EXAM A-3

Skeletal system includes

Bone of the skeleton
Cartilage, alignments and connective tissues
Objective #1
Identify the six primary functions of the skeletal system?
1. Support
2. Storage of minerals (calcium, phosphate)
3. Storage of lipids (yellow marrow)
4. Blood cell production (Red marrow)
5. Protection
6. Leverage (force of motion)
Adjective #2
Describe the organization of the matrix in the bone and
generalize the functions of the periosteum and endosteum
Bone (Osseous ) Tissue
-Characteristics of Bone tissue
Dense Matrix, Containing
. Deposits of calcium salts
. Osteocytes (bone cells) within lacunae organized around blood
vessels
Cunaliculi
. Form pathway for blood vessels
. Exchange nutrients and waste
Periosteum & Endosteum
. Covers outer (peri) and inner (end) surface of bones
. Periosteum consist of outer Fibrous and inner cellular layers
Matrix minerals
. 2/3 of bone matrix is Calcium phosphate Ca3 (Po4) 2
-Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2
-Hydroxyapatite Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
Matrix Proteins
. 1/3 of bone matrix is protein fibers (Collagen)

objective #3
Discuss the roles that osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells,
and osteoclasts play in the maintenance of the skeletal system.
The cells of Bone
-Make up only 2% of bone mass
-Bone contains 4 types of cells
. Osteocytes
. Osteoblast
. Osteoprogenitor cells
. Osteoclasts
Osteocytes
-Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix
- Live in lacunae between layers (lamellae) of matrix
- Connect by cytoplasmic extensions though Canaliculi in lamellae
- Do not divide
Functions
. To maintain protein and mineral content of matrix
. To help damaged bone
Osteoblast
-Immature bone cells that secrete matrix compounds (Osteogenesis)
Osteoid
-Matrix produced by osteoblast but not yet calcified to for bone
-Osteoblast surrounded by bone become osteocytes
Osteoprogenitor cells
. Messenchymal stem cells that divide to produce osteoblast
. Are located in endosteum
. Assist in fracture repair
Osteoclasts
. Giant, multinucleate cells
. Secrete acids and proteins digesting enzymes
. Dissolve bone matrix and release stored minerals (ostelysis)
Homeostasis
Bone building (by osteoblast) and bone recycling (by osteoclasts) must
balance
. More breakdown than building, bones became weak
. Exercise, particularly weight bearing exercise, causes osteoblasts to
build bone

Objective #4
Differentiate between compact and spongy bone in term of
structure , location and function .
The structure of compact bone
Osteon is the basic unit
-Osteocytes are arranged in concentric lamellae
-Around a central canal containing blood vessels
-Perforating Canals:
. Perpendicular to the central canal
. Carry blood vessels into bone and marrow
-Circumferential lamellae
. Lamellae wrapped around the long bone
. Binds osteons together
The structure of spongy bone
Does not have osteons
-The matrix forms an open network of avascular struts called
trabeculae
-The space between trabeculae is filled with

*Red bone marrow

. Which has blood vessels

. Forms red blood cells
. Supplies nutrients to osteocytes

Yellow Marrow

. In some bones, spongy bones holds yellow bone marrow

. Is yellow because it stores fat
Weight Bearing Bones
-The femur transfers weight from hip joint to knee joint
. Causing tension on the lateral side of the shaft
. Compression on the medial side
Objective #5
Describe the structure and function of the periosteum and endosteum
Compact bone is covered with a membrane
*Periosteum on the outside
. Covers all bones except parts enclosed in joint capsules
. Is made up of an outer, fibrous layer and an inner, cellular layer

Perforating fibers (Sharpeys fibers): Collagen fibers of the

periosteum
-Connect with collagen fibers in bone and with fibers of joint capsules,
attach tendons and ligaments.
Functions of periosteum
. Isolates bone from surrounding tissues
. Provides a route for circulatory and nervous supply
. Participates in bone growth and repair
Compact bone is covered with a membrane
Endosteum on the inside
* An incomplete cellular layer
-Lines the medullary (marrow) cavity
- Covers trabeculae of spongy bone
- Lines central canal
-Containing osteoblast ,osteoprogenitor cells and osteoclasts
- Is active in bone growth and repair
Objective #6
Be able to recall the steps of endochondral ossification and know which
bones undergo this type of ossification
Endochondral Ossification
. Ossifies bones that originates as hyaline cartilage
. Most bones originate as hyaline cartilage
. There are six main steps in endochondral ossification

As the cartilage enlarges, chondrocytes near the center of the shaft increase
greatly in size. The matrix is reduced to a series of small struts that soon begin
to calcify. The enlarged chondrocytes then die and disintegrate, leaving cavities
within the cartilage.

Blood vessels grow around the edges of the cartilage, and the cells of the
perichondrium convert to osteoblasts. The shaft of the cartilage then becomes
ensheathed in a superficial layer of bone.

Blood vessels penetrate the cartilage and invade the central region. Fibroblasts
migrating with the blood vessels differentiate into osteoblasts and begin
producing spongy bone at a primary ossification center. Bone formation then
spreads along the shaft toward both ends.

Remodeling occurs as growth continues, creating a medullary cavity. The

osseous tissue of the shaft becomes thicker, and the cartilage near each
epiphysis is replaced by shafts of bone. Further growth involves increases in
length and diameter.

Capillaries and osteoblasts migrate into the epiphyses, creating secondary

ossification centers.

Appositional growth: Compact bone thickens and strengthens long bone with
layers of circumferential lamellae
Epiphyseal Lines
-When long bones stops growing, after puberty
. Epiphyseal cartilage disappears
. Is visible on X-rays as epiphyseal line
Mature Bones
-As long bone matures
. Osteoclasts enlarge medullary (marrow) cavity
. Osteons form around blood vessels in compact bone
Objective #7
Be able to recall all the steps ossification and know which bones undergo
this type of ossification

Intramembranous ossification also called dermal ossification

-Because it occurs in the dermis
-Produces dermal bones such as mandible (lower jaw) and clavicle (collarbone).
-There are three main steps in intramembranous ossification

Mesenchymal cells aggregate, differentiate into osteoblasts, and

begin the ossification process. The bone expands as a series of
spicules that spread into surrounding tissues.
1.

2.

As the spicules interconnect, they trap blood vessels within the bone.

Over time, the bone assumes the structure of spongy bone. Areas of
spongy bone may later be removed, creating medullary cavities.
Through remodeling, spongy bone formed in this way can be converted
to compact bone.
3.

TheBloodSupplytoaMatureBone

Three major sets of blood vessels develop

.Nutrient artery and vein

-A single pair of large blood vessels
-Enter the diaphysis through the nutrient foramen
-Femur has more than one pair
methaphyseal vessels
-Supply the epiphyseal cartilage
-Where bone growth occurs
Periosteal vessels provide
-Blood to superficial osteons
-Secondary ossification centers
Heterotopic: Bone formation in fibrodysplasia ossification progressive ( FOP)

Objective #8
Describe bone remodeling and indicates when occurs
Process of remodeling
-The adult skeleton
. Maintains itself
. Replaces mineral reverses
. Recycles and renews bone matrix
. Involves osteocytes, osteoblast, and osteoclast
-Bone continually remodels, recycle and replaces
-Turnover rate varies
. If deposition is greater than removal, Bones get stronger
. If removal is faster than replacement, Bones gets weaker
Objective #9
Discuss the effects of exercise, hormones, and nutrition on bone
development on the skeletal system
Effects of Exercise on Bone
-Mineral recycling allows bones to adapt to stress
-Heavily stressed bones became thicker and stronger
Bone Degeneration
-Bone degenerates quickly
-Up to 1/3 of bones mass can be lost in a few weeks of inactivity
Normal bone growth and maintenance requires nutritional and hormonal
Factors
-A dietary source of Calcium and phosphate salts
-Plus small amounts of magnesium, fluoride, iron and manganese.

-The hormone Calcitriol

. Is made in the kidneys
. Helps absorb calcium and phosphorus from the digestive tract
. Synthesis requires Vitamin D3(cholecalciferol)
-Vitamin C is required for collagen synthesis stimulation of osteoblast differentiation
-Vitamin A stimulates osteoblast activity
-Vitamin K and B12 helps to synthesize bone proteins
-Growth hormone and thyroxine stimulate bone growth
-Estrogens and androgens stimulate osteoblast
-Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone regulate calcium and phosphate levels
Examples of Abnormal bone development
A. Pituitary dwarfism
B. Pituitary gigantism (Robert wadlow stood 811 at his death)

Objective #10
Explain the role of calcium as it relates to the skeletal system
including the hormones associated with calcium homeostasis.
The skeleton as a calcium Reserve
-Bones stores calcium and other minerals
-Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body
Calcium ions are vital to:
-Membranes
-Neurons
-Muscle cells, especially heart cells
Calcium regulation
-Calcium ions in body fluids
-Must be closely regulated
Homeostasis is maintained
-By Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone
-Which control storage, absorption and excretion.
Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone hormone control and
effect
Bones: Where calcium is stored
Digestive tract: Where calcium is absorbed
Kidneys: Where calcium is extracted

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

-Produce by parathyroid glands in neck
-Increase calcium ion levels by
. Stimulate osteoclast
. Increasing intestinal absorption of calcium
. Decreasing calcium excretion at kidneys
Calcitonin
-Secreted by C cells (parafollicular cells) in thyroid
-Decreases calcium ion kevels by
. Inhibiting osteoclast activity
. Increasing calcium excretion at kidneys
Calcium 99%
Phosphate 17%

Objective #11
Describe how fractures heal and characterize fracture types in bold print
. Cracks or breaks in bones
. Caused by physical stress
Fractures are repaired in 4 steps

1.Bleeding
-Produces a clot (fracture hematoma)
-Establishes a fibrous network
-Bone cells in the area die
2. Cells of the endosteum and Periosteum
-Divide and migrate into fracture zone
- Celluses stabilize the break:
. External callus of cartilage and bone surrounding break
. Internal Callus develops in medullary cavity
3.Osteoblasts
. Replaces central cartilage of external callus
. With spongy bone
4. Osteoblast and osteocytes remodel the fracture for up to
a year
. Reducing bone calluses

The major types of fractures

. Pott fracture
. Comminuted fractures
. Transverse fractures
. Spiral fracture
. Displaced fractures
. Colles fractures
. Greenstick fracture
. Epiphyseal fractures
. Compression fracture
Objective #12
Summarize the effects of the aging process in the skeletal
system
.Bones become thinner and weaker with age
Osteopenia: Begins between age 30 and 40
.Women loose () men 3%
The epiphyses ,vertebrae and jaws are the most affected
. Resulting in fragile limbs
. Reduction in height
. Tooth lost
Osteoporosis

. Severe bone loss

. Affects normal function
. Over age 45,occurs in
29% of women
18% of men
The effects of osteoporosis on spongy bone
Hormones and bone loss
- Estrogens and androgens help maintain bone mass
- Bone loss in women accelerates after menopause
Cancer and bone lost
-Cancerous tissues release osteoclast- activating factor
- That stimulates osteoclast
- And produces severe osteoporosis