heard in silence and listened to courteously even if you did not
agree with them. Pankhurst and Kenney were thrown out of the meeting and arrested for
causing an obstruction and a technical assault on a police officer. Both women refused to pay
a fine preferring to go to prison to highlight the injustice of the system as it was then.
Emmeline Pankhurst later wrote in her autobiography that: "this was the beginning of a
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campaign the like of which was never known in England, or for that matter in any other
country.....we interrupted a great many meetings......and we were violently thrown out and
insulted. Often we were painfully bruised and hurt. The Suffragettes refused to bow to
violence. They burned down churches as the Church of England was against what they
wanted; they vandalised Oxford Street, apparently breaking all the windows in this famous
street; they chained themselves to Buckingham Palace as the Royal Family were seen to be
against women having the right to vote; they hired out boats, sailed up the Thames and
shouted abuse through loud hailers at Parliament as it sat; others refused to pay their tax.
Politicians were attacked as they went to work. Their homes were fire bombed. Golf courses
were vandalised. The first decade of Britain in the 20th century was proving to be violent in
the extreme. Suffragettes were quite happy to go to prison. Here they refused to eat and went
on a hunger strike. The government was very concerned that they might die in prison thus
giving the movement martyrs. Prison governors were ordered to force feed Suffragettes but
this caused a public outcry as forced feeding was traditionally used to feed lunatics as
opposed to what were mostly educated women. When those who had been arrested and
released had regained their strength, they were re-arrested for the most trivial of reason and
the whole process started again. This, from the government's point of view, was a very simple
but effective weapon against the Suffragettes.
As a result, the Suffragettes became more extreme. The most famous act associated
with the Suffragettes was at the June 1913 Derby when Emily Wilding Davison threw herself
under the King's horse, Anmer, as it rounded Tottenham Corner. She was killed and the
Suffragettes had their first martyr. The Suffragettes became more violent. They had, after all,
in February 1913 blown up part of David Lloyd George's house - he was Britains most
famous politician at that time and he was thought to be a supporter of the right for women to
have the vote.
However, Britain and Europe was plunged into World War One in August 1914. In a
display of patriotism, Emmeline Pankhurst instructed the Suffragettes to stop their campaign
of violence and support in every way the government and its war effort. The work done by
women in the First World War was to be vital for Britain's war effort. In 1918, the
Representation of the People Act was passed by Parliament.

Representation of the People Act 1918

The struggle for enfranchisement conducted by various organisations in Britain finally
materialised their demands by the passage of the Representation of the People Act of 1918.
The 1918 Representation of the People Act was the start of female suffrage in Great Britain.
The bill was passed by an overwhelming majority in the House of Common (385 for to 55
against). The 1918 Representation of the People Act gave women of property over the age of
30 the right to vote not all women, therefore, could vote but it was a major start. The
Representation of the People Act 1918 was an Act of British Parliament passed to reform the
electoral system in the United Kingdom. It is sometimes known as the Fourth Reform Act.
This act was the first to include practically all men in the political system and began the
inclusion of women.
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The Representation of the People Act 1918 widened suffrage by abolishing

practically all property qualifications for men and by enfranchising women over 30 who
met minimum property qualifications. The enfranchisement of this latter group was
accepted as recognition of the contribution made by women defence workers. However,
women were still not politically equal to men (who could vote from the age of 21) full
electoral equality wouldn't occur until the Representation of the People (Equal Franchise)
Act 1928.

Major provisions of the Act

* All adult males gain the vote, as long as they are 21 years old or over and are resident
in the constituency.
* Women over 30 years old receive the vote but they have to be either a member or
married to a member of the Local Government Register.
* Some seats redistributed to industrial towns.
* Elections to be held on a decided day each year

Socialist movement- Fabian Society

The Fabian Society is a British socialist movement, whose purpose is to advance the
principles of democratic socialism through gradualist and reformist, rather than
revolutionary means. It is best known for its initial ground-breaking work beginning late
in the 19th century and continuing up to World War I. The society laid many of the
foundations of the Labour Party and subsequently affected the policies of states emerging
from the decolonisation of the British Empire, especially India.
The name Fabian society is derived from in honour of the Roman general Quintus
Fabius Maximus, whose patient and elusive tactics in avoiding head-on battles secured his
ultimate victory against the Carthaginian army under the renowned general Hannibal.
The name Fabian society was suggested by Frank Podmore. Its founding is attributed to
Thomas Davidson, a Scottish philosopher, and its early members included George
Bernard Shaw, Sidney Webb, Annie Besant, Edward Pease, and Graham Wallas.
The Fabian society was founded on 4 January 1884 in London as an offshoot of a
society founded in 1883 called The Fellowship of the New Life.Fellowship members included
poets Edward Carpenter and John Davidson, sexologist Havelock Ellis and future Fabian
secretary, Edward R. Pease. They wanted to transform society by setting an example of
clean simplified living for others to follow. But when some members also wanted to
become politically involved to aid society's transformation, it was decided that a separate
society, The Fabian Society, also be set up. All members were free to attend both societies.
The Fabian Society additionally advocated renewal of Western European Renaissance
ideas and their promulgation throughout the rest of the world.

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The Fellowship of the New Life was dissolved in 1898, but the Fabian Society grew to
become the pre-eminent academic society in the United Kingdom in the 20th century.
Immediately upon its inception, the Fabian Society began attracting many prominent
contemporary figures drawn to its socialist cause, including George Bernard Shaw, H. G.
Wells, Annie Besant, Graham Wallas, Hubert Bland, Edith Nesbit, Sydney Olivier, Oliver
Lodge, Leonard Woolf and Virginia Woolf, Ramsay MacDonald and Emmeline Pankhurst.
The prominent leaders of the Fabian Society were Sidney and Beatrice Webb. They wrote
numerous studies of industrial Britain, including alternative co-operative economics that
applied to ownership of capital as well as land.
The first Fabian Society pamphlets advocated tenets of social justice coincided with
the zeal of Liberal reforms during the early 1900s. The Fabians worked for the
introduction of a minimum wage and for the creation of a universal health care system.
The Fabians also favoured the nationalisation of land, believing that rents collected by
landowners were unearned.
Many Fabians participated in the formation of the Labour Party in 1900 and the
group's constitution, written by Sidney Webb, borrowed heavily from the founding
documents of the Fabian Society. At the Labour Party Foundation Conference in 1900, the
Fabian Society claimed 861 members and sent one delegate.
In the period between the two World Wars, the "Second Generation" Fabians,
including the writers R. H. Tawney, G. D. H. Cole and Harold Laski, continued to be a
major influence on social-democratic thought. It was at this time that many of the future
leaders of the Third World were exposed to Fabian thought, most notably India's
Jawaharlal Nehru, who subsequently framed economic policy for India on Fabian socialdemocratic lines.

The Concept of Welfare State

A welfare state is a concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the
protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of its citizens. It is based
on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public
responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good
life. The general term may cover a variety of forms of economic and social organization.
Modern welfare states include countries such as Sweden, Norway, Denmark and
Finland,] which employ a system known as the Nordic model. The welfare state involves
a transfer of funds from the state, to the services provided (i.e. healthcare, education) as
well as directly to individuals benefits. The welfare state is funded through
redistributionist taxation and is often referred to as a type of mixed economy.
Despite early attempts to use an equivalent phrase in English, the term was
uncommon until William Temple popularized it during the Second World War,
contrasting wartime Britain's welfare state with the "warfare state" of Nazi Germany. The
Italian term "social state" (Statosociale) has the same origin. The Swedish welfare state is
called Folkhemmet (literally; the folk home) and goes back to the 1936 compromise
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between the Trade unions and big companies. It is a mixed economy, built on strong
unions and a strong system of Social security and universal health care. In Spanish and
many other languages, an analogous term is used: estadodelbienestar; translated literally:
"state of well-being". In Portuguese, two similar phrases exist: estado do bem-estar social,
which means "state of social well-being", and estado de providncia, which means
"providing state", as in the state should provide citizens their demands in order to achieve
people's well-being. In Brazil, it is referred to as previdncia social, translated as social
providence. The activities of present-day welfare states extend to the provision of both
cash welfare benefits (such as old-age pensions or unemployment benefits) and in-kind
welfare services (such as health or childcare services). Through these provisions, welfare
states can affect the distribution of wellbeing and personal autonomy among their
citizens, as well as influencing how their citizens consume and how they spend their time.

The Concept of

Welfare state in Great Britain

In the United Kingdom, the modern welfare state started to emerge with the
Liberal welfare reforms of 19061914 under Liberal Prime Minister Herbert Asquith.
These included the passing of the Old-Age Pensions Act in 1908, the introduction of free
school meals in 1909, the 1909 Labour Exchanges Act, The Development Act 1909, which
heralded greater Government intervention in economic development, and the enacting of
the National Insurance Act 1911 setting up a national insurance contribution for
unemployment and health benefits from work.

Beveridge Plan
In December 1942, the Report of the Inter-Departmental Committeeon Social Insurance
and Allied Services was published, known commonly as the Beveridge Report (plan) after its
chairman, Sir William Beveridge, proposing a series of measures to aid those who were
in need of help, or in poverty. Beveridge recommended to the government that they
should find ways of tackling the five giants, being Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and
Idleness. He argued to cure these problems; the government should provide adequate
income to people, adequate health care, adequate education, adequate housing and
adequate employment. It proposed that 'All people of working age should pay a weekly
National Insurance contribution. In return, benefits would be paid to people who were
sick, unemployed, retired or widowed.'
The basic assumptions of the report were that the National Health Service would
provide free health care to all citizens. The Universal Child Benefit was a scheme to give
benefits to parents, encouraging people to have children by enabling them to feed and
support a family. Beveridge quoted miners' pension schemes as some of the most efficient
available, and argued that a state scheme would be cheaper to run than individual
friendly societies and private insurance schemes, as well as being cheaper than meanstested government-run schemes for the poor.

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Beveridges recommendations were adopted by the Liberal Party, Conservative

Party and then by the Labour Party. Following the Labour election victory in the 1945
general election many of Beveridge's reforms were implemented through a series of Acts
of Parliament. On 5 July 1948, the National Insurance Act, National Assistance Act and
National Health Service Act came into force, forming the key planks of the modern UK
welfare state. The cheapness of what was to be called National Insurance was an
argument alongside fairness, and justified a scheme in which the rich paid in and the state
paid out to the rich, just as for the poor. In the original scheme, only some benefits called
National Assistance were to be paid regardless of contribution. Universal benefits paid to
rich and poor such as child benefit were particularly beneficial after the Second World
War when the birth rate was low. Universal Child Benefit helped to drive the baby boom.
Before 1939, most health care had to be paid for through non-government
organisations through a vast network of friendly societies, trade unions and other
insurance companies which counted the vast majority of the UK working population as
members. These friendly societies provided insurance for sickness, unemployment and
invalidity, therefore providing people with an income when they were unable to work.
Following the implementation of Beveridge's recommendations, institutions run by local
councils to provide health services for the uninsured poor, part of the poor law tradition
of workhouses, were merged into the new national system. As part of the reforms, the
Church of England also closed down its voluntary relief networks and passed the
ownership of thousands of church schools, hospitals and other bodies to the state.
Welfare systems continued to develop over the following decades. By the end of
the 20th century parts of the welfare system had been restructured, with some provision
channelled through non-governmental organizations which became important providers
of social services.

Labour Party
The Labour Party is a centre-left democratic party in the United Kingdom. The
party was formed in the year 1900 and in the earlier years it worked as a strong
parliamentary pressure group. The establishment of the National Health Service, the
enshrining in law of equality of opportunity for all and the creation and maintenance of
an empowering welfare state were all Labour achievements.
Historically the party was broadly in favour of socialism. It advocated socialist
policies such as public ownership of key industries, government intervention in the
economy, redistribution of wealth, increased rights for workers, the welfare state, publicly
funded health care and education.
Formation of Labour Party
The formation of Labour party was the result of many years of hard effort by
working people, trade unionists and socialists, united by the goal of changing the British
Parliament to represent the interests of everybody. Ignored by the Tories and
disillusioned with the Liberals, a coalition of different interests came together to push for
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change at a Conference on Labour Representation in London's MemorialHall in February

1900. The Conference was hosted by the Trade Union Congress with purpose of
examining Labour Representation. This Conference was in favour of working-class
opinion being represented in the House of Commons. A new body called Labour
Representation Committee was formed. For many years the new organisation struggled to
take root in the British political system. The conference of February 1900 had not even
created a proper 'party.' Instead the new body was called the Labour Representation
Committee and it had no members, only organisations affiliated to it. In the elections 1900,
the new group made little ground. Indeed Labour's leaders worked closely with the 190614 Liberal Governments, and relied on their majority to agree measures to help Labour,
such as the Trade Disputes Act of 1906, and the payment of MPs in 1911.
First Labour government-1924
The first real taste of political office came to Labour party in the year 1924. Stanley
Baldwin's Conservatives had fought the election on a single issue: protectionism. The
Tories lost almost 90 seats, down from 345 to 258. Baldwin had failed to obtain the
mandate he sought and declined to form a government, so despite winning 67 fewer seats
than the Tories, Labour Party leader Ramsay MacDonald was asked by the King to form a
government.
The first Labour government had modest objectives and held offices for only a few
months, but its achievements were great. Even without a proper majority in the House of
Commons, legislation was passed on housing, education, unemployment and social
insurance. Yet, dependent on Liberal support to remain in power, the government fell as a
result of a political row about the actions of Attorney-General Sir Patrick Hastings. In the
subsequent election, the Daily Mail published the infamous Zinoviev letter, a forgery
which alleged there were links between Russian communists and the British Labour Party.
With an atmosphere of fervent anti-communism, Labour Party lost 40 seats and the Tories
were returned to power.
Second government- 1929
Five years later, following the election in May 1929, Labour was back in office.
MacDonald was became again Prime Minister, with trade unionist Arthur Henderson as
Foreign Secretary and Margaret Bondfield as Minister of Labour, the first-ever woman
cabinet minister of any party. The government was dominated by the world economic
crisis, precipitated by the October 1929 Wall Street crash. MacDonald's government put in
place a number of measures to try and resolve the problem of rising unemployment.
However, these had little effect and in 1931 unemployment caused a crisis within
the cabinet. Politically unable to either cut benefits or increase taxes to deal with the
financial problem caused by high unemployment, the government was split and fell.
MacDonald did not tender his resignation to the King, but instead offered to form a
National Government with Liberals and Conservatives. From being one of its founding
fathers, Ramsay MacDonald had turned his back on the party and was seen to have
betrayed Labour. He was expelled in September 1931; but in the following election,
MacDonald's coalition won a large majority. The Labour Party was reduced to 52 seats.
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The party was in a wartime coalition from 1940 to 1945. After which it formed a
majority government under Clement Attlee. The Labour Party was also in government
from 1964 to 1970 under Harold Wilson and James Callaghan. The Labour Party was last
in government between 1997 and 2010 under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown.
The Labour Party has usually been considered as left wing or centre left in its
politics. Officially the Party has maintained the stand of being a socialist party ever since
its inception and describing itself as a democratic socialist party. Nonetheless,
throughout its history the party has been criticised by other leftist groups and historians
for not being truly socialist in its policies, instead supporting anti-socialist stance such as
capitalism and neo-colonialism. The Marxist historians Tony Cliff and Donny Gluck stein
for instance described Labour Party as a capitalist workers party which defends
interests of capitalism. Beginning in the late 1980s under the leadership of Neil Kinnock,
and subsequently under John Smith and Tony Blair, the party moved away from socialist
positions and adopted free market policies.

Impact of Second World War

The Second World War broke out in 1939 and continued for a long period of six
years. It came to an end in 1945. It was the most disastrous event of the world. It greatly
affected almost all aspects of human life as well as international politics of that time. The
Second World War is known as the most destructive of all wars fought ever before. In this
war, about ten million soldiers were badly wounded. Besides the loss of human life, this
war has been remembering for the economic loss, and great destruction. Great Britain
alone had to suffer the economic expenses of about two thousand crore rupees. Thus the
national property of various countries of world was destroyed in the Second World War
on a large scale.
Loss of colonies
As a consequence of the Second World War, the colonial empire of the Great
Britain, which existed in Asia, came to an end. Many nations were granted the right to
independence after the war. In the same way, India, Ceylon, Burma, Malaya, and Egypt
achieved freedom from the colonial clutches of Great Britain. The political map of Asia
changed thoroughly after the Second World War, because the European sovereignty was
completely faded in Asia. The Second World War profoundly affected the relative
positions of the European nations. The leadership of the World slipped from the hands of
England and came in to the hands of America and Russia.

How Did The Second World War Affect The British Society?
Second World War has affected the personal, social and political life of millions of
people. Immediately after the end of Second World War, Britain underwent enormous
social change. The country was bankrupted after the war. The new Labour government
provided the reformation of the main institutions such as mining, railways, road traffic,
air traffic, petrol, electricity and even the Bank of England. The government set up the
Beveridge committee which brought in the Welfare State after the war. It also adopted a
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new ways of running the economy (called Keynesian Economics) which promised full
employment. Due to the urgent need of war, many men went to fight and women did
their work. This had a long term effect upon womens liberation. There was a huge
growth in ammunitions and air craft industries. Other industries like hose building etc.
were put on hold.
The Britain after World War II was destroyed a lot. Destruction by bombing created
a need for massive house building after the war. This was a great challenge for architects.
The primary task before the government was to build houses for living and schools.
Post-war housing policies offered homes in new housing estates often many miles
from the old communities in which grandparents and other relatives lived. So this led to
an estrangement in families which were more unite before the war and it was common
that grandparents lived near their children. Before the war it was usual that all the family
had a dinner together. But the post-war trend was that people became more separate from
one another. This led to the fact that family members were getting more isolated and the
old strong family structures became less tied. The consequence of this situation was that
childrens freedom was more tolerated and accepted by their parents.
Many schools built after the war, for instance the Henry Hartland Grammar School
at Worksop, were well-designed inside but not very impressive from outside. People had
to equip their homes somehow. The war taught them using utility furniture. People
wanted to live in modern and nice-equipped homes.

New generation
The post-war generations were always very different from the pre-war ones. They
seem to be happier, more easy-going and full of new energy because the war remains only
in their parents memories. The war has undoubtedly the impact on human relations.
Many men died in the war or came back with injuries. These were not able to work like
the healthy ones and it did not bring so much satisfaction into families. War destroyed
many marriages. Divorces reached a peak of 60 000 in 1947, ten times the pre-war
figure. The reason of this shocking number was clear: men could not get used to the new
situation of everyday family life on one hand, but on the other hand women did not have
to keep marriages just because of husbands money. There was also a change in the law
system; in 1949 the Legal Aid Act was passed and it opened a possibility of divorce to
many who had previously been deterred by the expense. But popularity of marriage as
the social institution continued. After both world wars in the 20th century there was a
baby boom; men came back from battle-fields and people felt safer because they knew that
their children would be born for the peaceful life. The baby boom balanced also the loss of
human lives during the war.
The Role of Woman
The Second World War affected also the position of woman in society. The changes
started after the end of Victorianism and, as Marwick says, had been greatly accelerated by
World War II. Before the war, many women were at home to keep the households and to take
care of their children; men were breadwinners. But the majority of men had to go to fight for
their country, and women had to earn some money to survive. They took the mens position
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and they were good at it. They gained more self-confidence and therefore when men came
back from battlefields they had to count on women as equal partners. Many wives became
widows most of them did not marry again because they did not have to they could earn
enough money for their life; but some were trying to find a new husband which was quite
difficult because there was a lack of men.
The Second World War has influenced society, economics and minds of people not in
Britain but all around the world. The life after the war was completely different from the one
before 1939. People were experienced from the first war but the second one was much
crueller and it has a bad impact on generations. The eyewitnesses still remember the terror
and they are able to hand over the terrible experiences. The war has influenced all branches of
human performing literature, theatre, media, education, politics and social background not
only in the 50s and the 60s.
The Brits are one of the rare nations who understand the needs of society and the
seriousness of the situation and all the classes without exception can adapt to extreme
conditions. They are able to cut down their expenses.

Rationing
During World War II, a key aspect of almost every countrys wartime strategy focused
heavily on limiting domestic consumption. One method governments employed to enforce
control was to forcibly reduce their citizens consumption through the implementation of
rationing, a tactic that allowed governments to equally apportion a certain amount of a
particular resource to many people, rather than allowing a free-for-all atmosphere when
resources were limited. Governments who effectively employed rationing programs
domestically were better able to manage resources for their war efforts abroad. The Second
World War forced the British Government to make drastic cuts in consumption. British
Citizens were placed under enormous strain during this timeBritish policymakers subjected
many facets of normal everyday life to cuts and quotas. In the beginning stages of the war,
Great Britain was blockaded by German U-boats, which created a huge barrier to trade. As a
result, Great Britain had to find a way to equally distribute limited domestic resources to its
population; the solution to this problem was widespread rationing. In 1940 the British
Government began to ration foods, a policy that continued through the end of the war. The
Government categorized different foods into three categories: the first was guaranteed
rationed food, comprised of rare and scarce items, the second included foods like milk, eggs,
fish, fruits, and vegetables whose availability fluctuated, and the third encompassed staple
foods such as bread and potatoes, which remained uncontrolled.British legislators found it
necessary to impose harsh restrictions on wartime food consumption to maintain a successful
war effort.
The Second World War has influenced society, economics and minds of people not in
Britain but all around the world. The life after the war was completely different from the one
before 1939. People were experienced from the first war but the second one was much bitter
and it has a bad impact on generations. The eyewitnesses still remember the terror and they
are able to hand over the terrible experiences. The war has influenced all branches of human
performing literature, theatre, media, education, politics and social background not only in
the 50s and the 60s.

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The Britain is one of the rare nations who understand the needs of society and the
seriousness of the situation and all the classes without exception can adapt to extreme
conditions. They are able to cut down their expenses.

Impact on Literature
The War changed many aspects of British literature. Literature during the Great
War reflects the society was undergoing and provides a drastic transition between pre and
post war work. Many social, political and economic shifts occurred during the war. Many
of the writers of the time felt the need to speak out against the flaws they saw in their
society. Their poetry became an act of dissidence in a terrible time in worlds history.
Women became key economic supporters in the absence of men and men suffered
the physical and psychological stress of war. Women and men alike turned to writing as a
means of emotional outlet. Women had to take on a role that was considered to be a more
masculine job; most women got jobs working in factories in order to provide for their
children. Additionally, women were forced to care for their family while the men were off
at war. As a result many women began to speak out; discussing their view on the war and
the impact it was placing on their families. The new style of war allowed soldiers an
exorbitant amount of time to ponder the battles which they fought; writers and poets of
the Great War attempted to distinguish how this war was different than anything the
world had seen before.

New Trends in Arts and Literature

The shock and anxiety created by the two global wars affected the literature and art
of the time. The development of modern science and technology also influenced the
literature of the period. 20th century English writers deviated from the Victorian tradition.
The material progress and optimism of Victorian era came to an end due to the chaos and
confusion created by the world wars. Disillusion, uncertainty, and pessimism of war and
post war years reflected in the literary works. Psychological problems, technological
advances, space exploration and the threat of nuclear and gun warfare provided new
materials for the writers. British writers, especially novelists influenced by writers and
scholars from America, France and Germany. Kafka, Sigmund Freud, Jean Paul Sartre,
Alber Camus and Carl Sagan became their models. The spirit of the age reflected in their
literature. Novels, poetry, and drama depicted the perplexity, uncertainty and despair of
the era.
Some of the most famous works associated with the aftermath of World War are
T.S. Eliot's The Hollow Men, his iconic masterpiece of high modernist poetry The Waste
Land, and such classic novels as Earnest Hemmingway's A Farewell to Arms. The writings
of Russell, Hardy, Toynbee and W.B. Yeats also reflected the new trends in English
literature.

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T.S. Eliot (1888-1965)

Thomas Stearns Eliot was an American born English poet, playwright and critique.
He has been considered as the most important English poet of the 20 th century. He was
born in Missouri on September 26, 1888. He lived in St. Louis during the first eighteen
years of his life and attended Harvard University. After a year in Paris, he returned to
Harvard to pursue a doctorate in philosophy, but returned to Europe and settled in
England in 1914. The following year, he married Vivienne Haigh-Wood and began
working in London, first as a teacher, and later for Lloyd's Bank. Although he was born an
American, he moved to the United Kingdom in 1914, at age of 25 and was naturalised as a
British citizen in 1927 at the age of 39.
The poem that made him fame, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock , published in
Chicago in 1915is seen as a masterpiece of the Modernist movement, and was followed by
some of the best-known poems in the English language, including Gerontion (1920), The
Waste Land (1922), The Hollow Men (1925), Ash Wednesday (1930), and Four Quartets
(1945). He is also known for his seven plays, particularly Murder in the Cathedral (1935).
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948.
It was in London that Elliot came under the influence of his contemporary Ezra
Pound, who recognized his poetic genius at once, and assisted in the publication of his
work in a number of magazines, most notably "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" in
Poetry in 1915. His first book of poems, Prufrock and Other Observations, was published
in 1917, and immediately established him as a leading poet of the avant-garde. With the
publication of The Waste Land in 1922, considered by many to be the single most
influential poetic work of the twentieth century, Elliot's reputation began to grow to
nearly mythic proportions By 1930, and for the next thirty years, he was the most
dominant figure in poetry and literary criticism in the English-speaking world.
His poems in many respects articulated the disillusionment of a younger postWorld-War-I generation with the values and conventionsboth literary and socialof the
Victorian era. As a critic also, he had an enormous impact on contemporary literary taste,
propounding views that, after his conversion to orthodox Christianity in the late thirties,
were increasingly based in social and religious conservatism. His major later poems
include Ash Wednesday (1930) and Four Quartets (1943); his books of literary and social
criticism include The Sacred Wood (1920), The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism
(1933), After Strange Gods (1934), and Notes towards the Definition of Culture (1940).
Eliot was also an important playwright, whose verse dramas include Murder in the
Cathedral, The Family Reunion, and The Cocktail Party.
He became a British citizen in 1927; long associated with the publishing house of
Faber & Faber, he published many younger poets, and eventually became director of the
firm. After a notoriously unhappy first marriage, Eliot separated from his first wife in
1933, and was remarried, to Valerie Fletcher, in 1956. T. S. Eliot received the Nobel Prize
for Literature in 1948, and died in London in 1965.

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Eliots Major Works

The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock
The poem that made Elliot fame, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, published in
Chicago in 1915 is seen as a masterpiece of the Modernist movement. Although the
character Prufrock seems to be middle-aged, Eliot wrote most of the poem when he was
only twenty-two. Its famous opening lines, comparing the evening sky to "a patient
etherised upon a table," were considered shocking and offensive, especially at a time
when Georgian Poetry was hailed for its derivations of the nineteenth century Romantic
Poets.
The poem follows the conscious experience of a man, Prufrock (relayed in the
"stream of consciousness" form characteristic of the Modernists), lamenting his physical
and intellectual inertia, the lost opportunities in his life and lack of spiritual progress, with
the recurrent theme of carnal love unattained. The poem's structure was heavily
influenced by Eliot's extensive reading of Dante Alighieri and refers to a number of
literary works, including Hamlet and those of the French Symbolists.
The Waste Land
Elliot published his Waste Land in October 1922. He published The Waste Land in
The Criterion. It was composed during a period of personal difficulty for Eliothis
marriage was failing, and both he and Vivienne were suffering from nervous disorders.
The poem is often read as a representation of the disillusionment of the post-war
generation. Before the poem's publication as a book in December, 1922, Eliot distanced
himself from its vision of despair. On November 15, 1922, he wrote to Richard Aldington,
saying, "As for The Waste Land, that is a thing of the past so far as I am concerned and I
am now feeling toward a new form and style."
The poem is known for its obscure natureits slippage between satire and
prophecy; its abrupt changes of speaker, location, and time. Despite this, it has become a
touchstone of modern literature.Among its best-known phrases are "April is the cruellest
month," "I will showyou fear in a handful of dust" and "Shantih shantih shantih." The Sanskrit
mantra ends the poem.
The Hollow Men
The Hollow Men appeared in 1925. For the critic Edmund Wilson, it marked "The
nadir of the phase of despair and desolation given such effective expression in The Waste
Land." It is Eliot's major poem of the late 1920s. Similar to other work, its themes are
overlapping and fragmentary. Post-war Europe under the Treaty of Versailles, the
difficulty of hope and religious conversion and Eliot's failed marriage were the major
themes in The Hollow Men. The Hollow Men contains some of Eliot's most famous lines,
notably its conclusion:
This is the way the world ends
Not with a bang but a whimper.

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Ash Wednesday
Ash Wednesday is the first long poem written by Elliot after his 1927 conversion to
Anglicanism. Published in 1930, it deals with the struggle that ensues when one who has
lacked faith acquires it. Sometimes referred to as Eliot's "conversion poem," it is richly but
ambiguously allusive, and deals with the aspiration to move from spiritual barrenness to
hope for human salvation. Eliot's style of writing in Ash Wednesday showed a marked
shift from the poetry he'd written prior to his 1927 conversion, and his post-conversion
style would continue in a similar vein. His style was to become less ironic, and the poems
would no longer be populated by multiple characters in dialogue. His subject matter
would also become more focused on Eliot's spiritual concerns and his Christian faith.
Many critics were particularly enthusiastic about "Ash Wednesday." Edwin Muir
maintained that it is one of the most moving poems Eliot wrote, and perhaps the "most
perfect," though it was not well received by everyone. The poem's groundwork of
orthodox Christianity discomfited many of the more secular literati.

Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)

Bertrand Arthur William Russell was a British philosopher, logician,
mathematician, historian, and social critic. He was born in Monmouthshire on 18 May
1872, into one of the most prominent aristocratic families in Britain. At various points in
his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist. He is widely considered
to be one of the 20th century's premier logicians. He co-authored, with A.N. White head,
Principia Mathematica, an attempt to ground mathematics on logic. His philosophical
essay "On Denoting" has been considered a "paradigm of philosophy." His work had a
considerable influence on logic, mathematics, set theory, linguistics, computer science and
philosophy, especially philosophy of language, epistemology, and metaphysics.
Russell was a prominent anti-war activist. He championed anti-imperialism and
went to prison for his pacifism during World War I. He campaigned against Adolf Hitler,
and then criticised Stalinist totalitarianism, attacked the United States of America's
involvement in the Vietnam War, and was an outspoken proponent of nuclear
disarmament. In 1950 Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, "in recognition
of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and
freedom of thought.
During the First World War, Russell was one of the very few people to engage in
active pacifist activities and in 1916; he was dismissed from Trinity College following his
conviction under the Defence of the Realm Act. A later conviction for publicly lecturing
against inviting the US to enter the war on Britain's side resulted in six months'
imprisonment in Brixton prison in 1918. Russell opposed rearmament against Nazi
Germany, but in 1940 changed his view that avoiding a full scale world war was more
important than defeating Hitler. He concluded that Adolf Hitler taking over all of Europe
would be a permanent threat to democracy. In 1943, he adopted a stance toward largescale warfare, "Relative Political Pacifism": war was always a great evil, but in some
particularly extreme circumstances, it may be the lesser of two evils. Over the course of his
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long career, Russell made significant contributions, not just to logic and philosophy, but to
a broad range of subjects including education, history, political theory and religious
studies. In addition, many of his writings on a variety of topics in both the sciences and
the humanities have influenced generations of general readers.
Russell's Social and Political Philosophy
Russell's social influence stems from three main sources: his long-standing social
activism, his many writings on the social and political issues of his day, and his
popularizations of numerous technical writings in philosophy and the natural sciences.
Among Russell's many popularizations are his two best-selling works, The Problems of
Philosophy (1912) and A History of Western Philosophy (1945). Both of these books, as
well as his numerous books popularizing science, have done much to educate and inform
generations of general readers. Russell saw a link between education and social progress.
As he put it, Education is the key to the new world.
Russell is best known in many circles as a result of his campaigns against the
proliferation of nuclear weapons and against western involvement in the Vietnam War
during the 1960s. However, Russell's social activism stretches back at least as far as 1910,
when he published his Anti-Suffragist Anxieties, and to 1916, when he was convicted and
fined in connection with anti-war protests during World War I. Because of his conviction,
he was dismissed from his post at Trinity College, Cambridge. Two years later, he was
convicted a second time. The result was six months in prison. Russell also ran
unsuccessfully for Parliament (in 1907, 1922, and 1923) and, together with his second wife,
founded and operated an experimental school during the late 1920s and early 1930s.
In 1954 he delivered his famous Man's Peril broadcast on the BBC, condemning
the Bikini H-bomb tests. A year later, together with Albert Einstein, he released the
Russell-Einstein Manifesto calling for the curtailment of nuclear weapons. In 1957 he was
a prime organizer of the first Pug wash Conference, which brought together a large
number of scientists concerned about the nuclear issue. He became the founding president
of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in 1958 and was once again imprisoned, this
time in connection with anti-nuclear protests in 1961. The media coverage surrounding his
conviction only served to enhance Russell's reputation and to further inspire the many
idealistic youths who were sympathetic to his anti-war and anti-nuclear protests.
During these controversial years Russell also wrote many of the books that brought
him to the attention of popular audiences. These include his Principles of Social
Reconstruction (1916), Road To Freedom (1918), The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism (1920),
A Free Man's Worship (1923), On Education (1926), Why I Am Not a Christian (1927), Marriage
and Morals (1929), The Conquest of Happiness (1930), The Scientific Outlook (1931), and Power:
A New Social Analysis (1938).
On 31 January 1970 Russell issued a statement which condemned Israeli aggression
in the Middle East and called for Israeli withdrawal from the Israeli-occupied territories.
This was Russell's final political statement or act. It was read out at the International
Conference of Parliamentarians in Cairo on 3 February 1970, the day after his death.
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Russell died of influenza on 2 February 1970 at his home, in Merionethshire, Wales.

His body was cremated in Colwyn Bay on 5 February 1970. In accordance with his will,
there was no religious ceremony; his ashes were scattered over the Welsh mountains later
that year.

Thomas Hardy (1840-1928)

Thomas Hardy was an English novelist and poet. He was born in Dorset shire,
England, in 1840. He trained as an architect and worked in London and Dorset for ten
years. Hardy began his writing career as a novelist, publishing Desperate Remedies in 1871,
and was soon successful enough to leave the field of architecture for writing. His novels
Tess of the D'Urbervilles (1891) and Jude the Obscure (1895), are considered literary classics
today.
Hardy criticised certain social constraints that hindered the lives of those living in
the 19th century. Considered a Victorian Realist writer, Hardy examines the social
constraints that are part of the Victorian status quo, suggesting these rules hinder the lives
of all involved and ultimately lead to unhappiness. In Two on a Tower, Hardy seeks to
take a stand against these rules and sets up a story against the backdrop of social structure
by creating a story of love that crosses the boundaries of class. The reader is forced to
consider disposing of the conventions set up for love. Nineteenth-century society enforces
these conventions, and societal pressure ensures conformity.
Through his writings English people heard the death knell of Victorianism.
Victorian complacence and optimism were replaced and pessimistic note came to be
emerged in his writings.
His major works are:
Under the Green Wood Tree (1872)
A Pair of Blue Eyes (1873)
Far From Madding Crowd (1874)
The Return of the Native (1878)
The Wood Landers (1887)
A.J. Toynbee (1889-1975)
Arnold Joseph Toynbee, the nephew of the social reformer, Arnold Toynbee, was
born in 1889. Educated at Winchester and Balliol College, Oxford, he served in the Foreign
Office during the First World War and attended the Paris Peace Conference in
1919.Toynbee became Professor of Modern Greek and Byzantine History at King's
College, London (1919-1924) and research professor at the Royal Institute of International
Affairs (1925-1955).

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Books by Toynbee include Greek Historical Thought (1924), A Study of History (12
volumes), War and Civilization (1951), Nationality and the War, The New Europe, The
German Terror in France, and The German Terror in Belgium.
Toynbee was a leading analyst of developments in the Middle East. His support for
Greece and hostility to the Turks during the World War had gained him an appointment
to the Chair of Modern Greek and Byzantine History at the University of London.
However, after the war he changed to a pro-Turkish position, accusing Greece's military
government in occupied Turkish territory of atrocities and massacres. This earned him the
enmity of the wealthy Greeks who had endowed the chair, and in 1924 he was forced to
resign the position. His stance during World War I reflected less sympathy for the Arab
cause and a pro-Zionist outlook. He also expressed support for a Jewish State in Palestine.
In 1922 he was influenced by the Palestine Arab delegation which was visiting London,
and he adopted their views. His subsequent writings show the way he changed his
outlook on the subject, and in the late 1930s he moved away from supporting the Zionist
cause and moved toward the Arab camp. By the 1950s he was an opponent of the state of
Israel.

A Study of History
In 1934-1954, Toynbee's twelve-volume book A Study of History came out. This
book has been considered as the magnum opus of Toynbee. He put forward a philosophy of
history, on an analysis of the cyclical development and decline of civilizations that
provoked much discussion. He followed Oswald Spengler in taking a comparative topical
approach to independent civilizations. Toynbee said they displayed striking parallels in
their origin, growth, and decay. Toynbee rejected Spengler's biological model of
civilizations as organisms with a typical life span of 1,000 years. Of the civilizations
Toynbee identified, sixteen were dead by 1940 and four of the remaining five were under
severe pressure from the one named Western Christendom - or simply The West. He
explained breakdowns of civilizations as a failure of creative power in the creative
minority, which henceforth becomes a merely 'dominant' minority; that is followed by an
answering withdrawal of allegiance and mimesis on the part of the majority; finally there
is a consequent loss of social unity in the society as a whole. Toynbee explained decline as
due to their moral failure. Many readers, especially in America, rejoiced in his implication
that only a return to some form of Christianity could halt the breakdown of western
civilization which began with the Reformation.
In the Study of History Toynbee examined the rise and fall of 26 civilizations in the
course of human history. He put forth Challenge and Response Theory while analysing the
growth and decline of civilisations of the world. He concluded that civilisations rose by
responding successfully to challenges under the leadership of creative minorities composed of
elite leaders. Civilizations declined when their leaders stopped responding creatively, and the
civilizations then sank owing to the sins of nationalism, militarism, and the tyranny of a
despotic minority. Unlike Spengler in his The Decline of the West, Toynbee did not regard the
death of a civilization as inevitable, for it may or may not continue to respond to successive
challenges. Unlike Karl Marx, he saw history as shaped by spiritual, not economic forces.
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Toynbee has been severely criticized by other historians. In general, the critique has
been levelled at his use of myths and metaphors as being of comparable value to factual
data and at the soundness of his general argument about the rise and fall of civilizations,
which relies too much on a view of religion as a regenerative force. Many critics
complained that the conclusions he reached were those of a Christian moralist rather than
of a historian. His work, however, has been praised as a stimulating answer to the
specializing tendency of modern historical research. Arnold Joseph Toynbee died in 1975.

W.B Yeats (1865-1939)

William Butler Yeats (13 June 1865 28 January 1939) was an Irish poet and
playwright, and one of the foremost figures of 20th century literature. A pillar of both the
Irish and British literary establishments, in his later years he served as an Irish Senator for
two terms. Yeats was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival and, along with
Lady Gregory, Edward Martyn, and others, founded the Abbey Theatre, where he served
as its chief during its early years. In 1923 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature as
the first Irishman so honoured, for what the Nobel Committee described as "inspired
poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation."
Yeats is generally considered one of the few writers who completed their greatest works
after being awarded the Nobel Prize; such works include The Tower (1928) and The
Winding Stair and Other Poems (1929).[2] Yeats was a good friend of Indian Bengali poet
Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore.
Yeats was born and educated in Dublin, but spent his childhood in County Sligo.
He studied poetry in his youth and from an early age was fascinated by both Irish legends
and the occult. Those topics feature in the first phase of his work, which lasted roughly
until the turn of the 20th century. His earliest volume of verse was published in 1889 and
those slow-paced and lyrical poems display debts to Edmund Spenser, Percy Bysshe
Shelley, and the Pre-Raphaelite poets. From 1900, Yeats' poetry grew more physical and
realistic. He largely renounced the transcendental beliefs of his youth, though he
remained preoccupied with physical and spiritual masks, as well as with cyclical theories
of life.
His first volume of verse appeared in 1887, but in his earlier period his dramatic
production outweighed his poetry both in bulk and in import. Together with Lady
Gregory he founded the Irish Theatre, which was to become the Abbey Theatre, and
served as its chief playwright until the movement was joined by John Synge. His plays
usually treat Irish legends; they also reflect his fascination with mysticism and
spiritualism. The Countess Cathleen (1892), The Land of Heart's Desire (1894),The King's
Threshold (1904),and Deirdre (1907) are among the best known.
After 1910, Yeats's dramatic art took a sharp turn toward a highly poetical, static,
and esoteric style. His later plays were written for small audiences; they experiment with
masks, dance, and music, and were profoundly influenced by the Japanese Noh plays.
Although a convinced patriot, Yeats deplored the hatred and the bigotry of the Nationalist
movement, and his poetry is full of moving protests against it. He was appointed to the
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Irish Senate in 1922. Yeats is one of the few writers whose greatest works were written
after the award of the Nobel Prize. Whereas he received the Prize chiefly for his dramatic
works, his significance today rests on his lyric achievement. His poetry, especially the
volumes The Wild Swans at Coole (1919), Michael Robartes and the Dancer (1921), The Tower
(1928), The Winding Stair and Other Poems (1933), and Last Poems and Plays (1940), made
him one of the outstanding and most influential 20th century poets writing in English. His
recurrent themes are the contrast of art and life, masks, cyclical theories of life (the symbol
of the winding stairs), and the ideal of beauty and ceremony contrasting with the hubbub
of modern life. William Butler Yeats died on January 28, 1939.
EXERCISES
1) Explain the causes of First World War.
2) What are the major impacts of First World War.?
3) Give a brief account of the development of Womens movements in 20th century
England.
4) Write a note on the struggle for enfranchisement in 20th century England.
5) NUWSS & WSPU
6) Emeline Pankhurst
7) The Suffragettes
8) What are the major provisions of the Representation of the Peoples Act of 1918
9) Give an account on Fabian Society.
10) Explain the significance of welfare state.
11) Bring out the features of Beveridge Report.
12) Give a note on formation and growth of Labour Party
13) How did the Second World War affect the British society?
14) T.S. Eliot
15) W.B.Yeats
16) Throw light on the feature of writings of Thomas Hardy
17) Give a brief note on the contribution of A.J. Toynbee as British Historian.

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UNIT- IV
SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF COMMONWEALTH NATIONS
Formation
The Common Wealth of Nations is a free association of sovereign states comprising
Great Britain and a number of its former dependencies who have chosen to maintain ties of
friendship and practical cooperation and who acknowledge the British monarch as symbolic
head of their association. The Commonwealth of Nations, referred to as the Commonwealth
and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of
fifty-four independent member states. All but two of these countries (Mozambique and
Rwanda) were formerly part of the British Empire, out of which it developed.A.E. Zimmern
describes the Commonwealth as a procession of different countries at different stages in their
advance towards complete self-government.
Between the World Wars the British Empire was rapidly becoming the unique
association of peoples at varying stages of development. It was the largest political community
in the world. The name of Commonwealth was suggested by General Smuts in 1917.He
coined the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations," and envisioned the "future
constitutional relations and readjustments in the British Empire. It indicated the new
relationships which were developing between its vast and scattered territories and Mother
Country. Physically it was becoming more closely knit together through the coming of wireless
telegraphy and the Dominions were becoming looser, though their loyalty to the King and
feeling for the Mother Country remained a warm as ever. Historically, the Commonwealth was
an evolutionary outgrowth of the British Empire. The traditional policy of allowing
considerable self- government in its colonies led to the existence -by the 19th century- of several
dependent states. These were populated a significant degree by Europeans accustomed to the
forms of parliamentary rule and which possessed large degrees of sovereignty. By 1931 they
were recognised as having special status within the empire by the Statute of Westminster,
which referred specifically to a British Commonwealth of Nations.

Statute of Westminster (1931)

In the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference, Britain and its dominions
agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their
domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely
associated as members of British Common Wealth Nations. These aspects to the relationship
were eventually formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931. Statute of Westminster
finally put into statutory form the constitutional relationship of Britain and the Dominions as
already interpreted and agreed between them. This famous statute closed one epoch in
imperial history and began another. The Dominions were henceforth free and independent
sovereign states, and legally, a common allegiance to the Crown became the only tie binding
the members of the Commonwealth together.

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Location of Commonwealth Nations.

At the outbreak of the Second World War the Common Wealth and British Empire
comprised in Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia and Americas. The following are the major
locations of British Commonwealth Nations in various continents:
Europe:the United Kingdom, Ireland the islands of Malta and Cyprus and Gibraltar.
Africa:the Union of South Africa, large territories in East Africa, the Sudan, and the West African
Colonies.
Asia:India, Burma, Ceylon, Malaya, Aden, and Hong Kong.
Australia:the Commonwealth of Australia, the Dominion of New Zealand, British New Guinea, and
various Pacific Islands.
Americas: the Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, British West Indies, British Guiana and Honduras
and the Falkland Islands.
The different areas of the British Commonwealth are divided for convenience into three
categories; according to the degree of self-government each area enjoyed namely, the Dominion
status, the colonial or Dependent Empire, and Ex-enemy possessions.
The Dominion Status
First is the Dominion or the fully self-governing countries. It includes Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Irish Free State. The position of the Dominions was
defined at the Imperial Conference of 1926, when it was declared that Great Britain and the
Dominions are equal status. The dominions were hence forth free and independent sovereign
states, and legally, a common allegiance to the Crown became the only tie binding the members
of the Commonwealth together. The loyalty, affection and sacrifice of this Commonwealth
bond were amply proved in the Second World War.
The Colonial Empire
Secondly, in addition to the British Commonwealth of Nations proper, there was the
Colonial or Dependent Empire (Crown Colonies and Protectorates). Many of these countries
were rich in important raw materials such as oil-seeds, tin and rubber. These raw materials
were very necessary to the development of Britains modern industry. Sixty million people
lived in this. some fifty territories widely scattered over the globe. They looked Britain as their
partner for securing justice, peace, welfare, and good government. Most of these territories
were advancing towards self-government, under a general controlling system of indirect British
rule.
Ex-enemy possessions
Thirdly came a group which added after the First World War. It consisted of ex-German
and ex-Turkish colonies, administered by Britain under a Mandate from the League of Nations.

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Objectives and Activities of Commonwealth Nations

The Commonwealth's objectives were first outlined in the 1971 Singapore Declaration,
which committed the Commonwealth to the institution of world peace; promotion of
representative democracy and individual liberty; the pursuit of equality and opposition to
racism; the fight against poverty, ignorance, and disease; and free trade. To these were added
opposition to discrimination on the basis of gender by the Lusaka Declaration of 1979, and
environmental sustainability by the Langkawi Declaration of 1989.These objectives were
reinforced by the Harare Declaration in 1991.
The member states cooperate within a framework of common values and goals. These
include the promotion of democracy, human rights, good governance, and the rule of law,
individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism, and world peace. The
Commonwealth is not a political union, but an intergovernmental organisation through which
countries with diverse social, political, and economic backgrounds are regarded as equal in
status. Activities of the Commonwealth are carried out through the permanent Commonwealth
Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-General, and biennial meetings between Commonwealth
Heads of Government. The symbol of their free association is the Head of the Commonwealth,
which is a ceremonial position currently held by Queen Elizabeth II. Elizabeth II is also
monarch, separately and independently, of sixteen Commonwealth members, which are
known as the "Commonwealth realms".
The Commonwealth's current highest-priority aims are on the promotion of democracy
and development, as outlined in the 2003 AsoRock Declaration, which built on those in
Singapore and Harare and clarified their terms of reference, stating, "We are committed to
democracy, good governance, human rights, gender equality, and a more equitable sharing of
the benefits of globalisation." The Commonwealth website lists its areas of work as: Democracy,
Economics, Education, Gender, Governance, Human Rights, Law, Small States, Sport,
Sustainability, and Youth. Through a separate voluntary fund, Commonwealth governments
support the Commonwealth Youth Programme, a division of the Secretariat with offices in
Gulu (Uganda), Lusaka (Zambia), Chandigarh (India), Georgetown (Guyana) and Honiara
(Solomon Islands).

Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM)

The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth
Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth Heads of Government,
including Prime Ministers and Presidents, assemble for several days to discuss matters of
mutual interest. CHOGM is the successor to the Meetings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers
and earlier Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences dating back to 1887. There are also
regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers, etc.

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Commonwealth Secretariat
Marlborough House, in London, is the headquarters of the Commonwealth Secretariat,
which is the main intergovernmental institution of the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth
Secretariat, established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth,
facilitating consultation and cooperation among member governments and countries. It is
responsible to member governments collectively. The Commonwealth of Nations is
represented in the United Nations General Assembly by the Secretariat, as an observer. Based
in London, the Secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers,
consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides
policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication among the member governments. It
also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development
of their countries and in support of the Commonwealth's fundamental political values.
BACKGROUND OF ANGLO INDIAN LITERATURE

Historical roots of Anglo-Indians

Anglo-Indians are people who have mixed Indian and British ancestry, or people of
British descent born or living in India, Pakistan, or Burma. British residents in India used the
term "Eurasians" for people of mixed European and Indian descent. The Oxford Dictionary's
definition of "Anglo-Indian" is "Of mixed British and Indian parentage, of Indian descent but
born or living in Britain, or of British descent or birth but living or having lived long in India.
The Anglo-Indian community in its modern sense is a distinct, small minority community
originating in India. It consists of people from mixed British and Indian ancestry whose native
language is English. An Anglo-Indian's British ancestry was usually bequeathed paternally.
Article 366(2) of the Indian Constitution defines Anglo-Indian as "a person whose father or
any of whose other male progenitors in the male line is or was of European descent but who is domiciled
within the territory of India and is or was born within such territory of parents habitually resident therein
and not established there for temporary purposes only. This definition also embraces the
descendants of the Indians from the Old Portuguese colonies of both the Coromandel and
Malabar Coasts, who joined the East India Company as mercenaries and brought their families
with them.
Anglo-Indians formed a significant portion of the minority community in India before
independence, but today more live outside India than within it. The Anglo-Indian population
in India dwindled from roughly 500,000 in 1947 to fewer than 150,000 by 2010. Many emigrated
to the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and the United States.
During the British East India Company's rule in India in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries, it was initially fairly common for British officers and soldiers to take local Indian
wives and have Eurasian children, due to a lack of British women in India at the time. By the
mid-19th century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers, but less than 2,000 British officials
present in India. As British females began arriving in British India in large numbers around the
early to mid-19th century, mostly as family members of British officers and soldiers,
intermarriage became increasingly uncommon among the British in India and was later
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despised after the events of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Over generations, Anglo-Indians
intermarried with other Anglo-Indians to form a community that developed a culture of its
own. Anglo-Indian cuisine, dress, speech and religion all served to further segregate AngloIndians from the native population. They established a school system focused on the English
language and culture and formed social clubs and associations to run functions like their
regular dances on occasions like Christmas and Easter. Over time Anglo-Indians were
specifically recruited into the Customs and Excise, Post and Telegraphs, Forestry Department,
The Railways and teaching professions.A number of factors fostered a strong sense of
community among Anglo-Indians. Their English language school system, their Anglo-centric
culture, and their Christian beliefs in particular helped bind them together.

Anglo-Indian Literature
Father Thomas Stephens, lived in Goa in 1579, has been considered as the first English
man to settle in India. Anglo-Indian literature began with his letters to mother country. The
long rule of British in India quite naturally produced two types of literature called the Indo
Anglican and Anglo Indian. Anglo Indian literature comprises the works written about
India. There is a large body of writing on Indian life and society, history etc. by Englishmen
including bureaucrats and missionaries. All these Anglo Indian writers were critical, in most
cases of India and Indians. Their writings were primarily designed to influence opinion in
Britain. In those times, it was from these works that the legislators, and that narrow section of
the British people which made up public opinion, acquired their image of India. They preferred
the evidence for Indias depravity and backwardness. The prejudiced views of these Anglo
Indian writers helped to create a climate in Britain favourable to the consolidation and advance
of western ideas of government and economics in India. But there were Englishmen, who
favourably disposed to India like William Henry Sleeman. In his Rambles and Recollections of an
Indian Official, he has given the picture of an India damaged by contact with the west.
The fiction and poetry written during the period also reflected more or less the same
urges, priorities and prejudices. Much of the Anglo Indian literature represented a growing
racial consciousness amongst the British and was without merit. But there were few exceptions
like Mrs Sherwoods childrens book. Confessions of a Thug is a kind of novel by Meadows
Taylor. It is based on the authors experiences in the suppression of Thugs, the robber group of
northern India.
One of the most important names concerned with Anglo Indian fiction is Rudyard
Kipling. He became the laureate of Anglo India for a larger audience than it could ever have
considered possible. Kipling explored the shallow lives of the British in India and reflected
some, but by no means all, of their prejudices. The few Indians who appear in such work as
was written in India are either servants or incompetent educated Bengalis. It was only after
leaving India Kipling was able to write Kim. Kim is undoubtedly the best work of fiction about
India by an Englishmen. Several works of Kipling are still quite popular, especially The Jungle
Book, which continues to be lapped up by children. As a novelist Rudyard Kipling is valued
even today. But with his sense of racial superiority Kipling also became notorious for his proimperialist opinions.
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As an Anglo Indian novelist E.M. Forster, the author of A Passage to India, is more
important than Kipling. Forster achieved his greatest success with A Passage to India (1924).
The novel takes as its subject the relationship between East and West, seen through the lens of
India in the later days of the British Raj. Forster connects personal relationships with the politics
of colonialism through the story of the Englishwoman Adela Quested, the Indian Dr. Aziz, and
the question of what did or did not happen. Though hailed by Indians for its attack on Anglo
Indian society and its prejudices, is just as offensive in its drawing of Indian character as its
predecessors. Forster succeeds in capturing the tensions, ambivalences and contradictions of
colonial rule in India as well as the doubts and frustration and ignorance of a number of
English officials and their wives in remote Indian town. Two other note-worthy Anglo Indian
novelists were Flora Annie Steel and Edward M. Thomson.

Flora Annie Steel (1847-1929)

Flora Annie Steel was an Anglo-Indian writer. She was the daughter of George Webster.
In 1867 she married Henry William Steel, a member of the Indian civil service, and for the next
twenty-two years lived in India, chiefly in the Punjab, with which most of her books are
connected. She acted as school inspector and mediator in local arguments. She was interested in
relating to all classes of Indian society. The birth of her daughter gave her a chance to interact
with local women and learn their language. She encouraged the production of local handicrafts
and collected folk-tales, a collection of which she published in 1884.Her interest in schools and
the education of women gave her a special insight into native life and character. A year before
leaving India, she co-authored and published The Complete Indian Housekeeper, giving
detailed directions to European women on all aspects of household management in India.
Some of her best work is contained in two collections of short stories: From the Five Rivers
(1893) and Tales of the Punjab (1894)
Her novel On the Face of the Waters (1896) describes incidents of the Indian Mutiny of
1857.She also wrote a popular history of India. Her later works included: In the permanent way,
and other stories (1897), Voices in the Night (1900), The Hosts of the Lord (1900),In the Guardianship of
God (1903), A Sovereign Remedy (1906)and India through the ages; a popular and picturesque history of
Hindustan (1908).

Edward M. Thomson (1886-1946)

Edward Thomson was another note-worthy Anglo-Indian poet and scholar. He wrote
An Indian Day (1927) and A Farewell to India (1930) .He was the chief English interpreter of
the great Indian poet and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore.
In short the Anglo-Indian literature helped to strengthen the British authority in India
and justified colonialism as a noble one. The Anglo- Indians strived to remain English in
thought and aspiration. Their first appeal was mainly to the public in England, and secondly to
the English community in India.

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Introduction of Western Education in India

The weapon used by the Europeans for the realization of the purpose of colonialism was
education. Education had been accepted worldwide as the gate way to the development of
society. European nations used force to suppress the traditional educational system. Instead of
indigenous education the colonial regime inaugurated a foreign educational system that is
geared towards development of an internal material base, with the result that technologically
and in relation to the developed world. Europeans rigorously applied their own curricula
without considering the indigenous people. As a bye-product of colonisation, the colonizing
nation implemented its own form of schooling within their colonies so as to suit their purpose.
The colonizing government realized that they gain strength not necessarily through physical
control but through mental control. This mental control is implemented through the colonial
education system. Colonial schools sought to extent foreign domination and economic
exploitation of the colony. Their education policy was an attempt to strip the colonized people
away from their indigenous learning structures and draw them the structures of colonizers. The
system of education was highlighted the glory of white mans mythical racial superiority and
oriental inferiority. The concept of White Mansburden very clearly worked out here. The
indigenous people were taught about themselves was designed to enable them to internalise
their inferiority and to recognise the white man as their saviour. Colonial schooling was
education for subordination, exploitation, the creation of mental confusion and development of
under-development. The implementation of new education system leaves those who are
colonized with lack of identity and a limited sense of their past. The indigenous history and
customs once practices and observed slowly slipped away.
The establishment of British control over India brought changes in different spheres of
life. Education was one of such areas where drastic changes came with the transfer of power to
the British. Education in a colonial country was designed by the colonial rulers to legitimise
their domination and to serve their own economic needs. British authorities through the
introduction of western education made a new set of values and justified colonial rule. The real
beneficiaries of western education in India were a selected few who had a specific role assigned
by the colonial rulers in the continuation of the colonial rule. The real intention of the
introduction of western education in India was to control the country rather than its
development. The early policy of the English East India Company was that of non-intervention
in Indian social matters. But due to the influence of several ideologies in England, such as
Evangelicalism and Utilitarianism, the company forced to interfere in Indian social matters. The
Utilitarian thinkers demanded appropriate social engineering and authoritarian reformism. The
Evangelists argued about the necessity of government intervention to liberate Indians from
their regions that were, according to them full of superstitions, idolatry and tyranny of the
priests. But the Companys government was still tentative about interfering for fear of adverse
Indian reaction. They clearly believed the reforms could not materialise unless a section of the
Indian society was prepared to support reform. Such a group that would support social
reforms in India was soon to emerge through the introduction of English education. Hence the
introduction of English education became the first and most important area of intervention and
innovation for the Companys state in India. English education was introduced in India in the
18th century through the charity schools run in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay for the education
of the European and Anglo-Indian children. The Company supported these schools in various
ways, but did not take any direct responsibility for the education of the indigenous population.
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Indigenous Education system

Prior to the introduction of western education in India by the British authorities there
had a widespread indigenous education system. There were Madrasas and Maktabs for the
Muslims and Tols and Patshalas for the Hindus. These ranged from the centres for higher
learning in Arabic and Sanskrit to lower levels of institution for schooling people in Persian and
Vernacular languages. Lack of scientific and secular learning was one of the major limitations of
the centres for higher learning in those days. Following are the major features of indigenous
education system prevailed in India prior to the introduction of western education.
1. Schools were generally conducted with the help of contribution from Zamindars or from
local rich men.
2. The curriculum gave importance on classical languages like Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian and
subjects of classical Hindu or Islamic tradition like Grammar, Logic, Law Metaphysics,
Medicines, etc.
3. Women were generally prohibited from the formal education system.
4. Oral tradition and memory of the teacher formed the basis of knowledge and information,
supplemented with handwritten manuscripts.
6. The state had little or no role in school education, though kings patronised people famous
for their learning.
The British authorities discarded the indigenous system of education and replaced it by
a system of education of their own.

Debate over Education Policy- Oriental Occidental Conflict

As mentioned earlier the early policy of the East India Company was that of nonintervention in Indian social matters. After the acquisition of political power in India the
company officials wanted to maintain neutrality in the sphere of religion and culture of the
Indian society. The reason behind it was partly the fear of opposition from the people.
However, strong pressure from different ideologies in England, the Missionaries, the Liberals,
the Utilitarians, forced the company to give up its policy of neutrality and to take the
responsibility of promotion of learning.
The important aspect around which opinions were sharply divided was whether the
company should promote western or oriental learning. In the initial stage the company officials
patronised oriental learning. In this context the establishment of the Calcutta Madrassa by
Warren Hastings (1781), the Benares Sanskrit College by Jonathan Duncan (1791), and the Asiatic
Society of Bengal by William Jones (1784) were highly remarkable. Those who were in favour of
continuation of the existing institutions of oriental learning and promotion of Indian classical
tradition were called Orientalists. The Orientalists wanted to teach the British official the local
language and culture so that they would be better at their job. The programme chalked out by
the Orientalists was for the establishment of a Sanskrit College in Calcutta, two more Oriental
Colleges at Agra and Delhi and patronage for the tols and madrassas as institutions of
indigenous learning.
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There was a strong opposition to this Orientalist approach by different groups in

England. The Evangelicals, Utilitairans and Liberals severely criticised the policy put forth by
orientalists. They asserted the superiority of western knowledge and need for introducing
western education in India. One of the chief promoters of this idea was Thomas Babington
Macaulay. James Mill, the chief advocate of Utilitarianism in India, was highly critical of Indian
religion and culture. Instead of support oriental institutions, he emphasised Western education.
Those who were in favour of the introduction of western education and promotion of English
language in India were called Anglicists. They believed that Indians were in a backward stage
and education given through English language alone was the remedy.
The debate over education policy finally came in favour of the Anglicists when William
Bentinck, a Utilitarian reformist, took over as governor general in 1828 and Thomas Babington
Macaulay was appointed the law member in his council in 1834.

Minutes of Macaulay (1835)

Macaulay was appointed the President of the General Committee of Public Instruction.
On 2 February 1835 he issued his famous Minute on Indian Education, which became the blue
print for the introduction of English education in India. He was full of contempt for Oriental
learning. He asserted that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native
literature of India and Arabia. He advocated for the Indians an education in European literature
and sciences, inculcated through the medium of English language. He argued such an
education would create a class of persons between us and the millions whom we govern, a class of
persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and intellect. William
Bentinck immediately endorsed his proposals in an executive order of 7th March 1835, and did
not deviate from this position despite strong protest from the Orientalists.

Extracts from the Minute of T.B. Macaulay, dated the 2nd February 1835.
We now come to the gist of the matter. We have fund to be employed as Government
shall direct for the intellectual improvement of the people of this country. The simple question
is what is the most useful way of employing it?
All parties seem to be agreed on one point, that the dialects commonly spoken among
the natives of this part of the Indian contain neither literary nor scientific information, and are
moreover so poor and rude that, until they are enriched from some other quarter, it will not be
easy to translate any valuable work into them. It seems to be admitted on all sides, that the
intellectual improvement of those classes of the people who have the means of pursuing higher
studies can at present be effected only by means of some language not vernacular amongst
them.
What then shall that language be? One half of the committee maintain that it should be
the English. The other half strongly recommended the Arabic and Sanskrit. The whole question
seems to me to be which language is the best worth knowing?

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I have no knowledge of either Sanskrit or Arabic. But I have done what I could do to
form a correct estimate of their value. I have read translation of the most celebrated Arabic and
Sanskrit works. I have conversed, both here and at home, with men distinguished by their
proficiency in the eastern tongues. I am quite ready to take the oriental learning at the valuation
of the orientalist themselves. I have never found one among could deny that a single shelf of
good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia. The intrinsic
superiority of the western literature is indeed fully admitted by those members of the
committee who support the oriental plan of education.

Important Landmarks in the Development of English Education in India

*Charter Act of 1813
The real beginning of western education in India can be dated from the Charter Act of
1813. By this Act the East India Company for the first time acknowledged state responsibility
for the promotion of education in India. The Act provided for the allocation of one lakh rupees
per year for two specific purposes: first, the encouragement of the learned native of India and
the revival of and improvement of literature; secondly the promotion of knowledge of the
science amongst the inhabitants of India.
In 1823 a General Committee of Public Instruction was set up to look after the
development of education in India. The Committee was dominated by Orientalists and they
strongly advocated the promotion of oriental learning rather than the promotion of Western
education. The programme they put forth was for the establishment of a Sanskrit college in
Calcutta, two more Oriental Colleges at Agra and Delhi and patronage for the tols and
madrassas as institutions of indigenous learning. However, as early mentioned different
sections both in England and in India created huge pressure on the Company to impart
Western education. William Bentinck, the Governor General, and T.B. Macaulay, the then
President of the General Committee of Public Instruction, stood with the side of the Anglicists.
Bentinck gave his ruling on 7th March 1835 that, the great object of the British Government in
India was henceforth to be the promotion of European literature and science among the natives
of India; and that all funds appropriated for the purpose of education would be best employed
on English education alone. Following are the important points of the resolution that Bentinck
announced in 1835.
1. Persian was abolished as the court language and was substituted by English.
2. Printing and publication of English books were made free and available at a low price.
3. More funds were provided to support the English education, while there was curtailment in
the fund for the promotion of oriental learning.

Woods Despatch (1854)

After Bentinck Auckland became the Governor General of India. He also believed in the
promotion of western education. He recommended the opening of more English Colleges at
Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, Patna, Banaras, Bareilly and Dacca. He abolished The General
Committee of Public Instruction in 1841 and in its place established a Council of Education. The
next major landmark in the development of English education in this period was the Woods
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Despatch of 1854. Sir Charles Wood was the President of Board of Control and in 1854 he laid
down the policy which became the guiding principle of the education programme of the
government of India. Charles Wood declared: the education that we desire to see extended in India
is that the diffusion of the improved arts, science, philosophy and literature of Europe, in short European
knowledge.
The important recommendations of the Despatch were as follows:
1. The establishment of university at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
2. The creation of a department of public instruction in each of the five provinces of the
companys territory.
3. The establishment of teacher training institutions.
4. The establishment of a network of graded schools-high schools, middle schools, and the
elementary schools.
5. The introduction of a system of grants-in-aid for financial help to schools, and colleges.
6. The promotion of vernacular schools.
The above aspects shows how gradually English education developed in India. The
British government promoted this system while neglecting the indigenous education in the 19th
century. The new education provided by the British broadened the horizon of knowledge. The
establishment of printing press and easy availability of books removed the tradition barriers
and made education accessible to more people. The ideas of the western thinkers influenced the
younger generation of the Indian society and they began to question the existing tradition
values and customs. A new spirit of rationalism emerged among the educated Indians. English
education brought the native youth in contact with a body of thought which openly questioned
many of the fundamental assumptions upon which the fabric of traditional values rested. They
began to look at their own society through a prism ideologically constructed by such concepts
as reason, utility, progress and justice. Gauri Viswanathan, in his book Masks of Conquest:
Literary Studyand British Rule inIndia, argues:English literature became an ideal representation of
English identity, sanitised and abstracted from the more immediate history of exploitation and oppression.
Moreover, it would inculcate an appropriate training in morality, ethics and correct behaviour, and thus
incorporate a group of natives into the structure of colonial rule, which was the main political agenda of
Anglicism.
EXERCISES
Explain the background of the formation of Commonwealth of Nations.
Statute of Westminster
Location of Commonwealth Nations
Anglo-Indians
Give a brief account of Anglo-Indian literature.
Flora Annie Steel
Give a brief description of the introduction of western education in India. How far it
changed the attitude of traditional Indian society?
8) Macaulays Minute
9) Woods Despatch
10) Give an account of Oriental-Occidental conflict.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

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UNIT V
BACKGROUND OF LATIN AMERICAN LITERATURE
LATIN AMERICA
Latin America comprises the entire continent of South America, as well as Central
America and Mexico (called Middle America), and the Islands of Caribbean. Latin
America refers to countries in the Americas where Romance (Latin-derived) languages are
spoken. This definition, however, is not meant to include Canada, in spite of its large
French-speaking population. Latin American countries generally lie south of the United
States. Some writers and commentators, particularly in the United States, apply the term
Latin America to the whole region south of the United States, including the non-Romancespeaking countries such as Suriname, Jamaica, and Guyana, due to similar economic,
political and social histories and present-day conditions. Major Latin American countries
are Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Peru, Columbia, Venezuela, Paraguay, and Bolivia.
Before the arrival of Europeans in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the region
was home to many indigenous peoples, many of which had advanced civilizations, most
notably, the Aztec, Inca and Maya. By the end of the 16th century large areas of what
would become Latin America were colonized by European settlers, primarily from Spain,
Portugal and to a lesser extent, France and the Netherlands.

Origin of the term and definition- Latin America

The idea that a part of the Americas has a cultural or racial affinity with all
Romance cultures can be traced back to the 1830s, in particular in the writing of the
French Michel Chevalier, who postulated that this part of the Americas were inhabited by
people of a "Latin race," and that it could, therefore, ally itself with "Latin Europe. The
idea was later taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the midand late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural
models, but rather to France. The actual term "Latin America" was coined in France under
Napoleon III and played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship with France,
transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area and install Maximilian as
emperor of Mexico. In the mid-twentieth century, especially in the United States, there
was a trend to occasionally classify all of the territory south of the United States as "Latin
America," especially when the discussion focused on its contemporary political and
economic relations to the rest of the world, rather than solely on its cultural aspects. Since,
the concept and definitions of Latin American are very modern, going back only to the
nineteenth century; it is anachronistic to talk about "a history of Latin America" before the
arrival the Europeans. Nevertheless, the many and varied cultures that did exist in the
pre-Columbian period had a strong and direct influence on the societies that emerged as a
result of the conquest, and therefore, they cannot be overlooked. What is now Latin
America has been populated for several millennia, possibly for as long as 30,000 years.
There are many models of migration to the New World. Precise dating of many of the
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early civilizations is difficult because there are few text sources. However, highlydeveloped civilizations flourished at various times and places, such as in the Andes and
Mesoamerica. Latin American culture is the mixing of the following cultures:
*The indigenous Red-Indian Culture (The Ancient Maya Inca and Aztec civilisations)
*European colonial culture (Spanish, Portuguese French and English)
*The culture of African slaves, who came to the Americas to work at mines and
plantations.

European Colonial Enterprises in the Americas (Spain, Portuguese & Britain)

The European expansion into the New World (Americas) was a facet of their
dynamic national policies. Portugal at that time was a wealthy, expanding, trading nation
with a large African and island empire. The leadership of Ferdinand and Isabella, the
Catholic Kings, transformed Spain into a nation state marked by growing royal power and
centralised administration. They kindled a wave of nationalist and religious fervour that
eventually led to the expulsion of the Muslims and Jew and carried Spaniards beyond the
peninsula. Spain fought to enlarge its domain and to convert the heathen people. A strong
religious and nationalistic spirit, a drive for trade and land, a military seeking adventure
and rewards, monarchs desire of expanding and unifying their realms, all contributed to
the European conquest of the Americas. Europeans, during their 325 years of domination,
left an indelible impression upon the culture and life of the lands that they occupied.
Spain preserved Indian nobility, and many Spaniards took Indian wives. After the
completion of war and conquest in the Americas the Spaniards and Portuguese staked out
land for agriculture, founded cities opened trading posts, and prospected for mines,
advancing their nations realms. They established the church of their faith and converted
millions to Christianity.

The Spanish Conquest of America - Voyages of Christopher Columbus

(1492- 1504)
Extensive European exploration of America was a by-product of European efforts
in the 15th century to find a sea route to the East and thereby to end the monopoly of
Italian and Levantine middlemen over the lucrative trade in spices and other Oriental
products. The Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus became convinced that it was
possible to reach the East from Europe by sailing westward across the Atlantic and that
his proposed route was shorter than the route around Africa. But he underestimated the
size of the earth and overestimated the size and eastward extension of Asia. Queen
Isabella of Spain agreed to support the Enterprise of the Indies. The contract made by
the queen with Columbus named him the hereditary titles of Admiral of the Sea, Viceroy of
the Indies, and Governor of all the lands he might discover on his voyage. Columbus also
got the right to a one-tenth share of all the riches yielded up by the discoveries.

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On 3 August, 1492 Columbus sailed from the south-western Spanish port of Palos
with three ships- the Pinta the Santa Maria, and the Nina. They were manned by a
total of eighty seven men mostly experienced sailors from the small ports of the region.
After completing a long and testing voyage across unknown regions of the Atlantic
Ocean, Christopher Columbus came within sight of land on 12th October 1492. On making
shore he was convinced that a westward sea passage to the mainland of Asia had been
found and that the purpose of his exploration was realised. The purpose was to obtain a
licence from the rulers of Japan and China to establish a private trade in gold and spices
under the auspices of his patrons, the Catholic Monarchs of Spain. Asia was a fascinating
and mysterious continent for Europeans. It was known vaguely as the Indies, a name that
applied not only to India itself, but also to Malacca, the Spice Islands, and to China and
Japan.
An ocean had indeed been crossed by Columbus, but this was not Japan or China;
it was rather a small island in the Bahamas. Columbus called the Bahamas Island as San
Salvador, in honour of his Holy Saviour. He used the term Indian to distinguish these
peoples from the Europeans. Columbus became too disappointed while seeing the
inhabitant of the island. They were very primitive. This was not expected by Columbus:
he wanted to reach Japan, and these people were too barbarous to be the subjects of a
powerful king. Finding little on Bahamas (San Salvador) Columbus moved around other
islands in the Bahamas. He then arrived on the north coast of colba (later Hispanicised
as Cuba), which he hoped might be Japan; however, there was very little gold. He
observed there that the people relaxed by puffing at a large, burning stick of rolled leaves,
which they called tobacos , a habit the Spaniards eventually pick up and introduce
throughout Europe.
Next he sailed eastward to explore the northern coast of an island that he called La
Isla Espanola (Hispaniola- the island which today comprises Haiti and Dominican
Republic).Natives of Hispaniola wore plenty of gold ornaments and were very welcoming.
His flag ship Santa Mariaran on a coral reef and wrecked. But he found this disaster as a
sign from God that he should found the first Spanish colony there. Thus the first Spanish
settlement in the Americas was built and gave the name Navidad (the Nativity).A group of
21 experienced crews were left behind, and Columbus, confident now that he had reached
the Indies, returned to Spain on 4th January 1492 aboard the Ninato report his supposed
discovery of the Indies.
Columbus returned to Hispaniola at the end of 1493(second voyage) with a fleet of
seventeen ships carrying 1500 colonists. His intention was to found a permanent colony
on the island he had discovered. In Hispaniola he found that the natives had destroyed
the settlement of Navidad. Upset by the destruction of Navidad, Columbus sailed
eastward looking for a new site and found a colony which he called Isabella in honour of
his queen Isabella. But the Spaniards became more indiscipline and a faction of Catalans
had rebelled against his brother, whom he had entrusted the charge of Isabella. Columbus
tried to satisfy the ambitions of unruly Spaniards who wanted quick rewards from
colonisation. He conducted more brutal expeditions into the interior to search for gold. He
also started traffic in slaves to improve the economic prospects of his trading colony, and
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sent off a shipload of about 500 natives to Spain. The natives of Hispaniola rose in revolt
against the brutality of Spaniards and marched on Isabella, but they were easily
suppressed by the Spaniards guns and savage dogs. In March 1496 Columbus returned to
Spain to report his new discoveries and to answer charges sent by disenchanted settlers.
The first two voyages of Columbus were not up to the mark. His enterprise of
Indies was become discredited at the Spanish court; there seemed no evidence of rich
deposit of gold and no contact had been made with the rulers of either Japan or China.
Furthermore, the pious queen Isabella was unhappy with the treatment of the indigenous
people by Columbus and his men. But the Spanish sovereigns still had a faith in
Columbus and equipped a third fleet in 1498. The third expedition of Columbus was
financed by the royal treasury under the supervision of the archdeacon of Seville, Juan
Rodriguez de Fonseca, an ambitious official. Columbus set sail in May 1498 and reached
the island of Trinidad in July, he then explored the coast of Venezuela. On reaching
Hispaniola, Columbus found the Spaniards in a state of civil war. The Spaniards
disappointed in their hopes of quick wealth, blamed Columbus for their misfortunes and
rose in revolt. A stream of complaints against Columbus had caused the sovereigns to
send out an agent. Finally, in August 1500 a royal official, Francisco de Bobadilla, arrived
with orders from the Crown of Spain to investigate the trouble. The Columbus brothers
were arrested and Christopher Columbus was sent back to Spain in chains. Thus his
personal monopoly on New World exploration and colonisation ended as privileges were
granted to other explorers. In February 1502 the Catholic monarchs of Castile sent out an
experienced administrator, Nicolas de Ovando, as the first royal governor of the Spanish
Indies. But Columbus mad his fourth voyage in 1502-04. It greatly extended Spains
knowledge of the newly discovered land in the western Hemsphere.in this voyage
Columbus traced the coastline of central America along Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica
and Panama. Christopher Columbus died on 20th May 1506, convinced to the last that he
had found the western sea route to the East and that the lands he had discovered were
islands and peninsulas in Asia.

Imposition of European Administration

The political organisation of the Spanish Empire in America reflected the
centralised, absolute regime by which Spain itself was governed. In the Americas, as in the
case of Spain, there was a frequent contrast between the formal concentration of authority
in the hands of royal officials and the actual exercise of supreme power on the local level
by the great landowners. The pattern of Spains administration of its colonies was formed
in the period between 1492 and 1550. The final result reflected the steady growth of
centralised rule in Spain and its colonies. To Columbus, Cortes (Conqueror of Mexico)
Pizarro (the conqueror of Peru) and other great expeditionary leader, the Spanish Kings
granted complete powers that made these men practically sovereign in the territories they
conquered or proposed to conquest.

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The Council of the Indies

The chief agency for directing colonial affairs was the Council of the Indies, created
by edict of Charles I in 1524. It was the head of the Spanish imperial administration almost
to the end of the colonial period. Although great nobles and court favourites were
appointed to the Council, its membership consisted predominantly lawyers. It was the
supreme legislative, judicial, and executive organ of colonial government. One of its most
important functions was the nomination of all high colonial officials to the king.

Viceroys, captains general and audiencias

The important royal agents in the colonies were the viceroys, the captain general
and audiencias (high courts).Viceroys and captains general had essentially the same
functions. At the end of the Habsburg era, in 1700, there were two great American
Viceroyalties- the viceroyalty of New Spain, with its capital at Mexico City, and Peru with
its capital at Lima. Captains general theoretically subordinate to the viceroys but in practice
virtually independent of them, governed large subdivision of these vast jurisdictions.
The Viceroy represented the prestige and power of the sovereign. He enjoyed an
immense delegated authority, which was augmented by the distance that separated him
from Spain. His dignity was attested by the luxurious welcome accorded him, the
triumphal arches erected in city streets, the display of fine robes of judges and churchmen,
the feasting and the pageantry. A court modelled on that of Castile, a numerous retinue
and the constant display of pomp and circumstance testified to his exalted status.
The viceroys powers were great. He was the president of the audiencia within his
viceroyalty. He possessed powers of appointment to civil and ecclesiastical posts. His
freedom of action was restricted by the laws and instructions issued by the Council of the
Indies.
The audiencia (oidores, they who hear) was a court and an instrument for royal
control. Spain had used the audienciasto enforce royal discipline in territory reconquered
from the Muslims. Now it transplanted to America to curb the troubles. The first audiencia
was installed in Santo Domingo in 1511. By the end of the colonial period the original
seven audiencias had been doubled. The American audiencias was primarily a court, as it
was in Spain. Its members were judges, three or four of them being assigned to each of the
first audiencias, a number doubled and redoubled as time went on. As a court representing
the king, it was superior to all other courts within its jurisdiction. In addition to judicial
duties, the audiencia was the voice of the King. Its decision had final authority subject only
to the kings veto, hence it became in effect a legislative agency. The joint decisions of
Viceroy and audiencia had the force of law, giving the audiencia a legislative character,
comparable to that of the Council of Indies. Although the viceroy was not obliged to
follow the advice of the audiencia , its immense prestige and its right to correspond
directly with Council of the Indies made it a potential check on the vice regal authority.
The Spanish Crown thus developed a system of checks and balances that assured ample
deliberation and consultation on all important questions.
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Encomindaand repartimiento as the apparatus of colonial exploitation

Espanola was the first testing ground of Spains colonial policy in the New World.
Eager to prove to the Crown the value of his discoveries, Columbus compelled the
indigenous people to bring in a daily tribute of gold dust. Columbus distributed the
Indians (natives of conquered land mistakenly called Indians by Columbus) among the
Spanish settlers, along with the right to use the forced labour of the natives. The
temporary arrangement, formalised by the administration of Gov. Nicolas Ovando and
sanctioned by the Crown became the encomienda. Ovando adapted a traditional form of
labour service, known in Spain as encomienda, to the circumstances of Hispaniola. The
encomienda (from encomendar, to entrust) was the legal device under which Crown
entrusted specified numbers of Indians to Spaniards, the encomenderos, who thereby
won definite rights over their Indians and incurred equally specific obligations to them.
By this new system Indian workers were allocated to Spanish settlers on the
understanding that they would be cared for, paid decent wages and instructed the
Christian faith in return for their services. But the system was not free from the coercion of
the Spanish settlers. The royal intention in establishing the encomienda was mercifuland it
continued to be good under the kings of the 16th century. But unfortunately for the
Indians the encomiendas were managed not by kings but by ambitious planters and
mine operators who thought much of the wheat, corn, gold, and silver. They never
considered the health and happiness of the Indians who generated the wealth. It was
therefore inevitable that the encomienda, despite its safeguards brought seizure of Indian
lands and the reduction of the natives themselves to a state of slavery.
The abuses of encomienda aroused stormy protest of many churchmen. The kings
joined in the effort to save the Indian. The protests of the Dominican Priests persuaded
King Ferdinand to issue the Law of Burgos In 1512. The law put forth fair rates of pay and
provided for the supervision of encomiendaarrangementsby royal officials. But these laws
proved unenforceable in Americas and were generally ignored. In 1520 Charles I ordered
an end to the encomiendabut soon withdrew his action in the face of protest from overseas.
In 1526 he issued new regulations designed to safeguard the Indians from the rapacity
and cruelty of the Spaniards.

Repartimiento
A new system, the repartimiento (from repartir, to divide up) replaced the encomiento.
Under this system all adult male Indians had to give a certain amount of their time in
rotation throughout the year to work in Spanish mines and factories, and on farms. By
which the Spanish settlers seized Indians at random and put them to work in the mines or
shipped them to distant points as slaves. The natives seized and carried far a field for
work on plantation, in mines, or in the building of churches and roads. This meant the
dividing of families, interminable labour, cruel treatment, less food and bad housing. The
inhumanity of this forced labour was aggravated by the use of Indian bosses (called
caciques in Mexico, curacaos in Peru) as foreman. These Indian bosses often treated their
kinsmen with greater cruelty than did the Spanish overseers.
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The Impact of Conquest on the Americas

The European conquest disrupted the traditional economy of the native people and
transformed the character and tempo of their economic activity. The encomienda became
the main instrument for extracting wealth from the colonies. The Aztec and Inca peoples
were accustomed to paying tribute to their rulers and nobility, but their demands were
unlimited. Driven by visions of infinite wealth, the Spaniards exploited the Indians
mercilessly. All of these Indian societies were affected by the Spanish conquest. Some
were utterly destroyed, some chose to ally themselves with the conquerors, some found
the conquest a welcome liberation from Aztec or Inca oppression.
The Spaniards did systematically, and often cruelly, intervene in native societies to
extract resources for own profit. In the course of Spanish Conquest and the decades
immediately following it, the imperial structures of the ancient civilisation of the
Americas, namely Aztecs and the Incas were destroyed. Their royal families and imperial
nobility deprived of their power. Within these Indian kingdoms and communities
tradition life changed much as before. They forced to accept the ideas of their new masters
and also to accept their religion- Christianity. Even though the basic structures of Indian
life at the communal and tribal levels remained largely unchanged by the Conquest, none
the less many villages, crops and individual lives were destroyed in the course of the
wars. The large numbers of American natives suffered torture and rape at the hands of the
European conquerors. Labour for the encomenderos were harsh and exploitative, since
many Spaniards were not interested in settling down but simply wanted to extract as
much wealth as possible from the Indies before returning to Spain.
The worst effects of the Conquest were felt over the longer term. The most
destructive were the ravages of the epidemics which swept the continent within a few
years of the arrival of the Spaniards. These were plagues of smallpox, measles, typhus and
other unidentified diseases, against which they had no immunities because of their
complete isolation from other races over millennia. The native peoples of low-lying or
coastal areas were the worst affected by these viruses- the population of the Caribbean
islands was all wiped out. It has been estimated that over the century following the
conquest the population in central Mexico fell by about 90 per cent.
Another long term effect of the conquest was the excessive burden placed on the
resources of the Indian communities by the Spanish settlers dependence on them for food
and labour. The tribute demands of Spanish settlers were heavy and created great burden
on natives. Many Indian communities protested or rebelled, and several individuals felt
so oppressed by tribute obligations that they fled their villages to work for wages in
Spanish towns.
The Spanish authorities deliberately intervened to transform Indian ways and
assert their authority. The most immediate and flagrant intervention was the campaign to
convert natives of the continent to Christianity. Evangelization involved the introduction
of Hispanic forms of organisations. Yet, Indian traditions owe their survival to the explicit
policy of the Spanish church and Crown, throughout the 16th century.
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The cultural transformation of the Indian world after the conquest was a slow,
patchy, irregular process. The terrible destruction due to the epidemics of new diseases,
the disasters of war, and the high demands for tribute on a declining population by
greedy Spanish encomenderos, drove a steady stream of Indians out of their villages
towards the Hispanic town and cities where they were more rapidly acculturated. Those
who remained in the communities were also subjected to Spanish influences, but their
resistance to acculturation and their capacity for adjustment were very strong.

Latin- American Literature

Latin American literature consists of the national literatures of the Spanishspeaking countries of the western Hemisphere and Portuguese-speaking Brazil. It also
includes the literary expression of the highly developed Indian civilizations conquered by
the Spaniards. Over the years Latin American literature has developed into one of the
finest literatures of the western world, displaying richness and diversity of themes, forms,
and styles.

Literature during the Colonial Years (1492-1826)

Literature of the conquest (1492-1600)
With the discovery of new land beyond the Atlantic Ocean, Spain and Portugal
embarked on a crusade that was to stamp the colonial seal on vast areas of the Americas.
These adventures were chronicled from the day Columbus set sail. His letters to King
Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain marked the beginnings of a rich body of colonial
writings. The discovery and conquests are narrated in countless letters, chronicles,
histories dictionaries, religious pieces, and epic poems. The great cultures discovered and
conquered by the Spaniards also possessed rich heritage of poetry, theatre, and mythicohistorical writing, the most striking of which are their chronicles of the conquest and their
defeat and destruction. The zeal of the first contact and the adventures and problems that
followed was recorded in various writings, including the Five Letters 1519- 1526, sent by
Hernan Cortes to his emperor, Charles V. Another major writings during the period were
The True History of the Conquest of New Spain by Bernal Diaz and The Tears of the Indian
by the Dominican friar Bartlome de las Casas.

Literature of Rebellion
The two great themes of modern Latin American literature originated in the
experience of the war of independence: first, the aspiration found a just social order,
whether on conservative or liberal principles; and secondly, the quest for an authentic
American identity. By the end of the 18th century France had largely replaced Spain as the
cultural lodestar of Latin America. French inspired neo-classical styles and tastes attracted
the intellectuals of Latin America. Neo-classicism dominated the arts during the period of
the independence wars and until the 1840s. A clean break with the Spanish monarchy was
animated by secular, radical attitudes inspired by the French and American revolutions.
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Antonio Nario, Francisco de Miranda, Simon Rodriguez and Simon Bolivar in New
Granada, and the Argentines Mariano Moreno, Manuel Belgrano and Bernardino
Rivadavia, all Latin American heroes dreamed of building modern, rational liberal
republics on the ruins of the Hispanic tyranny.
The critical thrust of the neo-classical Enlightenment culture is clearly evident in
the first major novel appeared in Spanish America, named TheItching Parrot (1816). It
was written by the Mexican journalist Fernandez de Lizardi. It was an attack on the
corruption and injustice of colonial society and advocated liberal values- freedom of
thought and speech in particular.

Romanticism
Political independence from Spain and Portugal did not bring freedom from
political despotism and anarchy. European Romanticism pointed the way to cultural
independence also. The most famous early Romanticists in the Latin America were
Argentine political refugees who fled from the dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas.The man
credited with bringing romanticism to Spanish America was Esteban Echeverria. He had
spent five years ((1826-1830) in Paris, where Romanticism was at its height, before
returning to Buenos Aires in 1830. As a poet he is chiefly remembered for his narrative
ballad La cautiva (TheCaptive, 1837), the story of a white girls escape from the
enslavement by nomadic Indians. He also wrote The Slaughterhouse (1838), a short
satirical prose piece in which a slaughter house becomes a powerful symbol of the ruler
Rosass oppression of liberals in Buenos Aires. In 1839 Echeverria initiated to found the
Asociacion de Mayo, a group of young anti-Rosas activist. Many of whom were became
important writers and future liberal leaders of Argentina. His Dogma socialista (1837)
was regarded as the manifesto of this group and highlighted the principles of classical
liberalism. Another famous liberal writer belonging to the Asociacion de Mayo was poet
Jose Marmol. He strongly shouted against the atrocities of Rosass regime and was
incarcerated by Rosass army. It provided him the creative impetus for poetry and plays.
He wrote his famous novel titled Amalia (1851), a romantic novel with its marked antiRosas theme.

Ruben Dario and the Modernismo

In Spanish America there emerged resentments against the sentimental romantic
writings. Young writers across the Americas immersed themselves in the mainstream of
world thought and writing.Modernismo inaugurated in the Americas with the publication
of the collection Azul(Azure, 1888) by the Nicaraguan poet Ruben Dario. Modernismo was
actually an eclectic movement. It was some respects a development from romanticism,
stressing the darker, more perverse elements, which tended to be overlooked by the
public-spirited romantic liberals of the time. Beauty was their goddess and art for arts
sake and to the decadent as their creed. Influenced by French movements, they followed
no regular path-Parnasssianism, Decadentism, and all the rest coexisted in any individual or
followed each other in any order.
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Famous among the early Modernists were the Mexican writer ManuelGutierrez
Najera. His elegiac verse and restrained rhythmical prose and tales best represented
transition from Romanticism to Modernism. Political radicals in the Americas were also
attracted to this new literary movement. Jose Marti, the great leader of Cubas struggle for
independence, the Peruvian political activist Manuel Gonzalez Prada, the Cuban Julian del
Casal and the Columbian Jose Asuncion Silva were all wrote in a Modernist vein.
The full flowering of Modernism came under the leadership of one of the greatest
poets in Spanish, Ruben Dario of Nicaragua. His collection of verse and prose, Azul,
published in 1888, marked the initial way of his Modernist writings. Dario believed the
artist was a spiritual aristocrat, ennobled by his painful search for lo ideal through the
creation of poetry itself and through a sacralisation of sexual love. Ruben Darios
residence in Buenos Aires in the late 1890s stimulated the growth of Modernism in the
River Plate republics. His Lay Hymns (1896) represented the high point of escapist,
cosmopolitan phase of the Modernist movement. Dario depicted the best of Modernist
formal experimentation with an expression of inner despair or an almost metaphysical joy
in his Songs of Life and Hope (1905).

Important Latin- American literary figures in the 20th century

The horror and blood shed of the Mexican Revolution (1910-17) shocked the
complacent intellectual minority into a realisation of the plight of their countrys masses.
The revolution had a wide effect almost everywhere throughout Latin America. Other
events such as World Wars I and II, worldwide economic depression of the 1930s and the
Spanish civil war, also played a vital role in altering the perspective and general
orientation of Latin-American writers. The works that emerged during the second half of
the century give testimony to the full maturing of Latin-American literature and its entry
into the mainstream of Western letters.

Julio Cortazer
Julio Cortazer was famous Argentine writer. He was born on 26 th August 1914.He
was well versed in Spanish and French and translated many English and French books in
to Spanish language. He followed a strong anti-imperialist policy throughout his life. In
1946 he became the manager of Argentine Publishing Association. His famous novels are:
The Winners, Hopscotch, 62: A Model Kit andA Manuel for Manuel.

Pablo Neruda (Neftali Ricardo Reyes Basalto)

Neftali Ricardo Reyes Basalto, famously known as Pablo Neruda was celebrated Latin
American poet and writer. He belongs to Chile. He was born in very poor family and
suffered a lot in his boyhood days due to the death of his mother. The poverty and
loneliness that he suffered in his earlier life became the major theme of his writings. His
first collection of poem named Crepusculario came into light in the year 1923. His
Twenty Love Poems and Song of Despair published in 1924 made him fame all over
Chile. He went to Myanmar as a Diplomat of Chile. The poem Residence on Earth192531wrote in the back ground of his strangely life in Asia.
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His poem Spain in My Heart (1937) was written in the background of Spanish
Civil war of 1936. By 1940 he became active in politics and became major leader of antiimperialist struggles in Chile.In 1950 Neruda wrote his masterpiece, Canto General. It
was a collection of poem depicting the Latin-American Ancient history, culture and life
etc.He received Nobel prise in the year 1971. He died on 23rd September 1973 in Santiago,
the capital of Chile.

Joao Guimaraes Rosa

Joao Guimaraes Rosa was one of the famous Latin American novelists in the 20 th
century. He belongs to Brazil and born in the year 27th June 1908.He represented
Modernism and Post Modernism in his writings. He was well versed in many languages,
especially French, Spanish and English. He received his degree in Medicine. His
important novels are: The Devil to pay inthe Back lands and Third Bank of the River.
Rosa died in 19th November, 1967.

Eduardo Mallea (1903-1982)

Eduardo Mallea was Argentine novelist, essayist, and short-story writer whose
psychological novels won critical acclaim. Mallea began as a short-story writer, first
achieving recognition with Cuentospara una inglesa desesperada (1926; Stories for a
Desperate Englishwoman). In 1931 he became editor of the weekly literary magazine of
the Buenos Aires newspaper La nacin. Soon, he found that the novel provided a suitable
structure for his style of writing, enabling both psychological analysis of character and
philosophical digression. Often set in Argentina, Malleas novels were also concerned
with national and regional problems, as in La baha de silencio (1940; The Bay of Silence)
and Las guilas (1943; The Eagles). In Todo verdor perecer (1941; All Green ShallPerish),
which consider his greatest work; he exploredby the use of interior monologue and
flashback techniquesthe anguish of a woman living in the provinces.
Mallea served in such posts as Argentine representative to the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (195558). He also wrote several
volumes of travel books and essays. His final works were published in the early 1970s.

Gabriel Garcia Marquez

Gabriel Jos de la Concordia Garcia Marquez born on March 6, 1927, is a
Colombian novelist, short-story writer, screenwriter and journalist, known affectionately
as Gabo throughout Latin America. Considered one of the most significant authors of the
20th century, he was awarded the 1972 Neustadt International Prize for Literature and the
1982 Nobel Prize in Literature, and is the earliest remaining living recipient. He pursued a
self-directed education that resulted in his leaving law school for a career in journalism.
From early on, he showed no inhibitions in his criticism of Colombian and foreign politics.
In 1958, he married Mercedes Barcha; they have two sons, Rodrigo and Gonzalo.

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He started as a journalist, and has written many acclaimed non-fiction works and
short stories, but is best known for his novels, such as One Hundred Years of Solitude
(1967) and Love in the Time of Cholera (1985). His works have achieved significant
critical acclaim and widespread commercial success, most notably for popularizing a
literary style labelled as magical realism, which uses magical elements and events in
otherwise ordinary and realistic situations. Some of his works are set in a fictional village
called Macondo, and most of them express the theme of solitude.
* (Magic realism or magical realism is an aesthetic style or genre of fiction in which magical
elements blend with the real world. The story explains these magical elements as real occurrences,
presented in a straightforward manner that places the "real" and the "fantastic" in the same stream
of thought. Although it is most commonly used as a literary genre, Magic Realism also applies to
film and the visual arts.)

One Hundred Years of Solitude

Gabo published his master piece One Hundred Years of Solitude (Cien aos de soledad)
in 1967. It became his most commercially successful novel and it was translated in to
English by Gregory Rabassa in 1970.The novel chronicles several generations of the
Buenda family from the time they founded the fictional South American village of
Macondo, through their trials and tribulations, instances of incest, births and deaths. The
history of Macondo is often generalized by critics to represent rural towns throughout
Latin America. This novel was widely popular and led to GarciaMarquezs Nobel Prize as
well as the Romulo Gallegos Prize in 1972. William Kennedy has called it "the first piece of
literature since the Book of Genesis that should be required reading for the entire human
race, and hundreds of articles and books of literary critique have been published in
response to it.

Autumn of the Patriarch

Garcia Marquez was inspired to write a dictator novel when he witnessed the flight
of Venezuelan dictator Marcos Prez Jimnez. He shares, "it was the first time we had seen
a dictator fall in Latin America. Garcia Marquez began writing Autumn of the Patriarch (El
otoo del patriarca) in 1968 and finished in 1971. According to Garcia Marquez, the novel is
a "poemon the solitude of power" as it follows the life of an eternal dictator known as the
General. The novel is developed through a series of anecdotes related to the life of the
General, which do not appear in chronological order. Although the exact location of the
story is not pin-pointed in the novel, the imaginary country is situated somewhere in the
Caribbean.

Love in the Time of Cholera

Love in the Time of Cholera (El amor en los tiempos del clera) was first published in
1985. It is considered a non-traditional love story as "lovers find love in their 'golden
years'- in their seventies, when death is all around them. Love in the Time of Cholera is
based on the stories of two couples. The young love of Fermina Daza and Florentino Ariza
is based on the love affair of Garca Mrquez's parents.
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Living to Tell the Tale and Memories of My Melancholy Whores

In 2002, Garca Marquez published the memoir Vivir paracontarla, the first of a
projected three-volume autobiography. This autobiography was translated in to English
by Edith Grossman, titled Living toTell the Tale, published in November 2003. In October
2004 brought the publication of a novel, Memories of My Melancholy Whores (Memoria de
misputas tristes), a love story that follows the romance of a 90-year-old man and a
pubescent concubine.

Mario Vargas Llosa

Jorge Mario Pedro Vargas Llosa, born on 28th March, 1936, is a Peruvian-Spanish
writer, politician, journalist, essayist, and recipient of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature.
Vargas Llosa is one of Latin America's most significant novelists and essayists, and one of
the leading authors of his generation. Some critics consider him to have a larger
international impact and worldwide audience than any other writer of the Latin American
Boom. Upon announcing the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature, the Swedish Academy said it
had been given to Vargas Llosa "for his cartography of structures of power and his trenchant
images of the individual's resistance, revolt, and defeat".
Vargas Llosa rose to fame in the 1960s with novels such as The Time of the Hero
(La ciudad y los perros), The Green House (La casaverde,) and the monumental Conversation
in the Cathedral (Conversacin enla catedral,). He writes prolifically across an array of
literary genres, including literary criticism and journalism. His novels include comedies,
murder mysteries, historical novels, and political thrillers. Several, such as Captain
Pantojaand theSpecial ServiceandAunt Julia and the Scriptwriterhave been adapted
as feature films. He is the person who, in 1990, "coined the phrase that circled the globe",
declaring on Mexican television, "Mexico is the perfect dictatorship", a statement which
became an adage during the following decade.
Like many Latin American authors, Vargas Llosa has been politically active
throughout his career; over the course of his life, he has gradually moved from the
political left towards liberalism or neoliberalism, a definitively more conservative political
position. While he initially supported the Cuban revolutionary government of Fidel
Castro, Vargas Llosa later became disenchanted with the Cuban dictator and his
authoritarian regime. He ran for the Peruvian presidency in 1990 with the centre-right
Frente Democrtico (FREDEMO) coalition, advocating neoliberal reforms, but lost the
election to Alberto Fujimori.
During his earlier days he had close association with Gabriela Garcia Marquez. But
there emerged some ideological differences among them and their intimacy became
decayed. Llosa has written a book criticising the writings of marques titled: Garcia
Marquez: Story of a Decide (1971).

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Latin American wars of independence- Simon Bolivar and San Martin

The Latin American Wars of Independence were the various revolutions that took
place during the late 18th and early 19th centuries and resulted in the creation of a
number of independent countries in Latin America. These revolutions followed the
American and French Revolutions, which had profound effects on the Spanish,
Portuguese and French colonies in the Americas. Other factors included the
Enlightenment thinking. The Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic
reform to spread throughout Latin America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free
trade and Physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment.

Simon Bolvar (1783-1830)

Simon Bolivar was a Venezuelan military and political leader. Bolvar played a key
role in Latin America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire,
and is today considered one of the most influential politicians in the history of the
Americas. Following the triumph over the Spanish Monarchy, Bolvar participated in the
foundation of the first union of independent nations in Hispanic-America, a republic,
which was named Gran Colombia, of which he was president from 1819 to 1830. Bolvar
remains regarded in Hispanic-America as a hero, visionary, revolutionary, and liberator.
During his lifetime, he led Venezuela, Colombia (including Panama at the time), Ecuador,
Peru, and Bolivia to independence, and helped lay the foundations for democratic
ideology in much of Latin America.

El Libertador (The Liberator)

In 1813 Bolivar was given a military command in Tunja, New Granada (modern
day Colombia), under the direction of the Congress of United Provinces of New Granada,
which had formed out of the juntas established in 1810.This was the beginning of the
famous Admirable Campaign. He entered Mrida on May 24, where he was proclaimed as
El Libertador (The Liberator). That event was followed by the occupation of Trujillo on
June 9. Six days later, on June 15, he dictated his famous Decree of War to the Death.
Caracas was retaken on August 6, 1813 and Bolvar was ratified as "El Libertador", thus
proclaiming the restoration of the Venezuelan republic. Due to the rebellion of Jos Toms
Boves in 1814 and the fall of the republic, he returned to New Granada, where he then
commanded a force for the United Provinces and entered Bogot in 1814 recaptured the
city from the dissenting republican forces. He intended to march into Cartagena and enlist
the aid of local forces in order to capture Royalist Santa Marta. In 1815, after a number of
political and military disputes with the government of Cartagena, however, Bolvar fled to
Jamaica, where he was denied support and an attempt was made on his life, after which
he fled to Haiti, where he was granted sanctuary and protection. He befriended Alexandre
Ption, the leader of the newly independent country, and petitioned him for aid.

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In 1816, with Haitian soldiers and vital material support (on the condition that he
abolish slavery), Bolvar landed in Venezuela and captured Angostura (now Ciudad
Bolvar). At that time, Venezuela remained a captaincy of Spain, and Bolvar decided that
he would first fight for the independence of New Granada (which was a vice royalty),
intending later to consolidate the independence of Venezuela and other less politically
important Spanish territory. The campaign for the independence of New Granada was
consolidated with the victory at the Battle of Boyac in 1819. From this newly consolidated
base of power, Bolvar launched outright independence campaigns in Venezuela and
Ecuador, and these campaigns were concluded with the victories at the Battle of Carabobo
in 1821 and the Battle of Pichincha in 1822. On September 7, 1821 the Gran Colombia (a
state covering much of modern Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, northern Peru,
and northwest of Brazil) was created, with Bolvar as president and Francisco de Paula
Santander as vice president.

San Martin (1778-1850)

Jos Francisco de San Martn was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the
southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish
Empire.
In 1808, after taking part in the Peninsular War against France, San Martn
contacted South American supporters of independence from Spain. In 1812, he set sail for
Buenos Aires and offered his services to the United Provinces of the Ro de la Plata,
present-day Argentina. After the Battle of San Lorenzo and some time on command of the
Army of the North during 1814, he organized a plan to defeat the Spanish forces that
menaced the United Provinces from the north, using an alternative path to the Viceroyalty
of Peru. This objective first involved the establishment of a new army, the Army of the
Andes, in Cuyo Province, Argentina. From there, he led the Crossing of the Andes to Chile,
and triumphed at the Battle of Chacabuco and the Battle of Maip (1818), thus liberating
Chile from Royalist rule. Then he sailed to attack the Spanish stronghold of Lima, Peru.
On 12 July 1821, after seizing partial control of Lima, San Martn was appointed Protector
of Peru, and Peruvian independence was officially declared on 28 July. On 22 July 1822,
after a closed-door meeting with fellow liberator Simon Bolvar at Guayaquil, Ecuador,
Bolvar took over the task of fully liberating Peru. San Martn unexpectedly left the
country and resigned the command of his army, excluding himself from politics and the
military, and moved to France in 1824.
San Martin is regarded as a national hero of Argentina and, together with Simon
Bolvar, one of the liberators of Spanish South America. The Order of the Liberator
General San Martin (Orden del Liberator General San Martin), created in his honour, is
the highest decoration conferred by the Argentine government.

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EXERCISES
1) What do you understand by the term Latin-America?
2) Location of Latin-America
3) Describe the European colonial enterprises in Latin-America with special
reference to the voyages of Christopher Columbus.
4) Explain the terms Encomiendaand Repartimiento in the background of LatinAmerican colonial history?
5) What is audiencia?
6) Examine the role European administration in the destruction indigenous
cultures in Latin-America.
7) What are the major impacts of conquest on the Americas by the Europeans?
8) Analyse the impact of European colonisation on Latin-American literature.
9) Give a brief note on the contributions of Simon Bolivar and San Martin as the
liberators of Latin America.
10) Esteban Echeverria.
11) Ruben Dario and Modernismo.
12) Eduardo Mallea
13) Pablo Neruda
14) Gabriel Garcia Marquez
15) Maria Vargas Llosa
16) Magical Realism
17) El Libertador. (The Liberator)
SYLLABUS
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL HISTORY OF BRITAIN
Course 2 Social and Cultural History Britain Social background of colonial and post
colonial English Literature
No. of credits: 4
No. of contact hours per week: 6
Aim of the Course: To enable the student to understand the aspects of British history
during the period of colonialism that serve as the background of the English literature of
this period.
UNIT I Colonialism and its Impact
Growth of British Empire.
Justification for colonialism and imperialism Imperialist Writers Rudyard Kipling
White man's burden orientalism The Union Jack.
Victorian society Social values upper class morality.
Development of science and technology Darwin and the theory of evolution
Development of liberalism and utilitarianism Oxford Movement development of
Party system.
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UNIT II Impact of Industrial Revolution

Changes in technology.
Factory system new urban centers environmental problems.
Growth of Trade Unionism and working class movement Chartist movement.
Agrarian revolution impact on village life migration to Industrial centers.
Laissez Faire English economists
Need for Parliamentary reforms ideas represented by Gladstone and Disraeli
Impact of the Act of 1832.
The cooperative movement John Wesley.
Development of Socialist ideas Robert Owen Impact of 1848 Revolution (February
Revolution) Parliamentary Act of 1867 Impact of corn laws Representation of social
problems in literature Charles Dickens Thackeray Oscar Wilde The Raphaelite
movement William Wilber Force and the abolition of slavery.
UNIT III Antecedents
First World War Nationalism impact on society Women's movements
Struggle for Enfranchisement Struggles for representation in the Parliament.
Socialist movement Fabian Philosophy concept of welfare state Labour party.
Impact of II World War Loss of coloniespost war social and economic problems in
Britain disillusionment Impact on literature New trends in art and literature Elliot
Russel Hardey Toynbee W.B. Yeats.
UNIT IV Social Background of the Commonwealth Nations
Definition formation Location.
Historical roots of Anglo Indian Literature Introduction of Western Education in
India Minutes of Macaulay White man's burden Middle class and the making of
Anglo Indian Literature.
Translations Impacts
UNIT V Background of Latin American Literature
Latin America Nomenclature location
Historical background Spanish, Portuguese and British Colonial enterprises.
Destruction of Indigenous culture imposition of European administration
Literature.
Substitution of colonial moulds language and literature Post colonial situation and
experiences.
******

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Readings:
Bailey C.: Imperial Meridian
Ferguson Niall: Empire
Fisher H.A.L.: A History of Europe
Fontana Series: History of England
Harman Cris: A Peoples History of the World
Harris Tim: Popular Culture in England
Hobsbaum E.J.: As the Age of Capital
Hobsbaum E.J.: Age of Revolution
Hobsbaum E.J.: Age of Empire
Hobsbaum E.J.: Industry and Empire
Ketelby C.D.M.: A History of the World in Modern Times
Laurence Stone: England 15001800.
Raymond William: Culture and Society in England (18001960)
Thompson E.P.: Making of English Working Class
Trevelyan. G.M: Social History of England, Vol. II
Warner and Martin: The Groundwork of British History
Ania Loomba, Colonialism/Post Colonialism
Bernell Martin, Black Athena
Blackmore, Harold and Smith (Ed.), Latin America: Geographical Perspectives.
Chand Attar, Commonwealth Nations: Past and Present.
Cohen, Bernard, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge
David Mc W., Commonwealth Nations: Origin and Impact (18681971).
Fanon Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth.
Ferro Marc, Globalization: A History.
H.A.L. Fisher, History of Europe
Harold Blakemore and Clifford T. Smith, Latin America Geographical
Perspectives
Herring Hubert, History of Latin America from the Beginning to the Present, 3rd Edition.
Said Edward, Orientalism
Velis Claudio, Latin America and the Caribbean Handbook.
Further Readings:
E.M. Foster A Passage to India
Sen Amartya Argumentative Indian
Raja Rao The Meaning of India
G.N. Devi After Amnesia
Kamala Markandeya Nectar in Sieve
Marques A Reading of the Imagination; Transformation of Polity and History.
Narayanan R.K. Malgudy days.
*********

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