Need for Data base

The information storage and retrieval has become very important in

our day to day activities. The manual system is getting obsolete in
many organizations. Like some of the things - depositing money in the
bank.
Internet is another means from where large amount of information is
retrieved with efficiency search engine. The collection of related data
items is called DATABASE. Data may represent name, address,
designation salary etc. A Data Base Management System (DBMS) is a
collection of programme that enable users to create and maintain data
base.
Characteristics and objectives of DBMS

Provides mass storage of relevant data.

Make the data easily available for authorized persons i.e. users.
Provide a prompt response to user request for data.
Allow modification to data base and making it immediately
available to all its uses.
Identification and elimination of redundant data.
Allowing multiple users to work independently of each other
simultaneously.
Allowing the growth in database system.
Protect the data from physical harm and unauthorized persons.
Allowing the data base system to establish a uniform system of
accuracy and consistency i.e. data integrity.
Allowing users of database to establish their independent view of
data without reference to actual physical storage of data also
known as data independence.

Architecture of Data Base

SCHEMA

Data base architecture is a collection of inter-related files and a set of

programs that allow several users to access and modify these files.
The major purpose of DBMS is to provide uses with an abstract view of
the data. It means the DBMS hides certain details of how data is
stored and manipulated. The concerns for efficiency for database
leads to design of complex data structures for the representation of
data. However, since data base systems are often used by noncomputer professionals the complexities must be hidden from such
users. This is done by defining levels of data abstraction for the
database to be viewed. The main levels of abstraction are

External view
Conceptual view
Internal view

The view at each of these levels is described by SCHEMA.

The SCHEMA is the outline that describes the records and relationships
existing in the view. SCHEMA also describes the way in which entity at
one level of abstraction can be mapped at entity at other levels. The
overall design of database is called DATA BASE SCHEMA.
External View: It is the highest level of database abstraction. At this
level only those portions of the database are of concern to a user,
which are governed by various application programs. Any number of
users may exist for a given application, which is supported, appropriate
conceptual level mapping into external level view.
The external
SCHEMA consists of the definition of logical levels and their
relationships. It also contains various operations of deriving the
information in the external view from the conceptual level view.
Conceptual view / SCHEMA : It represents a database with respect to
the application it supports in external view. It describes all the records
and relationships included in the conceptual view. Also describes the
method of deriving the objects in the conceptual view from the
physical view.
Internal level / SCHEMA: It indicates how the data will be stored &
describes the data structures and the access methods to be used by
the Database.
It contains the definition of data stored records,
methods of representing the data fields and the access tools used.

Eg. Employees details like Emp. ID, Name, Designation etc

External view

Conceptual view
Internal view

Struct Employee
Char ID (06 nos)
Int. Dep. No.
Salary number
Employee Identity No (Char 06 nos)
Employee dept. No. (02)
Employee Salary number (6,2)
Employee Bytes 16
Employee ID type Bytes (1)
Offset =11
Employee dep no. type = Word (2)

Data Independence is the ability to change the SCHEMA at one level of

database information system without changing the SCHEMA at another
level. There are two types of data independence Physical and the
Logical.
Physical data independence
It allows the changes in the physical device of the files to be made
without requiring changes in the conceptual view or external view.
Files may migrate from one type of physical media to another type
without affecting the data integrity. The file structure may also
undergo changes without any need for changes in the application
program.
Logical data independence
It implies the application program need not be changed if fields are
added or deleted in the system records. Logical data independence
indicates the conceptual SCHEMA can be changed without affecting the
existing external schema. Logical data independence is more difficult
to achieve than physical data independence since application program
are mainly dependent on the logical structure of the data.
Data Dictionary
It is observed that when a program becomes large in size keeping track
on all the available variables and the purpose for which they were used
becomes difficult. Hence it is necessary to maintain an inventory and
catalogue of data. This helps in utilization and management of
resources.
The data dictionary contains information about data,
information about external, internal and conceptual view in addition to
name and description of the data table, source of data & keywords
used for categorizing and searching data.
3

Data Definition Language (DDL)

it is used to define the conceptual schema and also gives information
about how to implement the SCHEMA in the physical devices. The
definition includes all the entity sets as well as the associated
attributes. It indicates the relationship among the entity sets. The
definition also includes the constraints that have to be maintained for
uniform level of accuracy and consistency. These definitions are
maintained along with description in tables know as data dictionary.
DDL which is implemented with respect to the SCHEMA for the storage
of data is also called data definition storage language i.e. DDSL
Data manipulation language (DML)
It enables users to access or manipulate data. It involves retrieval of
data from database, insertion of new data, deletion of data,
modification and updation of data.
Retrieval operation is called querying (eg. SQL).
DML provides a set
of commands to select and retrieve data. They could be used in an
interactive mode of embedded in conventional program languages
such as cobal, pascal etc.
DML can be of two types
procedural DML and
non-procedural DML.
Procedural DML requires user specified what data is needed and also
how to get the data, where as non-procedural DML requires user to
specify what data is needed without specifying how to get data.
For eg. Data Dictionary
About data types

About the use of data

Design
requirement

Entities, Relationships
& Attributed

Design Decisions

Records Data
Devices
Items
Databases
Sets Area
etc.

Events and
Functions

Files
System programs
groups Modules
Transactions
Schemas Processes etc.

FILE ORGANISATION
3 types:
1. Serial
2. Sequential
3. Random Organisation

]
]
]

Storage (a) C Tape

(b) CD
(C) Floppies

4. Index Sequential form

(a) Binary Search

(b) Sequential Search
Index Search / HASH

Index sequential (ISAM)

For main data storage
- User prime Numbers
prime

overflow

Index

1. A company maintains records of all its supplier, the following 5

attributes are recorded for each data stores w.r.t. supplier.
Order No, Supplier No. Item Name, Qty ordered and Price.
Order
No. Supplier No. Item
(Field 1)
(Field 2)
Number
(Name Field
3)
198
504
LG
199
501
MIC
200
503
Philips
201
502
Flatron
202
501
Frontek

Quantity
ordered
(Field 4)

PRICE (Field
5)

100
40
200
42
50

12,500
29,500
12,500
9500
11000

Tuple record
Discuss the various concepts
maintaining the records.

of

file

organization

system

for

File organization is a technique used to represent and store the records

on a file. They are basically 4 types of organization in a file. They are:
Serial
Sequential
Random
Index Sequential
Types of organization is most suitable for an organization depends on
the following factors:

Kind of storage available

Ease of storage and retrieval
Economy of storage
Types of queries allowed
No. of keys with respect to data store
Mode of updation
Reliability and security

Serial Organisation in serial organization the records are stored one

after another without any logical order. For eg. If the order in which
the vendor files are processed is 202, 199, 198, 200, 201, then the files
are also stored in the same manner without any significance attached
to order number or supplier number. The records need not be stored in
ascending or descending order of any field. New records can be added
only at the end of the file. The retrieval of particular record can be
done only by reading the specific record from beginning of the file,
which means to retrieve enth record in the file n-1 records have to be
read. This method is commonly used for storing transaction data of
those applications where records are accessed in the order of the
storage.
Sequential organization Here the records are stored sequentially in a
pre-determined order. The order could be with respect to any of the
fields chosen. In this eg. If the order number is chosen in the field then
the records are maintained in the order listing say 198,199, 200, 201,
202. if the chosen field is supplier reference then it will be stored as
S1, S2, S3. The records are stored and sorted in continuous blocks on
a tape or disk within each block. The records are stored in ascending
order or descending order to simplify the logic of accessing the data.
This is best suited for application using batch processing.
The
disadvantage of serial file system is that retrieval is slow. The deletion
and modification of particular record is difficult and time consuming.
Sequential file system is efficient for smaller number of records. It
becomes inefficient as the number of records increase.
6

Random Organisation Records are not stored in sequence but in a

random order permitting direct access of a particular record. It is also
known as direct file organization. In this method of organization, the
records are stored at the storage location numbers called address,
which can be determined by the record key values. The record key
refers to unique identification field of any record. The record address
can be either absolute or relative. In an absolute address the actual
location number is known while in the relative system only the
reference location number with respect to some given reference is
known. In this method, the address of record can be determined by
transforming the record key value into an alphabetic formula. This
procedure is called Hashing. There are various methods of hashing
namely division of prime numbers and remainder obtained consider
value of storage. Each record of the data base has a unique address of
storage called a storage record address. This method provides the
fastest direct access to the records. It is best suited for application
requiring on line bank account statement as in an ATM or on online
Enquiry System, ticket-booking system etc. The only disadvantage of
hashing is that it can provide identical storage location for 2 records
leading to a clash in storage of records. These records are called
synonymous.
Index Sequential Organisation It is based on the context of index.
The records are stored sequentially on the data file and another file
called index file, is maintained to keep track of index. It makes it
possible to access any record directly. The data is stored in 3 different
areas,
prime area,
over floor area,
index area.
In the prime area records are created and stored when they are
created.
In the over floor area records which are to be added but cannot be
stored in prime area are stored.
Index area contains the values of key fields of records and storage
location on the disks.
Searching is very fast because of file
management system which access the records in the order of index
value. This technique is called index sequential access method (ISAM).
It also provides an advantage that when records are updated or
inserted unlike sequential file there is no need to rewrite the entire file.
This system cannot be adopted for storage such as magnetic tapes.
7

Prime Area
Record
Address
key
Pointer
198
101000
199
102000

Over Floor Area

Record
Address
Key
Pointer
203
203000
204
204000

Block
space
1000
1000

Index Area
104000
205000

Index Area will be used if new records is

to be added.

INFORMATION
-

Model
Info Content
Redundancy
Uncertainty
Value

Date -----------------------

Information

Characteristics of Information
1. It must reduce uncertainty
2. information is used as an aid indecision making.
3. enhances the knowledge presentation.
Basic Model
Shanon Model

Source

Channel

Destination

Physical / non-physical
Two types of
a) noise any unknown phenomenon cannot be repaired
b) distortion error caused by known process can be rectified.
Noise
Any unknown phenomenon
Errors cannot be rectified

Distortion
Error caused by known process
Errors can be rectified and can be
recreated. Can be rectified and in
inverse process by which it can be
recreated.

Binary Representation:
MSG15 is to be sent, then 1111 or 4 lines is required to send the
message.
% Redundancy (Rn)
=
1-In/Im
Where
Im
=
Information
Capacity
of
the
Channel
of information
In = Information Capacity of the information
Every bit transferred, uncertainty reduces by 50% this helps on
reduction of Uncertainty.
In = - Pilog2Pi
In= Aug no of bits required by the system.
Value of Information
Value of Perfect Information (VPI)
Decisions are based on information, any change in information leads to
changes in decision. The value of information is the value oc change
that cart involved is procuring the information.
Value of information = value of change Cost involved in procuring the
information
Information is said to be perfect it is eliminates uncertainty completely.
Apart from the monetary value, a perfect information is to be measure
as a strength in promoting the function of management.

Information: data which is processed into as meaningful form is called

Information. Data may represent quality, action, symbols etc. the
processed data together with a set of decisions rules constitutes a
decision.
Information has the following characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.

It improves representation of the entity.

Updates the level of knowledge
It reduces uncertainty in decision making
It aids as a support in decision making

Information model is based on the theory of communication. The

purpose of a communication system is to transmit messages from
sources to its intended destination.
The information model is
represented as follows.
Collection--------------Information

data------------

Process----------------

Stream model of communication

The Stream model is considered as a message, which is required to be
transmitted. The communication is established based on the model as
indicated. The model is also known as the Shannon Claude Model.
Shannon Claude Model of Communication
Source

Encoder
Transmitter

Channel

The message which comes from a source is encoded before it can be

sent through the communication channel. It is then decoded by a
receiver before it could be understood by the destination.
Noise is a random interface which cannot be rectified. Distortion is
caused by a known operation, hence it is possible to rectify the
distestion by means of inverse operations.
Any information system is based on the mathematical approach of
Probability to identify information messages from a given set of all
possible messages.
The general form for computing information
content

10

In = - Pilog2Pi
In also represents information
probability of each item.

capacity

needed

Pi

represents

Information Redundancy
Information transmitted generally consists of redundant elements.
These elements reduce the efficiency of transmission because more
codes have to be transmitted than what is actually required. This
leads to more possibility of errors leading to an erroneous information
system. This is very critical in Decision making.
It is therefore necessary to reduce the redundant element and
communicate the exact information as required for decision making.
Eg: if a character of an information is prone to 1% of error then the
probability of error in the word BANGALORE (9 character) will be 9x1%
=0.09%
If it is possible to reduce the code length then the probability of error
can also be reduced. In this case of Bangalore is represented by code
BLR then the probability of error will be 0.03.
Redundancy means the receiver is the information system need not
read and decode every character in order to under to understand the
message. The general formula for Redundancy in coding is
Redundancy is % = 1-In / Im
Where
In
= Information Capacity Needed
Im
= Information Capacity of the code
It there are 16 messages
@ Im = log2 (no of messages)
= log2 16
Im - 4
b) for 4 messages
Im=log24
=2
Pi

LogPi
11

Msg
Msg
Msg
Msg

1
2
3
4

0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25

-2
-2
-2
-2

In = -{-0.5-0.5-0.5-0.5}
In = 2
R% = 1-2 / 2 = 0%
Reduction of Uncertainty in Information Sent
Given a set of messages the receiver may not know which one is going
to be received because the transmitted code will normally be in the bit
form 0 & 1
As the receiver, receiver bit by bit information the uncertainty of
receiving a specific information reduces.
Eg: it 4 messages are represented by a suitable code i.e. a binary code,
then the four manager can be represented as follows
message
0
1
2
3

code
00
01
10
11
2

Only 2 bits re required to transmit this code.

Before Receiving the 1st bit = (25%)
After Receiving the 1st bit = (50%)
After receiving the 3rd bit= 1 (100%)
1/n ---1 Probability
Value of information
Decisions are based on the information. Any change in the information
leads to changes in the decision. The value of information is the value
of the change minus the cost involved in procuring the information.
Value of information = value of change Cost involved in procuring

12

Information is said to be perfect if it eliminates uncertainty completely.

Apart from the monetary values a information is to be measure as a
strength in promoting the functions of management.

DECISION MAKING MODEL

Herbert Simon Model
I- Intelligent Phase
D Design phase
C- choice phase
Decision making is one of the major activities in any of the
organization systems which are developed are required to be
incorporated with various decision making tools in order to tackle
problems instantly and so give a suitable solution which aids in
decision making. Various models are:
The one most commonly adopted in information system is the HS
Model. It consists of 3 phases:
Intelligent Phase
Design phase
choice phase
Intelligent phase:
In this phase, the information system model for decision making
searches the environment for conditions, which are unacceptable to
the system. This requires a decision to be made. Input data is
obtained, processed and examined for clues that may identity
problems or opportunities.
Eg: A plant Manager reviews the daily scrap report to check for quality
control problems
Design phase:
This phase involves inventing, developing and analyzing possible
causes of action. This also involves process to understand the problem
and generate solution. It also has to test the solution for feasibility.
Choice Phase;
Selecting an alternative course of action from those available is
modeled in choice phase. A choice is made and implemented as a
decision. There is a flow of activities from the Intelligence phase to the
13

design and from design to the choice, from any phase the flow may
return to the previous phase.
I

A decision maker in the choice phase may reject all alternatives and
return to the design phase for generation of additional alternatives.
The intelligence and the design phase are further phased into problem
identification, problem formulation and development and choice of
techniques.
The choice phase can be further categorized into problem phase
depending upon probabilities of occurrence. It may be a certainty,
uncertainty or a risk problem.
A decision maker in the choice phase may reject all alternatives and
return to the design phase for generation of additional alternatives.
The intelligence and the design phase are further phased into problem
identification, problem formulation and development and choice of
techniques.
The choice phase can be further categorized into problem phases
depending upon probabilities of occurrence. It may be a certainty,
uncertainty or a risk problem.
Problem identification:
This involves finding a difference between some existing situation and
a desired state. A problem could be found out based upon any of the
following model.
a) Historical model
Expectation is based on extrapolation of past experience.
from the expectations are identified as problems.

Deviation

b) Master plan

14

A master plan is considered as an expectation and deviation in its

implementation are reported as problems.
In general any problem may bee identified based on models developed
by Superiors, Peer, departments, expectations derived from
competition from market.
Problem identification
a) historical ------------------- forecast
b) master plan
3) Development of model and reduction technique. This is the most
significant phase in decision making.
It involves generation of
alternatives to be considered in choice phase.
The art of generating alternatives may be enhanced by various market
scenarios, analogies, scenarios, check list etc.
4) Choice phase
Certainty : there is one alternative for each model.
Risk : Multiple possible outcome for each alternatives along with
probability of occurrence.
Uncertainty model: multiple outcome for each alternatives can be
identified but there is no knowledge of probability.
Utility Curve

By inverting money huge amount, utility is less further a small

investment given maximum utilization and after that it flattens out.

Methods of Decision Making

The various alternatives available for cession making leads to an
appropriate selection criteria and methodology to identify a Strategy.
Some of the methods are:
a. Optimisation
b. Pay off matrix
c. Decision tree
15

d. Decision table
e. Utility Curve etc.
Optimization techniques
In this method alternatives and their outcomes are known. The
problem is to find out which alternative is optimal for a given objective
function. Some of the techniques are:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Linear programming
Dynamic programming
Breakeven Analysis
Game theory

Pay off matrix

When all the alternatives and outcomes are known the decision maker
has an objective to maximize the outcome. The methods of presenting
the data in a matrix form is a pay off matrix
State Situation Condition
Strategies
N1
N2
N3
N4
S1
S2
****
*
S3
S4
*****payoff
It consists of rows or alternatives and column for condition that it
affects the outcome of strategies.
Each cell contains the pay off. The decision maker need only select the
strategy that yields the highest pay off.
Utility curve
A measure called utility of plotted against the monetary value of a
function then the graph obtained is called Utility Curve.

Slope = A= u/m

16

The units are called utiles. The utility curve is linear between the point
O & A and rises rapidly from A to B. This means that the utility of
getting large sum is larger than the utility computed from a set of
small counts. After rising steeply the curve flattens out indicating that
the utility reduces inspite of inverting more money.
Decision tree
It is a graph plotted by connecting various decision nodes, at each
node strategies are represented as branches. Nodes are arranged in
the order of their occurrence stage-wise.

While the construction of the decision tree is from the stage 1 to the
end stages whereas the analysis and the identification of the right
strategy is in the Reverse direction.
Pay off in the form of Error is calculated for each branch and worked in
the backward direction to obtain total EMV. The path of alternatives,
which yields the maximum EMV, indicates the stage wise.
Selection of alternatives, it is represented by a double line drawn
parallel to each alternative.

17

Decision Table
A decision table is more useful in situations where the problem is
highly structured and a closed system. The alternatives in a closed
system are well defined actions. The entire set of conditions and
actions are represented in four Quandarts
Title, DT, System, Incharge

Condition stub
Action stub

Condition Entry 2n
Action Entry

For a given set of conditions, 2n entries can be made. The entries are
represented by Y or N
Y
indicates existence and
N
non-existence
A combination that arrives out of situation results in selection of
particular column, in the action entry quadrant which is represented by
mean of . & x.
. indicates No action
x indicates action to be taken.
Types of Systems
Deterministic
It is a system in which the occurrence of all the events is perfectly
predicable. If the system state at a particular time is known then it is
possible to predict the next state.
Eg: CAD, CAM application, CNC machine work on deterministic model.
Probabilistic
This system the occurrence of event cannot be perfectly predicted.
Prediction are based on probabilistic factor derived from part
experience. Predictions an be error prone.
18

The stocking policy adopted in an inventory system is probabilistic in

nature, hence inventory is probabilistic.
The stocks could be based upon the probability of future demand.
Open system
It interacts with environment continuously, it receives input from
environment and delivers o/p to environment continuously. It has
flexibility to change depending upon the change in environment.
A living system is an open system organization can be considered
open, if they change their policies, depending up the changing market
competition.
Closed system
It is isolated from the environmental influences, it is a self-contained
system, it is unaffected by the changes in environment.
A computer program is a closed system because it accepts only
previously defined I / p and processes them and provide previously
defined i/ps
Eg: Accounting package is a closed package, SAP is closed
Physical system
It is a tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in operations
whereas abstract system are non-physical conceptual entities which
may be mathematical models, relationship among variables etc.
Human system
The information system is the basis for interaction b/w user and
Analyst. It may be viewed as a decision center for personnel at all
levels. Information system may be defined as a set of devices,
procedures and operating system designed around user based criteria
to process information and communicate it to user for planning,
controlling and performance.
Sub-system
It is also a system in a complete form but representing a small module
in a big system, the big system may be obtained as an assemblage of
big system. The sub-systems are normally represented as hierarchy at
multiple level generalizations.
System entropy and system stress
A system during the course of its performance may undergo a change
because of external unknown factors or internal factors as a result of
19

this, a system can run down and decay and work in a disorderly
manner this is termed as System Entropy.
To maintain the system and prevent run down of system, it requires to
be repaired and maintained, this is known as ve Entropy.
An open system is more prone to Entropy than closed System and the
force which changes the system is called system stress. In any
organization, system stress may be due to a change in the goal in the
organization or the change in the achievement levels decided for
existing goals.
2. system may work in tandem, if they could be co-ordinated for i/p
and o/p of information without any buffer for data or information, then
such system are said to be tightly coupled.
Eg. If the raw material is put directly into production, then raw material
system is said to be tightly coupled. Under these conditions, the raw
material delivery must be preciously times, in order to avoid delays in
production. It is difficult to maintain such systems.
A buffer can be introduced in a tightly coupled system to make it more
flexible. A system with a buffer link to another system is termed as decoupled system.
An inventory system is considered as De-coupled system because it
allows stocking of raw materials, till such a time it is necessary to
utilization.
Identify the category of system in the following sub_ system:

Finance system

Hourly payroll process

or

a. Gal Gross
Pay
b.
Cal

a. Prepare pay
roll register
b.
Audit

a. Printer
b.Printing

20

Deduction
c. Call NetPay

Account
c.
Update
ledger
d. Journal

c.
Check
Printing

System Analysis and Design

Information System are conceived and designed and implemented
using a systematic development process in which the end-users and
the system specialist design the information system based on the
analysis of information requirements of an organization. This process
is known as system analysis and design.
Life cycle approach and prototyping.
The entire system development revolves around the life cycle that
begins with recognition of users needs and understanding future
problems. The phases involved in the development of information
system for the organization are the following:
a. Feasibility Study
It consists of defining the problem, identifying the concerns, specifying
solutions and identifying the requirements.
The feasibility depends upon the financing technical operational and
organizational inputs.
Normally the process involves identifying several alternatives and
working on the most optimum solution. The requirement analysis
carefully define the objectives of a new orr modified system and
develops a detailed description of function.
b. System Design
The system design in the overall plan for implementing the system. It
describes how the system will meet the requirements as determined
by the system analyst.
It is an iterative process based on what the system will do, as shown in
the feasibility report.
System design involves the following:
Input design
File design
Procedure design
Control design
The control indicates necessary procedure which will ensure
correctness or procuring, maintained accuracy of data, providing timely
output, means of avoiding delay avoiding extra steps and keeping the
process simple.

21

c. Development of system
Developing the system will mean writing document step by step
procedure to be followed for a particular transaction. It may also refer
to the operating instructions. These instructions may be translated
into suitable program codes for automating the system.
d. System testing
Testing is an exhaustive and thorough process that determines whether
the system produces desired results under defined conditions. The
process of testing each process of the overall system is called unit
testing.
e. Implementation and Maintenance
After testing the system is certified to indicate its readiness to be used
for production. It requires suitable documentation to indicate the
procedures to run the system and also maintain the system as per the
defined plan and condition.
Problem formulation
The purpose of formulation is to classify the problem so that the design
and the choice phase operate in the right direction. The process of
clearly stating the problem and formulating a suitable technique is
based on the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Determining the boundaries of the problem

Examining changes that may have perception of the problem
Factoring the problem into smaller factors
Focusing on the controliable elements.

Problem Identification
Williams Pounds model
a. Historical
b. Master plan
General
Problem formulaltion
Techniques
3. Development of model & selection technique
This is the most significant phase in decision-making. It involves
generation of alternatives to be considered in the choice phase. The
art of generating alternatives may be enhanced by various market
scenarios, analogies, brainstorming, check-list etc.

22

Choice Phase
Certainty Problem
There is one outcome for each alternatives.
Risk Model
Multiple possible outcomes for each alternatives can be identified
along with probability of occurrence.
Uncertainty Model
Multiple outcomes for each alternatives can be identified but there isno
knowledge of the probability.
Decision making tools and techniques
1. Optimization techniques
a. Linear programming
c. Dynamic Programming
d. Integer Programming
e. Game theory
2. Decision tree
3. Decision Tables
4. Pay off Matrixes
5. Utility Curves
Flow Chart symbolic or step by step flow of operations (order) are to
be executed.
Exception Report
Material deviation between actual occurrence and expectation in
performance os system is reported as Exception Report.
Exception Report demand Management Investigation because it
indicates undesirable reports. It also requires the identification of
cause of error and corrective action on a timely basis.
Eg: In a data processing an Exception Report may reflect those
transaction not meeting the standards or the requirements for which
the program is being run.
Cybernet Systems
As defined by VALLEE, Cybernet systems are dynamic systems that
process input, state and o/p and consequently evolution of an equation
which represents a model for adjustments.
Such a system is
cybernetics, if it is possible to distinguish an observation sequence of
i/p, followed by decisional sequence leading to related output.
Goal
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Error

Compare

Perceptio
n of
Results

Correctiv
e Action

Results

It involves continuous feedback and implementation of necessary

controls to minimize the errors of an equation, which represents a
model for adjustments.
Such a system is cybernetics, if it is possible to distinguish an
observation sequence of i/p, followed by decisional sequence leading
to related output.
Goal

Error

Perception
of Results

Compare

Corrective
Action

It involves continuous feedback and implementation of necessary

controls to minimize the errors.
Results
SDLC It refers to system Software Development Life Cycle. If it is
with respect to a software it is also known as a Linear sequential model
or the waterfall model.
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The various stages to cycle are:

Information Modeling: it involves identifying the requirements and
grouping them suitably to be modeled as a Systems Requirement
Model.
Software Requirement Analysis: it involved a detailed study of the
system in order to establish feasibility of system. This is achieved by
regular interaction between the development team and the customers.
System Analysis and Design: The structure of the entire system is
defined in term of the package, client / server Technology, Architecture,
Database design, Data structure etc.
Code Generation: It involves the translating the design issue into
suitable executable codes for this translation compliers, interpreters,
debuggers may be used.
Testing: The purpose of testing is to identify and remove bugs.
Maintenance: the system should be developed to accommodate
changes that could result during the implementation of postimplementation. These changes are identified as requirement for
improvise the system.
CAD: it refers to Computer Aided Design or Computer Aided Analysis
Design and Drafting.
The analysis and design model vary from one product to another. The
design packages are application based and the drafting tool aids in
drafting the design details.
Various Commercial packages are
Anysis
Autocad
Norton
Pro-E
Solid works
Catia
Intranet: It is a small network that is implemented in an Enterprise. It
may consist os several interlinked leased lines and LAN. It includes
connection through one or more gateways. Its main purpose is to
share the companys information and computing resources and
manage employee details. It can also be used to facilitate working in
groups and for teleconferencing.

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EDI - Electronic Data Interchange

It represents a set of standards for structuring an information that is to
be electronically exchanged between and within various business
system and groups.
Eg: Inventory System, Performance Appraisal etc.
VALUE CHAIN (MODULE 5)
Value chain is a concept of business Management described by Michael
Porter in his book Competitive Advantage. It represents chain activities
through which the product is expected to pass. The product passes all
the activities of chains and gains some value at each activity level.
Activities may be primary or supportive. Primary activity may be
logistics, production, marketing, sales and services. Support activities
may be administrative procurement, HR management.
DFD Data Flow Diagram
It is graphical representation of the flow of data through the
information system. It is represented by means of Standard symbols.
Eg: ATM counter

Customer

Account
Information

Counter

Enquires
Deposits
Withdrawals

D3 Account Details

D- Permanent
T- Temporary
M - Manager

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