Course RF100

Wireless
Wireless CDMA
CDMA RF
RF
Engineering:
Engineering: Week
Week 11

February, 2005

RF100a(c) 2005 Scott Baxter v2.0

1-1

Integrated RF/CDMA/Performance Training

Course RF100: RF Introduction, CDMA Principles, Understanding System Design & Performance Issues
Monday
Wireless Industry Intro.
Modulation Techniques
Mult. Access Methods
Wireless system
Architectures
RF Propagation
Physics
Mechanisms
Models
Link Budgets
Margins
Pred. Tools
Meas. Tools

Tuesday
Wireless Antennas
Intro: Principles
Families/Types
Choosing the right
antenna
Selecting ants.
Other devices
Tests/Problems
Traffic Engineering
Units, principles
Traffic tables
Wireless appls.

Wednesday

Thursday

Introduction to CDMA
Spread Sp. Principles
CDMAs Codes
Fwd & Rev Channels
System Architecture
Power Control
Phone Architecture
Handoff Process
Ec/Io, Eb/No
phones limitations
Call Processing
CDMA Messages

CDMA Flow Examples

Critical CDMA Issues
Interference control
Managing Soft HO%
Capacity constraints
Forward big picture
Reverse big picture
Sys Architecture details
Lucent
Nortel
Motorola

Friday
System Growth Mgt.
Stopgap measures
Longterm strategies
Multiple carriers
Intercarrier Handoff
Intro to Optimization
Perspectives
Bottom-up: mobile
Top-down: OMs
Survey of Tools
Performance Goals
Design Implications

Course RF200: Optimization Principles, Tools, Techniques, and Real-Life Examples/Exercises

Day 1
Optimization Overview
RF100 Fast Review
General Q&A
Meet the CDMA
performance indicators
Signatures of CDMA
transmission problems
The classic CDMA
death scenario
Introduction to
Performance Data
System-side tools and
their implications

February, 2005

Day 2

Day 3

Intro to Mobile Tools

Collection Tools
Grayson, LCC, HP
PN Scanners
HP, Grayson,
Berkeley
Post-processing
Analyzer, DeskCat
Drive-test Demo files
Grayson
LCC
Intro to Post-Processing
Analyzer, DeskCat

Handsets as test tools

Drive-Test Demo Lab
RSAT/Collect 2000!
Grayson Inspector
Data Analysis and PostProcessing
Analyzer, DeskCat
what events did you
see?
Identifying root
causes
Parameter &
configuration changes

Day 4
Operators Corporate
RF Benchmarking
Overview
PN Scanner Lab
HP, Grayson,
Berkeley
Gathering data,
interpreting problems
Applied Optimization
common scenarios

RF100a(c) 2005 Scott Baxter v2.0

1-2

RF100 Chapter 1

Wireless
Wireless Systems:
Systems:
How
How did
did we
we get
get here?
here? Whats
Whats itit all
all about?
about?

MTS,
IMTS

February, 2005

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1-3

Radio Hasnt Been Around Long!

Days before radio.....
1680 Newton first suggested
concept of spectrum, but for
visible light only
N

LF HF VHF UHF MW IR

UV XRAY

1831 Faraday demonstrated that

light, electricity, and magnetism
are related
1864 Maxwells Equations:
spectrum includes more than light
1890s First successful demos of
radio transmission

February, 2005

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First Wired Communication: Telegraphy

Samuel F.B. Morse had the idea of the telegraph on a
sea cruise in the 1833. He studied physics for two years,
and In 1835 demonstrated a working prototype, which he
patented in 1837.
Derivatives of Morse binary code are still in use today
The US Congress funded a demonstration line from
Washington to Baltimore, completed in 1844.
1844: the first commercial telegraph circuits were coming
into use. The railroads soon were using them for train
dispatching, and the Western Union company resold idle
Samuel F. B. Morse
time on railroad circuits for public telegrams, nationwide
at the peak of his career
1857: first trans-Atlantic submarine cable was installed

Submarine Cable Installation

news sketch from the 1850s
February, 2005

Field Telegraphy
during the US Civil War, 1860s

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1-5

Wired Communication for Everyone:

Telephony
By the 1870s, the telegraph was in use all over the world and largely taken for
granted by the public, government, and business.
In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented his telephone, a device for carrying
actual voices over wires.
Initial telephone demonstrations sparked intense public interest and by the late
1890s, telephone service was available in most towns and cities across the USA

Alexander Graham Bell and his phone

from 1876 demonstration
February, 2005

Telephone Line Installation Crew

1880s

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1-6

Radio Milestones
1888: Heinrich Hertz, German physicist, gives lab demo of
existance of electromagnetic waves at radio frequencies
1895: Guglielmo Marconi demonstrates a wireless radio
telegraph over a 3-km path near his home it Italy
1897: the British fund Marconis development of reliable
radio telegraphy over ranges of 100 kM
1902: Marconis successful trans-Atlantic demonstration
1902: Nathan Stubblefield demonstrates voice over radio
Guglielmo Marconi
1906: Lee De Forest invents audion, triode vacuum tube radio pioneer, 1895
feasible now to make steady carriers, and to amplify signals

MTS,
IMTS

1914: Radio became valuable military tool in World War I

1920s: Radio used for commercial broadcasting
1940s: first application of RADAR - English detection of
incoming German planes during WW II
1950s: first public marriage of radio and telephony MTS, Mobile Telephone System
1961: transistor developed: portable radio now practical
1961: IMTS - Improved Mobile Telephone Service
Lee De Forest
1970s: Integrated circuit progress: MSI, LSI, VLSI, ASICs vacuum tube inventor
1979, 1983: AMPS cellular demo, commercial systems

February, 2005

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1-7

Overview of the Radio Spectrum

Frequencies Used by Wireless Systems
AM

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

LORAN

0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

1.2

Marine

1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

2.4

Short Wave -- International Broadcast -- Amateur

VHF LOW Band

30

40

VHF TV 2-6

50

60

70

10

12

FM

80 90 100

CB

14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 MHz
7
30,000,000 i.e., 3x10 Hz

VHF VHF TV 7-13

120 140 160 180 200

0.3

0.4

0.5

UHF TV 14-69

Broadcasting
February, 2005

0/6

300 MHz

2.4

3.0 GHz

GPS

0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

240

300,000,000 i.e., 3x108 Hz

DCS, PCS

Cellular
UHF

3.0 MHz

3,000,000 i.e., 3x106 Hz

10

1.2

1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

12

14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 GHz
10

3,000,000,000 i.e., 3x109 Hz

30,000,000,000 i.e., 3x10 Hz

Land-Mobile
Aeronautical Mobile Telephony
Terrestrial Microwave Satellite
RF100a(c) 2005 Scott Baxter v2.0

1-8

Development of North American Cellular

In the late 1970s, the FCC (USA Federal Communications Commission)
allocated 40 MHz. of spectrum in the 800 MHz. range for public mobile
telephony.
FCC adopted Bell Labs AMPS (Advanced
Mobile Phone System) standard, creating
cellular as we know it today
The USA was divided into 333 MSAs
(Metropolitan Service Areas) and over
300 RSAs (Rural Service Areas)
In 1987, FCC allocated an additional 10 MHz. of expanded spectrum
By 1990, all MSAs and RSAs had competing licenses granted and at
least one system operating.
In the 1990s, additional technologies were developed for cellular
TDMA (IS-54,55,56, IS-136) (also, GSM in Europe/worldwide)
CDMA (IS-95)
US Operators did not pay for their spectrum, although processing fees
(typically $10,000s) were charged to cover license administrative cost

333 MSAs
300+ RSAs

February, 2005

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North American Cellular Spectrum

Uplink Frequencies
(Reverse Path)
824

835

Downlink Frequencies
(Forward Path)
845

849

825

Frequency, MHz

870

Paging, ESMR, etc.

846.5

Ownership and
Licensing

890

880

869

891.5

Frequencies used by A Cellular Operator

Initial ownership by Non-Wireline companies
Frequencies used by B Cellular Operator
Initial ownership by Wireline companies

In each MSA and RSA, eligibility for ownership was restricted

A licenses awarded to non-telephone-company applicants only
B licenses awareded to existing telephone companies only
subsequent sales are unrestricted after system in actual operation
February, 2005

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894

1 - 10

Development of North America PCS

By 1994, US cellular systems were seriously
overloaded and looking for capacity relief
The FCC allocated 120 MHz. of spectrum
around 1900 MHz. for new wireless telephony
known as PCS (Personal Communications
Systems), and 20 MHz. for unlicensed services
allocation was divided into 6 blocks; 10-year
licenses were auctioned to highest bidders
PCS Licensing and Auction Details
A & B spectrum blocks licensed in 51 MTAs (Major Trading Areas )
Revenue from auction: $7.2 billion (1995)
C, D, E, F blocks were licensed in 493 BTAs (Basic Trading Areas)
C-block auction revenue: $10.2 B, D-E-F block auction: $2+ B (1996)
Auction winners are free to choose any desired technology
About half the C-block winners were unable to pay for their licenses. They
wrangled in and out of court, with final disposition in 2005.

51 MTAs
493 BTAs

PCS SPECTRUM ALLOCATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA

A

E F

15

15

15

1850
MHz.
February, 2005

unlic. unlic.
data voice

1910
MHz.

E F

15

15

15

1930
MHz.

RF100a(c) 2005 Scott Baxter v2.0

1990
MHz.
1 - 11

Major PCS Auction Winners

Sprint PCS
CDMA

AT&T Wireless
IS-136

Primeco
CDMA
Western
Wireless
Pacific
Bell

Aerial
OmniPoint

GSM

BellSouth
Powertel

February, 2005

The Largest Players, Areas, and Technologies

Sprint PCS
Began as partnership of Sprint, TCI, Cox Cable
Bid & won in 2/3 of US markets A or B blocks
Sprint won D and/or E blocks in remaining markets
CDMA: Mix of Nortel, Lucent, Motorola
AT&T Wireless Systems
Bid & won a majority of markets in A&B Blocks
will combine and integrate service between its new
PCS 1900 systems and its former McCaw cellular
800 MHz. properties
IS-136: mix of Lucent and Ericsson equipment
Other CDMA Operators
Primeco: partnership of various operators
GTE, others
GSM Operators
Western Wireless, OmniPoint, BellSouth, GTE,
Powertel, Pacific Bell
Mix of Ericsson, Nokia, and Nortel networks
For auction details, check www.fcc.gov
RF100a(c) 2005 Scott Baxter v2.0

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Progress in Radio Technology Development

Systems, Signals, & Devices
Radio Communication Systems
HFAmateur

VHFLand Mobile

Mobile Telephony30-50MHz

Marine
Military

Microwave
Microwave
Satellite
RADAR Point-to-Point
AM Bcst1MHz FM Bcst100MHz
VHF-TV Bcst
UHF-TV Bcst

Modulation CW AM FSK
Devices

FM PM PSK QAM

Spark Vacuum
Tubes

1910
February, 2005

1920

1930

150MHz
450MHz
800MHz
1900MHz

DQPSK GMSK

Discrete MSI
VLSI,
Transistors
LSI ASICS
1940

1950 1960
Time

RF100a(c) 2005 Scott Baxter v2.0

1970

1980

1990 2000
1 - 13

Evolution of Wireless Telephony

Standards, Technologies, & Capacity
Standards Evolution
MTS150MHz

IMTS150MHz

AMPS800MHz
N_AMPS
D-AMPS
CDMA

450MHz

Technology Evolution
Analog AM, FM

PCS1900MHz
GSM
CDMA
AMPS, etc

ESMR800MHz

Digital Modulation

Access Strategies

DQPSK
GMSK

FDMA
TDMA
CDMA

Vacuum Tubes Discrete Transistors

MSI

LSI

VLSI, ASICs

System Capacity Evolution - Users

Dozens

Hundreds

100,000s

1960

1990

AMPS = Advanced Mobile Phone System

N_AMPS = Narrowband AMPS (Motorola)
D-AMPS = Digital AMPS (IS-54 TDMA)
ESMR = Enhanced Specialized Mobile Radio
February, 2005

1,000,000s

PCS-1900 =
FDMA =
TDMA =
CDMA =

Personal Communication Systems

Frequency Division Multiple Access
Time Division Multiple Access
Code Division Multiple Access

RF100a(c) 2005 Scott Baxter v2.0

1 - 14

Summary: Wireless Economics and Logistics

Trends in Radio Communications
Technology:

Analog

System
Organization:

Centralized

Digital
Distributed

Cost per Subscriber

System Capacity
System Complexity
Radio Frequencies Used
Time
February, 2005

RF100a(c) 2005 Scott Baxter v2.0

1 - 15

RF100 Chapter 2

Wireless
Wireless Systems:
Systems:
Modulation
Modulation Schemes
Schemes and
and Bandwidth
Bandwidth

Q axis

fc
Lower
Sideband

Upper
Sideband

b
a

0 1 0

fc

I axis

QPSK

0 1 0

Q axis
r

fc

0 1 0

I axis

p
v
/4 shifted DQPSK

fc

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2-1

Characteristics of a Radio Signal

SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
The complete, timevarying radio signal

Natural Frequency
of the signal

S (t) = A cos [ c t + ]
Amplitude (strength)
of the signal

Phase of the signal

Compare these Signals:

Different
Amplitudes

Different
Frequencies
Different
Phases
February, 2005

The purpose of telecommunications is to

send information from one place to another
Our civilization exploits the transmissible
nature of radio signals, using them in a
sense as our carrier pigeons
To convey information, some characteristic
of the radio signal must be altered (I.e.,
modulated) to represent the information
The sender and receiver must have a
consistent understanding of what the
variations mean to each other
one if by land, two if by sea
Three commonly-used RF signal
characteristics which can be varied for
information transmission:

Amplitude
Frequency
Phase

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2-2

AM: Our First Toehold for Transmission

The early radio pioneers could only turn their crude transmitters on
and off. They could form the dots and dashes of Morse code. The
first successful radio experiments happened during the mid-1890s
by experimenters in Italy, England, Kentucky, and elsewhere.
By 1910, vacuum tubes gave experimenters better control over RF
power generation. RF power could now be linearly modulated in
step with sound vibrations. Voices and music could now be
transmitted!! Still, nobody anticipated FM, PM, or digital signals.
Commercial public AM broadcasting began in the early 1920s.
Despite its disadvantages and antiquity, AM is still alive:
AM broadcasting continues today in 540-1600 KHz.
AM modulation remains the international civil aviation standard,
used by all commercial aircraft (108-132 MHz. band).
AM modulation is used for the visual portion of commercial
television signals (sound portion carried by FM modulation)
Citizens Band (CB) radios use AM modulation
Special variations of AM featuring single or independent
sidebands, with carrier suppressed or attenuated, are used for
marine, commercial, military, and amateur communications

SSB
LSB USB
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2-3

Amplitude Modulation (AM) Details

TIME-DOMAIN VIEW
of AM MODULATOR

mn(t)

x(t)

+
1

cos c

x(t) = [1 + amn(t)]cos c t
where:
a = modulation index (0 < a <= 1)
mn(t) = modulating waveform
c = 2 fc, the radian carrier freq.

Voltage

FREQUENCY-DOMAIN VIEW
mn(t)

BASEBAND

0 Frequency
February, 2005

CARRIER
LOWER
SIDEBAND

UPPER
SIDEBAND

x(t)

AM is linear modulation -- the

spectrum of the baseband signal
translates directly into sidebands on
both sides of the carrier frequency
Despite its simplicity, AM has definite
drawbacks which complicate its use for
wireless systems:
Only part of an AM signals energy
actually carries information
(sidebands); the rest is the carrier
The two identical sidebands waste
bandwidth
AM signals can be faithfully
amplified only by linear amplifiers
AM is highly vulnerable to external
noise during transmission
AM requires a very high C/I (~30 to
40 dB); otherwise, interference is
objectionable

fc

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2-4

Circuits to Generate & Detect AM Signals

TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
AM MODULATOR

Lin.

information

[1 + amn(t)]

mn(t)
RF carrier

cos c

Modulated signal
Sat.

x(t)

TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
AM DETECTOR
(non-coherent)

x(t)

February, 2005

mn(t)

AM modulation can be simply

accomplished in a saturated
amplifier
superimpose the modulating
waveform on the supply
voltage of the saturated
amplifier
AM de-modulation (detection) can
be easily performed using a
simple envelope detector
example: half-wave rectifier
this non-coherent detection
works well if S/N >10 dB.
AM demodulation can also be
performed by coherent detectors
incoming signal is mixed
(multiplied) with a locally
generated carrier
enhances performance when
S/N ratio is poor (<10 dB.)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2-5

Better Quality: Frequency Modulation (FM)

TIME-DOMAIN VIEW

t
sFM(t) =A cos c t + m m(x)dx+0
t0

where:
A = signal amplitude (constant)
c = radian carrier frequency
m = frequency deviation index
m(x) = modulating signal
0 = initial phase

Voltage

FREQUENCY-DOMAIN VIEW
LOWER
SIDEBANDS

0 Frequency
February, 2005

UPPER
SIDEBANDS

SFM(t)

Frequency Modulation (FM) is a type of

angle modulation
in FM, the instantaneous frequency
of the signal is varied by the
modulating waveform
Advantages of FM
the amplitude is constant
simple saturated amplifiers can
be used
the signal is relatively immune
to external noise
the signal is relatively robust;
required C/I values are typically
17-18 dB. in wireless
applications
Disadvantages of FM
relatively complex detectors are
required
a large number of sidebands are
produced, requiring even larger
bandwidth than AM

fc

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2-6

Circuits to Generate and Detect FM Signals

TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
FM MODULATOR
information
FM modulated signal

m(x)

VCO

sFM(t)

HPA

LO
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
FM DETECTOR

sFM(t)

m(x)
LNA

PLL

One way to build an FM signal is a

voltage-controlled oscillator
the modulating signal varies a
reactance (varactor, etc.) or
otherwise changes the
frequency of the oscillator
the modulation may be
performed at a low intermediate
frequency, then heterodyned to
a desired communications
frequency
FM de-modulation (detection) can
be performed by any of several
types of detectors
Phase-locked loop (PLL)
Pulse shaper and integrator
Ratio Detector

LO
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2-7

The Inventor of FM

Edwin Howard

Armstrong
1890 - 1954

February, 2005

Major Edwin H. Armstrong was one of the most famous

inventors in the early history of radio. In 1918, he invented
the superheterodyne circuit -- and implemented the basic
mixing principle of heterodyne frequency conversion used
in virtually all modern radio receivers. Others got the credit.
In 1933, he invented wide-band frequency modulation.
Armstrongs primary motivation was to improve the audio
quality of broadcast transmission, which had suffered from
noise and static because it used AM modulation.
Promotion and commercial development of FM placed
Armstrong in competition with David Sarnoff and Radio
Corporation of America. Sarnoff and RCA were promoting
television, and worried Armstrongs FM would compete
with TV and slow its public acceptance.
Mainly due to RCA influence, the US FCC decided to change
the frequencies allocated for FM broadcasting, obsoleting
hundreds of FM transmitters and 500,000+ home receivers
Armstrong had helped finance as an FM demonstration.
In 1954, despondent over these setbacks, Armstrong took his
life. But today, the technology he started is used not only in
broadcasting and the sound portion of TV, but also in land
mobile and first-generation analog cellular systems.
RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2-8

Sister of FM: Phase Modulation (PM)

TIME-DOMAIN VIEW
Phase-modulated signal
information

sPM(t) =A cos c t + m m(x) +0

where:
A = signal amplitude (constant)
c = radian carrier frequency
m = phase deviation index
m(x) = modulating signal
0 = initial phase

Voltage

FREQUENCY-DOMAIN VIEW
LOWER
SIDEBANDS

0 Frequency
February, 2005

UPPER
SIDEBANDS

SFM(t)

Phase Modulation (PM) is a type of angle

modulation, closely related to FM
the instantaneous phase of the
signal is varied according to the
modulating waveform
Advantages of PM: very similar to FM
the amplitude is constant
simple saturated amplifiers can
be used
the signal is relatively immune
to external noise
the signal is relatively robust;
required C/I values are typically
17-18 dB. in wireless
applications
Disadvantages of PM
relatively complex detectors are
required, just like FM
a large number of sidebands are
produced, just like FM, requiring
even larger bandwidth than AM

fc

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2-9

Circuits to Generate and Detect PM Signals

TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
PHASE MODULATOR
information
Phase-modulated signal

m(x)

x
~

HPA

sFM(t)

Phase Shifter

LO
TIME-DOMAIN VIEW:
FM DETECTOR FOR PM

sFM(t)

m(x)
LNA

x
LO

February, 2005

PLL

PM and FM signals are identical with

only one exception: in FM, the analog
modulating signal is inherently deemphasized by 1/F
Consequences of this realization:
the same types of circuitry can be
used to generate and detect both
analog PM or FM, determined by
filtering the modulating signal at
baseband
FM has poorer signal-to-noise
ratio than PM at high modulating
frequencies. Therefore, preemphasis and de-emphasis are
often used in FM systems
The phase of a PM signal is proportional
to the amplitude of the modulating
signal.
The phase of an FM signal is
proportional to the integral of the
amplitude of the modulating signal.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 10

How Much Bandwidth do Signals Occupy?

Time-Domain

Frequency-Domain

(as viewed on an
Oscilloscope)

(as viewed on a
Spectrum Analyzer)

Voltage

The bandwidth occupied by a signal

depends on:

Voltage

Time

Frequency

fc
Lower
Sideband

fc

fc

fc

February, 2005

Upper
Sideband

input information bandwidth

modulation method
Information to be transmitted, called
input or baseband
bandwidth usually is small, much
lower than frequency of carrier
Unmodulated carrier
the carrier itself has Zero bandwidth!!
AM-modulated carrier
Notice the upper & lower sidebands
total bandwidth = 2 x baseband
FM-modulated carrier
Many sidebands! bandwidth is a
complex Bessel function
Carsons Rule approximation 2(F+D)
PM-modulated carrier
Many sidebands! bandwidth is a
complex Bessel function

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 11

Claude Shannon:
The Einstein of Information Theory
The core idea that makes CDMA
possible was first explained by
Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs
research mathematician
Shannon's work relates amount
of information carried, channel
bandwidth, signal-to-noise-ratio,
and detection error probability
It shows the theoretical
upper limit attainable
In 1948 Claude Shannon published his landmark
paper on information theory, A Mathematical
Theory of Communication. He observed that
"the fundamental problem of communication is
that of reproducing at one point either exactly or
approximately a message selected at another
point." His paper so clearly established the
foundations of information theory that his
framework and terminology are standard today.
Shannon died Feb. 24, 2001, at age 84.
February, 2005

SHANNONS
CAPACITY EQUATION
C = B log2 [

1+

S
N

B = bandwidth in Hertz
C = channel capacity in bits/second
S = signal power
N = noise power

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 12

Digital
Digital Sampling
Sampling and
and Vocoding
Vocoding

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 13

Introduction to Digital Modulation

transmission

demodulation-remodulation

transmission

demodulation-remodulation

transmission

demodulation-remodulation

February, 2005

The modulating signals shown in previous

slides were all analog. It is also possible to
quantize modulating signals, restricting them
to discrete values, and use such signals to
perform digital modulation. Digital
modulation has several advantages over
analog modulation:
Digital signals can be more easily
regenerated than analog
in analog systems, the effects of noise
and distortion are cumulative: each
demodulation and remodulation
introduces new noise and distortion,
added to the noise and distortion from
previous demodulations/remodulations.
in digital systems, each demodulation
and remodulation produces a clean
output signal free of past noise and
distortion
Digital bit streams are ideally suited to
multiplexing - carrying multiple streams of
information intermixed using time-sharing

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 14

Theory of Digital Modulation: Sampling

m(t)

Sampling
p(t)

m(t)
Recovery

The Sampling Theorem: Two Parts

If the signal contains no frequency higher
than fM Hz., it is completely described by
specifying its samples taken at instants of
time spaced 1/2 fM s.
The signal can be completely recovered
from its samples taken at the rate of 2 fM
samples per second or higher.
February, 2005

Voice and other analog signals first must

be converted to digital form (sampled)
before they can be transmitted digitally
The sampling theorem gives the
requirements for successful sampling
The signal must be sampled at least
twice during each cycle of fM , its
highest frequency. 2 x fM is called
the Nyquist Rate.
to prevent aliasing, the analog
signal is low-pass filtered so it
contains no frequencies above fM
Required Bandwidth for Samples, p(t)
If each sample p(t) is expressed as
an n-bit binary number, the
bandwidth required to convey p(t) as
a digital signal is at least N*2* fM
this follows Shannons Theorem: at
least one Hertz of bandwidth is
required to convey one bit per
second of data
Notice: lots of bandwidth required!

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 15

The Mother of All Telephone Signals: DS-0

Band-Limiting
C-Message Weighting

0 dB
-10dB
-20dB
-30dB
-40dB

100

10000

Companding

16

16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

300
1000
3000
Frequency, Hz

15

8
3

4 4

-Law

y = sgn(x)

ln(1+ | x|)
ln(1 + )

(where = 255)

A-LAW A|x|
y = sgn(x)

for 0 x
A
ln(1+ A)
1
ln(1+ A|x)|
y = sgn(x)
for < x 1
A
ln(1+ A)
(where A = 87. 6)

Telephony has adopted a world-wide PCM

standard digital signal, using a 64 kb/s stream
derived from sampled voice data
Voice waveforms are band-limited (see curve)
upper cutoff beyond 3500-4000 Hz. to avoid
aliasing
rolloff below 300 Hz. For less sensitivity to
hum picked up from AC power mains
Voice waveforms sampled 8000 times/second
A>D conversion has 1 byte (8 bit)
resolution; thus 256 voltage levels possible
8000 samples x 1 byte = 64,000 bits/second
Levels are defined logarithmically rather
than linearly, to handle a wider range of
audio levels with minimum distortion
-law companding is used in North
America & Japan
A-law companding is used in most
other countries

x = analog audio voltage

y = quantized level (digital)

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 16

Was Digital Supposed to Give More Capacity!?

A DS-0 telephone signal, carrying one person talking, is a 64,000
bits/second data stream.
Shannons theorem tells us well need at least 64,000 Hz. of
bandwidth to carry this signal, even with the most advanced
modulation techniques (QPSK, etc.)
But regular analog cellular signals are only 30,000 Hz. wide! So
does a digital signal require more bandwidth than analog?!!
YES -- unless we do something fancy, like compression.
We DO use compression, to reduce the number of bits being
transmitted, thereby keeping the bandwidth as small as we can
The compressing device is called a Vocoder (voice coder). It both
compresses the signal being sent, and expands the signal being
received
Every digital mobile phone technology uses some type of Vocoder
There are many types, with many different characteristics
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 17

Vocoders: Compression vs. Distortion

Objective: to significantly reduce the number of bits which must be
transmitted, but without creating objectionable levels of distortion
We are concerned mainly with telephone applications, with voice signal
already band-limited to 4 kHz. max. and sampled at 8 kHz.
The objective is toll-quality voice reproduction
General Categories of Speech Coders
Waveform Coders
attempt to re-create the input waveform
good speech quality but at relatively high bit rates
Vocoders
attempt to re-create the sound as perceived by humans
quantize and mimic speech-parameter-defined properties
lower bit rates but at some penalty in speech quality
Hybrid Coders
mixed approach, using elements of Waveform Coders &
Vocoders
use vector quantization against a codebook reference
low bit rates and good quality speech
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 18

Meet some Families of Speech Coders

Objective: to significantly reduce the number of bits which must be
transmitted, but without creating objectionable levels of distortion
We are concerned mainly with telephone applications, with voice signal
already band-limited to 4 kHz. max. and sampled at 8 kHz.
The objective is toll-quality voice reproduction
A few different strategies and algorithms used in voice compression:

Waveform Coders

Hybrid Coders

Vocoders

February, 2005

PCM (pulse-code modulation), APCM (adaptive PCM)

DPCM (differential PCM), ADPCM (adaptive DPCM)
DM (delta modulation), ADM (adaptive DM)
CVSD (continuously variable-slope DM)
APC (adaptive predictive coding)
RELP (residual-excited linear prediction)
SBC (subband coding)
ATC (adaptive transform coding)
MPLP (multipulse-excited linear prediction)
RPE (regular pulse-excited linear prediction)
VSELP (vector-sum excited linear prediction)
CELP (code-excited linear prediction)
Channel, Formant, Phase, Cepstral, or Homomorphic
LPC (linear predictive coding)
STC (sinusoidal transform coding)
MBE (multiband excitation), IMBE (improved MBE)
RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 19

Speech Coders Used Mobile Technologies:

Vocoders are usually described by their output rate (8 kilobits/sec, etc.)
and the type of algorithm they use. Heres a list of the vocoders used in
currently popular wireless technologies:
bits/sec
64k
32k
32k
16k
13/7/4/2 v
13k
9.6k
8k
8k
6.7k
6.4k
8/4/2/1 v
8/4/2/1 v
4.8k
2.4k
February, 2005

Algorithm
log PCM
ADPCM
LD-CELP
APC
QCELP
RPE-LTP
MPLP
EFRC
VSELP
VSELP
IMBE
QCELP
QCELP
CELP
LPC-10

Standard (Year)
CCITT G.711 (1972)
CCITT G.721 (1984)
CCITT G.728 (1992)
Inmarsat-B (1985)
CTIA, IS-54/J-Std008 (1995)
CDMA
Pan-European DMR, GSM (1991)
BTI Skyphone (1990)
IS-136 (1997) TDMA enhanced
CTIA IS-54 (1993) TDMA
Japanese DMR (1993)
Inmarsat-M (1993)
Enhanced Vocoder, 1997 CDMA
CTIA, IS-95 (1993) CDMA
US, FS-1016 (1991)
US, FS-1015 (1977)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

MOS
4.3
4.1
4.0
n/avail
n/avail
3.5
3.4
n/avail
3.5
3.4
3.4
n/avail
3.4
3.2
2.3
2 - 20

The Latest Vocoder Technology, 2005

CDMA Family:
SMV (selective multirate vocoder)
ETSI GSM/WCDMA Family
AMR (adaptive multirate vocoder)

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 21

Digital
Digital Modulation
Modulation

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 22

Modulation by Digital Inputs

Our previous modulation examples used continuously-variable
analog inputs. If we quantize the inputs, restricting them to
digital values, we will produce digital modulation.
Voltage

Time

0 1 0

0 1 0

0 1 0

0 1 0

February, 2005

For example, modulate a signal with this

digital waveform. No more continuous
analog variations, now were shifting
between discrete levels. We call this shift
keying.
The user gets to decide what levels
mean 0 and 1 -- there are no
inherent values
Steady Carrier without modulation
Amplitude Shift Keying
ASK applications: digital microwave
Frequency Shift Keying
FSK applications: control messages in
AMPS cellular; TDMA cellular
Phase Shift Keying
PSK applications: TDMA cellular,
GSM & PCS-1900

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 23

Digital Modulation Schemes

There are many different schemes for digital modulation, each a
compromise between complexity, immunity to errors in transmission,
required channel bandwidth, and possible requirement for linear amplifiers
Linear Modulation Techniques
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying
DPSK Differential Phase Shift Keying
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying IS-95 CDMA forward link
Offset QPSK IS-95 CDMA reverse link
Pi/4 DQPSK IS-54, IS-136 control and traffic channels
Constant Envelope Modulation Schemes
BFSK Binary Frequency Shift Keying AMPS control channels
MSK Minimum Shift Keying
GMSK Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying GSM systems, CDPD
Hybrid Combinations of Linear and Constant Envelope Modulation
MPSK M-ary Phase Shift Keying
QAM M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
MFSK M-ary Frequency Shift Keying FLEX paging protocol
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access Techniques
DSSS Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum IS-95 CDMA
FHSS Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 24

Modulation used in CDMA Systems

Mobiles: OQPSK
CDMA mobiles use offset
QPSK modulation
the Q-sequence is
delayed half a chip, so
that I and Q never
change simultaneously
and the mobile TX never
passes through (0,0)
CDMA base stations use
QPSK modulation
every signal (voice, pilot,
sync, paging) has its own
amplitude, so the
transmitter is unavoidably
going through (0,0)
sometimes; no reason to
include 1/2 chip delay
February, 2005

Q Axis
Short
PN I

cos t

Users
chips
Short
PN Q

I Axis
1/2
chip sin t

Base Stations: QPSK

Q Axis
Short
PN I

cos t

Users
chips
Short
PN Q

I Axis
sin t

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 25

CDMA Base Station Modulation Views

The view at top right shows the
actual measured QPSK phase
constellation of a CDMA base
station in normal service
The view at bottom right shows
the measured power in the code
domain for each walsh code on a
CDMA BTS in actual service
Notice that not all walsh codes
are active
Pilot, Sync, Paging, and
certain traffic channels are in
use

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

2 - 26

Chapter 3

Wireless
Wireless Systems:
Systems:
Multiple
Multiple Access
Access Technologies
Technologies &
& Standards
Standards

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

3-1

Multiple Access Technologies

FDMA (example: AMPS)
Frequency Division Multiple Access
each user has a private frequency (at
least in their own neighborhood)

FDMA
Power
T im

TDMA (examples: IS-54/136, GSM)

Time Division Multiple Access
each user has a private time on a private
frequency (at least in their own
neighborhood)

TDMA
Power
Ti m
e

CDMA (examples: IS-95, J-Std. 008)

Code Division Multiple Access
users co-mingle in time and frequency
but each user has a private code (at
least in their own neighborhood)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

e
qu
Fr e

y
nc

CDMA
Power
Tim

February, 2005

y
nc
e
u
eq
Fr

y
nc
e
u
req

3-2

Conventional Technologies:
Recovering the Signal / Avoiding Interference
In ordinary radio technologies, the desired signal
must be stronger than all interference by at least a
certain margin called C/I (carrier-to-interference
ratio)
the type of signal modulation determines the
amount of interference which can be tolerated,
and thus the required C/I
In conventional systems, the C/I is controlled mainly
by the distance between co-channel cells
frequency usage is planned so that co-channel
users dont have interference worse than C/I
any undesired interference we face is coming
from the nearest co-channel cells, far away
if the signal is delicate, then we need a big C/I
and the co-channel cells must be very far away
if the signal is more rugged, we can tolerate
more interference (smaller C/I) allowing the cochannel cells a bit closer without bad effects

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

AMPS-TDMA-GSM
1
1

4
7
6

2
7

3
5

4
2

4
7

3
6
1

1
2

3
5
1

Figure of Merit: C/I

(carrier/interference ratio)

AMPS: +17 dB
TDMA: +14 to 17 dB
GSM: +7 to 9 dB.

3-3

Handoffs and C/I

One purpose of handoff is to keep the
call from dropping as the mobile
moves out of range of individual cells
Another purpose of handoff is to
ensure the mobile is using the cell
with the best signal strength and best
C/I at all times
Notice in the signal graphs at lower
right how the mobiles C/I is
maintained at a usable level as it
goes from cell to cell

Sites
Technology

Modulation
Type

Channel
Bandwidth

Quality
Indicator

AMPS

Analog FM

30 kHz.

C/I 17 dB

NAMPS

Analog FM

10 kHz.

C/I 17 dB

TDMA

DPQSK

30 kHz.

C/I 17 dB

GSM

GMSK

200 kHz.

C/I 17 dB

CDMA

QPSK/OQPSK

1,250 kHz.

Eb/No 6dB

February, 2005

-50

RSSI,
dBm

C/I

-120

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

3-4

CDMA: Using A New Dimension

All CDMA users occupy the same frequency
at the same time! Frequency and time are
not used as discriminators
CDMA operates by using a new dimension,
CODING, to discriminate between users
In CDMA, we do not try to immediately
recover the pulses of energy from each
user. Instead, we watch long groups of
the totals of everybodys pulses, and
detect little patterns which are the
signature of the user we wish to
decode
In CDMA, the interference originates mainly
from nearby users in the same general area
Each user is a small voice in a roaring
crowd -- but with a uniquely recoverable
code
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

CDMA

Figure of Merit: C/I

AMPS: +17 dB
TDMA: +14 to +17 dB
GSM: +7 to 9 dB.
CDMA: -10 to -17 dB.
Although the CDMA C/I is
negative, the decoding
process recovers the users
energy while discarding others
energy. The final net result is
Eb/No, typically about +6 db.
Well study this in detail later.
3-5

The CDMA Migration Path to 3G

CDMAone
Generation
Technology
Spectrum
Signal
Bandwidth,
#Users

1G

2G

AMPS
RL

FL

2G

IS-95A/
IS-95B
J-Std008
RL

FL

RL

FL

2.5G? 3G

3G

3G

IS-2000: IS-2000: 1xEV-DO 1xEV-DO 1xEV-DV

Rev. 0 Rev. A
1xRTT
3xRTT
1xTreme
IS-856
IS-856
RL

FL

RL

FL

1250 kHz. F: 3x 1250k

30 kHz. 1250 kHz. 1250 kHz.
R: 3687k
50-80 voice 120-210 per
1
20-35
25-40
3 carriers
and data

None,
Data
Capabilities 2.4K by
modem
Features:
Incremental
Progress

CDMA2000 / IS-2000

First
System,
Capacity
&
Handoffs

February, 2005

14.4K

64K

First
CDMA,
Capacity,
Quality

Improve
d Access
Smarter
Handoffs

153K
307K
230K
Enhanced
Access
Channel
Structure

RL

FL

1250 kHz.
59 active
users

2.4 Mb/s
1.0 Mb/s 153DL
Kb/s
UL

Faster
data rates
on shared
3-carrier
bundle

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

High data
rates on
data-only
CDMA
carrier

RL

FL

RL

FL

1250 kHz. 1250 kHz.

59 active Many packet
users
users
3.1 Mb/s
DL
1.8 Mb/s
UL

5 Mb/s

Higher
data rates
on dataonly
CDMA
carrier

High data
rates on
Data-Voice
shared
CDMA
carrier

3-6

Modulation Techniques of 1xEV Technologies

1xEV, 1x Evolution, is a family of alternative
fast-data schemes that can be implemented on a
1x CDMA carrier.
1xEV DO means 1x Evolution, Data Only,
originally proposed by Qualcomm as High Data
Rates (HDR).
Up to 2.4576 Mbps forward, 153.6 kbps
reverse
A 1xEV DO carrier holds only packet data,
and does not support circuit-switched voice
Commercially available in 2003
1xEV DV means 1x Evolution, Data and Voice.
Max throughput of 5 Mbps forward, 307.2k
reverse
Backward compatible with IS-95/1xRTT
voice calls on the same carrier as the data
Not yet commercially available; work
continues
All versions of 1xEV use advanced modulation
techniques to achieve high throughputs.

February, 2005

QPSK
CDMA IS-95,
IS-2000 1xRTT,
and lower rates
of 1xEV-DO, DV

16QAM
1xEV-DO
at highest
rates

64QAM
1xEV-DV
at highest
rates

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

3-7

GSM Technology Migration Path to 3G

Generation

1G

Technology

various
analog

GSM

Signal
Bandwidth,
#Users

various

200 kHz.
7.5 avg.

Data
Capabilities

Features:
Incremental
Progress

February, 2005

various

various

2G

none

Europes
first Digital
wireless

2.5G or 3?

3G

3G

UMTS
UTRA
GPRS
EDGE
WCDMA
3.84 MHz.
200 kHz.
200 kHz.
up to 200+
Many
fast data
voice users
Pkt. users many users and data
9-160 Kb/s
384 Kb/s
(conditions mobile user
determine)

2Mb/s
static user

Integrated
Packet IP
8PSK for
voice/data
access
3x Faster (Future rates
Multiple
data rates to 12 MBPS
attached
than GPRS using adv.
users
modulation?)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

3-8

TDMA IS-136 Technology Migration Path to 3G

the familiar GSM path!

Generation

1G

Technology

AMPS

Signal
Bandwidth,
#Users

30 kHz.
1

Data
Capabilities

None,
2.4K by
modem

First
System,
Features:
Incremental Capacity
&
Progress
Handoffs

February, 2005

2G

2G

CDPD

TDMA
IS-54
IS-136

30 kHz.
30 kHz.
Many
3 users
Pkt Usrs
19.2
kbps

none

US
Packet
Data
Svc.

USAs
first
Digital
wireless

2G
GSM

200 kHz.
7.5 avg.

none

2.5G or 3?

3G

3G

UMTS
UTRA
GPRS
EDGE
WCDMA
3.84 MHz.
200 kHz.
200 kHz.
up to 200+
Many
fast data
voice users
Pkt. users many users and data
9-160 Kb/s
384 Kb/s
(conditions mobile user
determine)

2Mb/s
static user

Integrated
Packet IP
Europes
8PSK for
voice/data
access
first
3x Faster (Future rates
Multiple
Digital
data rates to 12 MBPS
attached
wireless
than GPRS using adv.
users
modulation?)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

3-9

4G: Broadband Wireless Access Technologies

High Hopes!

Infrared
IRDA

Bluetooth 802.11b

802.11a

Optical

2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz

5 GHz

5 GHz

5 GHz

Single User per

Optical Carrier

various

DSSS

DSSS

OFDM

various.

Modulation
Type

various

GFSK
FH

CCK

BPSK, QPSK,
16QAM, or
64QAM

Max Raw
Data Rate

4 Mb/s

1 Mb/s

11
Mb/s

54 Mb/s

Technology
Frequency
Band
Access
Method

HIPERLAN HIPERLAN
Type 1
Type 2

802.16

802.20
Mobile BWA

2-11 GHz
10-66 GHz
TDD, FDD
various

FSK or BPSK, QPSK, BPSK to

16QAM, or
256QAM
GMSK
64QAM
OFDM
23.5 Mb/s

54 Mb/s

54 Mb/s

Not BWA; for comparison only

BLUETOOTH

Infrared IRDA
802.11A, B,
WIFI, WILAN

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

3 - 10

Low-Tier $

High-Tier $$$

4G Evolution or Revolution?
Service Provider/
Infrastructure Owner

Technology

Environment

1G: AMPS
2G: TDMA, GSM,

Near-Universal Macro-Coverage

IS95 CDMA, IDEN

2.5G: GPRS, EDGE

3G: IS2000 1xRTT,
1xEV DO, 1xEV DV
UMTS WCDMA

PSTN

IP/VPNs

4G: Wireless LAN

802.11b Wi-Fi
802.11a, g
HIPERLAN Type 1
HIPERLAN Type 2
Bluetooth
Infrared

Hotspots
freenetworks.org

Theres a revolution going on!

New 2.5G services arriving now, new 3G arriving 2002 through 2005
A groundswell of commercial (and even free!) WILAN deployment
3G networks and 4G networks have their own unique advantages
Ultimately 3G and 4G will be integrated by wireless operators!
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

3 - 11

Global and US Wireless Snapshot 4Q 2003

Total Wireless Users

GSM users
CDMA users
TDMA users
IDEN users
Analog users

Worldwide
1,320,000,000
100%
870,000,000 65.9%
224,000,000 17.0%
124,000,000
9.4%
68,000,000
5.2%
34,000,000
2.6%

USA
141,000,000
33,732,506
64,503,287
26,375,232
11,978,382
4,510,594

100%
23.9%
45.7%
18.6%
8.5%
3.2%

Total Worldwide Wireless customers surpassed total worldwide landline

customers at year-end 2002, with 1,00,080,000 of each.
2/3 of worldwide wireless customers use the GSM technology
CDMA is second-most-prevalent with 17.0%
In the US, CDMA is the most prevalent technology at 45.7%
Both CDMA and GSM are growing in the US
most IS-136 TDMA systems are converting to GSM + GPRS + EDGE
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

3 - 12

A Quick Survey of Wireless Data Technologies

US CDMA

ETSI / GSM

ANALOG

IS-95

GSM CSD

AMPS Cellular

14.4 9.6 kb/s

9.6 4.8 kb/s

IS-95B

GSM HSCSD

64 -32 kb/s

1xRTT RC3
153.6 80 kb/s

1xRTT RC4
307.2 160 kb/s

1xEV-DO
2400 600 DL
153.6 76 UL

1xEV-DO A

32 19.2 kb/s

Mobitex
9.6 4.8 kb/s
obsolete

CDPD
19.2 4.8 kb/s
discontinued

GPRS
40 30 kb/s DL
15 kb/s UL

EDGE
200 - 90 kb/s DL
45 kb/s UL

WCDMA 0
384 250 kb/s

Other Misc.
IS-136
IDEN
IS-136 TDMA

2000 - 800 kb/s

1xEV-DV

WCDMA HSPDA

19.2 19.2 kb/s

19.2 9.6 kb/s

WCDMA 1

3100 800 DL
1800 600 UL

5000 - 1200 DL
307 - 153 UL

9.6 4.8 kb/s

w/modem

PAGING

12000 6000 kb/s

TD-SCDMA
In Development

Flarion OFDM
1500 900 kb/s

This summary is a work-in-progress, tracking latest experiences and reports from all the
high-tier (provider-network-oriented) 2G and 3G wireless data technologies
Have actual experiences to share, latest announced details, or corrections to the above?
Email to Scott@ScottBaxter.com. Thanks for your comments!
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

3 - 13

Wireless System Capacity

Each wireless technology (AMPS,
NAMPS, D-AMPS, GSM, CDMA)
uses a specific modulation type
with its own unique signal
characteristics

Signal Bandwidth determines

how many RF signals will fit in
the operators licensed spectrum
Robustness of RF signal
determines tolerable level of
interference and necessary
physical separation of cochannel
cells

Number of users per RF signal

directly affects capacity
In the following page, we will
develop the number of users and
traffic in erlangs per site for each
of the popular wireless
technologies
February, 2005

AMPS, D-AMPS, N-AMPS

1

30

30

1 Users

2
3
7
1
6
4
5

Vulnerability:
C/I 17 dB
10 kHz Bandwidth
Typical Frequency Reuse N=7

Users

Vulnerability:
C/I 6.5-9 dB

1
4

200 kHz

2
3

Typical Frequency Reuse N=4

Vulnerability:
EbNo 6 dB

CDMA
22 Users
1250 kHz

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

1
1

1
1
1
1

1
1

1
1
1

1
1

Typical Frequency Reuse N=1

3 - 14

Comparison of Wireless System Capacities

800 Cellular (A,B)
Fwd/Rev Spectrum kHz.
12,500 12,500
12,500
Technology
AMPS TDMA
CDMA
Req'd C/I or Eb/No, db
17
17
6
Freq Reuse Factor, N
7
7
1
RF Signal BW, kHz
30
30
1250
Total # RF Carriers
416
416
9
RF Sigs. per cell @N
59
59
9
# Sectors per cell
3
3
3
#CCH per sector
1
1
0
RF Signals per sector
18
18
9
Voicepaths/RF signal
1
3
22
SH average links used
1
1
1.66
Unique Voicepaths/carrier
1
3
13.253
Voicepaths/Sector
18
54
198
Unique Voicepaths/Sector
18
54
119
P.02 Erlangs per sector
11.5
44
105.5
P.02 Erlangs per site
34.5
132
316.5
Capacity vs. AMPS800
1
3.8
9.2

February, 2005

1900 PCS (A,

15,000 15,000
TDMA
GSM
17
12
7
4
30
200
500
75
71
18
3
3
1
0
22
6
3
8
1
1
3
8
66
48
66
48
55.3
38.4
165.9
115.2
4.8
3.3

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

B, C)
1900 PCS (D,
15,000 5,000 5,000
CDMA TDMA GSM
6
17
12
1
7
4
1250
30
200
11
166
25
11
23
6
3
3
3
0
1
0
11
6
2
22
3
8
1.66
1
1
13.253
3
8
242
18
16
145
18
16
130.9
11.5
9.83
392.7
34.5 29.49
11.4
1.0
0.9

E, F)
5,000
CDMA
6
1
1250
3
3
3
0
3
22
1.66
13.253
66
39
30.1
90.3
2.6

3 - 15

Capacity of Multicarrier CDMA Systems

CDMA Carrier Frequencies
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011

f
Fwd/Rev Spectrum kHz. 12,500 1,800 3,050 4,300 5,550 6,800 8,050 9,300 10,550
Technology AMPS CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA
Req'd C/I or Eb/No, db
17
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
Freq Reuse Factor, N
7
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
RF Signal BW, kHz
30
1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250 1250
1250
Total # RF Carriers
416
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
RF Sigs. per cell @N
59
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
# Sectors per cell
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
#CCH per sector
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
RF Signals per sector
18
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Voicepaths/RF signal
1
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
22
SH average links used
1
1.66
1.66
1.66
1.66
1.66
1.66
1.66
1.66
Unique Voicepaths/carrier
1
13.3
13.3
13.3
13.3
13.3
13.3
13.3
13.3
Voicepaths/Sector
18
22
44
66
88
110
132
154
176
Unique Voicepaths/Sector
18
13
26
39
53
66
79
92
106
P.02 Erlangs per sector 11.5
7.4
18.4
30.1
43.1
55.3
67.7
80.2
93.8
P.02 Erlangs per site 34.5
22.2
55.2
90.3 129.3 165.9 203.1 240.6 281.4
Capacity vs. AMPS800
1
0.64
1.60
2.6
3.7
4.8
5.9
7.0
8.2

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

11,800
CDMA
6
1
1250
9
9
3
0
9
22
1.66
13.3
198
119
105.5
316.5
9.2

13,050
CDMA
6
1
1250
10
10
3
0
10
22
1.66
13.3
220
132
119.1
357.3
10.4

14,300
CDMA
6
1
1250
11
11
3
0
11
22
1.66
13.3
242
145
130.9
392.7
11.4

3 - 16

Chapter 4 Section A

Physical
Physical Principles
Principles of
of
Propagation
Propagation

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4-1

Introduction to Propagation
Propagation is the heart of every radio link. During propagation, many processes
act on the radio signal.
attenuation
the signal amplitude is reduced by various natural mechanisms. If there
is too much attenuation, the signal will fall below the reliable detection
threshold at the receiver. Attenuation is the most important single factor
in propagation.
multipath and group delay distortions
the signal diffracts and reflects off irregularly shaped objects, producing a
host of components which arrive in random timings and random RF
phases at the receiver. This blurs pulses and also produces intermittent
signal cancellation and reinforcement. These effects are overcome
through a variety of special techniques
time variability - signal strength and quality varies with time, often dramatically
space variability - signal strength and quality varies with location and distance
frequency variability - signal strength and quality differs on different
frequencies
To master propagation and effectively design wireless systems, you must know:
Physics: understand the basic propagation processes
Measurement: obtain data on propagation behavior in area of interest
Statistics: analyze known data, extrapolate to predict the unknown
Modelmaking: formalize all the above into useful models
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4-2

Frequency and Wavelength: Implications

Radio signals in the atmosphere
propagate at almost speed of light

=C/F
for AMPS:

= wavelength
C = distance propagated in 1 second
F = frequency, Hertz

F= 870 MHz

= 0.345 m = 13.6 inches

for PCS-1900:

F = 1960 MHz

= 0.153 m = 6.0 inches

/2

February, 2005

The wavelength of a radio signal

determines many of its propagation
characteristics
Antenna elements size are
typically in the order of 1/4 to 1/2
wavelength
Objects bigger than a wavelength
can reflect or obstruct RF energy
RF energy can penetrate into a
building or vehicle if they have
apertures a wavelength in size, or
larger

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4-3

Propagation Effects of Earths Atmosphere

Earths unique atmosphere supports life (ours
included) and also introduces many propagation
effects -- some useful, some troublesome
Skywave Propagation: reflection from Ionized
Layers
LF and HF frequencies (below roughly 50
MHz.) are routinely reflected off layers of the
upper atmosphere which become ionized by
the sun
this phenomena produces intermittent worldwide propagation and occasional total outages
this phenomena is strongly correlated with
frequency, day/night cycles, variations in
earths magnetic field, 11-year sunspot cycle
these effects are negligible for wireless
systems at their much-higher frequencies
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4-4

More Atmospheric Propagation Effects

Rain Fades on
MIcrowave Links

Refraction
by air layers

Ducting
by air layers
>100 mi.

February, 2005

Attenuation at Microwave Frequencies

rain droplets can substantially attenuate RF
signals whose wavelengths are comparable to, or
smaller than, droplet size
rain attenuations of 20 dB. or more per km. are
possible
troublesome mainly above 10 GHz., and in
tropical areas
must be considered in reliability calculations
during path design
not major factor in wireless systems propagation
Diffraction, Wave Bending, Ducting
signals 50-2000 MHz. can be bent or reflected at
boundaries of different air density or humidity
phenomena: very sporadic unexpected longdistance propagation beyond the horizon. May
last minutes or hours
can occur in wireless systems
RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4-5

Dominant Mechanisms of Mobile Propagation

Free Space
d
A

D
B

Reflection

with partial cancellation

Knife-edge
Diffraction

February, 2005

Most propagation in the mobile

environment is dominated by these
three mechanisms:
Free space
No reflections, no obstructions
first Fresnel Zone clear
Signal spreading is only mechanism
Signal decays 20 dB/decade
Reflection
Reflected wave 180out of phase
Reflected wave not attenuated much
Signal decays 30-40 dB/decade
Knife-edge diffraction
Direct path is blocked by obstruction
Additional loss is introduced
Formulae available for simple cases
Well explore each of these further...

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4-6

Free-Space Propagation
r

Free Space
Spreading Loss
energy intercepted
by receiving
antenna is
proportional to 1/r2

d
A

The simplest propagation mode

Antenna radiates energy which spreads in space
Path Loss, db (between two isotropic antennas)
= 36.58 +20*Log10(FMHZ)+20Log10(DistMILES )
Path Loss, db (between two dipole antennas)
= 32.26 +20*Log10(FMHZ)+20Log10(DistMILES )
Notice the rate of signal decay:
6 db per octave of distance change, which is
20 db per decade of distance change
Free-Space propagation is applicable if:
there is only one signal path (no reflections)
the path is unobstructed (i.e., first Fresnel zone
is not penetrated by obstacles)

1st Fresnel Zone

D
B

February, 2005

First Fresnel Zone =

{Points P where AP + PB - AB < /2 }
Fresnel Zone radius d = 1/2 (D)^(1/2)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4-7

Reflection With Partial Cancellation

Heights Exaggerated
for Clarity
HTFT

HTFT

Mobile environment characteristics:

Small angles of incidence and reflection
Reflection is unattenuated (reflection coefficient =1)
Reflection causes phase shift of 180 degrees
Analysis
Physics of the reflection cancellation predicts signal
decay of 40 dB per decade of distance

DMILES

Path Loss [dB ]= 172 + 34 x Log (DMiles )

- 20 x Log (Base Ant. HtFeet)
- 10 x Log (Mobile Ant. HtFeet)
SCALE PERSPECTIVE

Comparison of Free-Space and Reflection Propagation Modes

Assumptions: Flat earth, TX ERP = 50 dBm, @ 1950 MHz. Base Ht = 200 ft, Mobile Ht = 5 ft.

DistanceMILES
Received Signal in
Free Space, DBM
Received Signal in
Reflection Mode

February, 2005

1
-52.4
-69.0

2
-58.4
-79.2

4
-64.4
-89.5

6
-67.9
-95.4

8
-70.4
-99.7

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

10
-72.4

15
-75.9

20
-78.4

-103.0

-109.0

-113.2

4-8

Signal Decay Rates in Various Environments

Signal Level vs. Distance

0

-10

-20

-30

-40
1

3.16
5 6 7 8
Distance, Miles

One Decade
One Octave
of distance (2x)

February, 2005

of distance (10x)

10

Weve seen how the signal decays

with distance in two basic modes
of propagation:
Free-Space
20 dB per decade of distance
6 db per octave of distance
Reflection Cancellation
40 dB per decade of distance
12 db per octave of distance
Real-life wireless propagation
decay rates are typically
somewhere between 30 and 40
dB per decade of distance

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4-9

Knife-Edge Diffraction

R1
= -H

R2
2

1
R1

1
R2

0
-5
atten -10
dB -15
-20
-25
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

February, 2005

Sometimes a single well-defined

obstruction blocks the path, introducing
additional loss. This calculation is fairly
easy and can be used as a manual tool
to estimate the effects of individual
obstructions.
First calculate the diffraction parameter
from the geometry of the path
Next consult the table to obtain the
obstruction loss in db
Add this loss to the otherwisedetermined path loss to obtain the total
path loss.
Other losses such as free space and
reflection cancellation still apply, but
computed independently for the path as
if the obstruction did not exist

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 10

Local Variability: Multipath Effects

Multi-path Propagation

Rayleigh Fading
A

/2
10-15 dB

February, 2005

The free-space, reflection, and diffraction

mechanisms described earlier explain signal
level variations on a large scale, but other
mechanisms introduce small-scale local
fading
Slow Fading occurs as the user moves over
hundreds of wavelengths due to shadowing
by local obstructions
Rapid Fading occurs as signals received
from many paths drift into and out of phase
the fades are roughly /2 apart in space:
7 inches apart at 800 MHz., 3 inches
apart at 1900 MHz
fades also appear in the frequency
domain and time domain
fades are typically 10-15 db deep,
occasionally deeper
Rayleigh distribution is a good model
for these fades
these fades are often called Rayleigh fades

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 11

Combating Rayleigh Fading: Space Diversity

D

Signal received
by Antenna 1
Signal received
by Antenna 2
Combined
Signal
February, 2005

Fortunately, Rayleigh fades are

very short and last a small
percentage of the time
Two antennas separated by
several wavelengths will not
generally experience fades at the
same time
Space Diversity can be
obtained by using two receiving
antennas and switching instantby-instant to whichever is best
Required separation D for good
decorrelation is 10-20
12-24 ft. @ 800 MHz.
5-10 ft. @ 1900 MHz.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 12

Space Diversity Application Limitations

D

Signal received
by Antenna 1
Signal received
by Antenna 2
Combined
Signal
February, 2005

Space Diversity can be applied only

on the receiving end of a link.
Transmitting on two antennas would:
fail to produce diversity, since the
two signals combine to produce
only one value of signal level at a
given point -- no diversity results.
produce objectionable nulls in
the radiation at some angles
Therefore, space diversity is applied
only on the uplink, i.e.., reverse
path
there isnt room for two
sufficiently separated antennas
on a mobile or handheld

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 13

Using Polarization Diversity

Where Space Diversity Isnt Convenient

V+H
or
\+/

A B

A B
Antenna A
Antenna B
Combined

February, 2005

Sometimes zoning considerations or

aesthetics preclude using separate diversity
receive antennas
Dual-polarized antenna pairs within a single
radome are becoming popular
Environmental clutter scatters RF
energy into all possible polarizations
Differently polarized antennas receive
signals which fade independently
In urban environments, this is almost as
good as separate space diversity
Antenna pair within one radome can be V-H
polarized, or diagonally polarized
Each individual array has its own
independent feedline
Feedlines connected to BTS diversity
inputs in the conventional way; TX
duplexing OK
RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 14

The Reciprocity Principle

Does it apply to Wireless?

-148.21 db
@ 870.03 MHz

-148.21 db
@ 835.03 MHz

-151.86 db
@ 870.03 MHz
February, 2005

Between two antennas, on the same

exact frequency, path loss is the
same in both directions
But things arent exactly the same in
cellular - transmit and receive 45 MHz. apart
antenna: gain/frequency slope?
different Rayleigh fades
up/downlink
often, different TX & RX antennas
RX diversity
Notice also the noise/interference
environment may be substantially
different at the two ends
So, reciprocity holds only in a general
sense for cellular

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 15

Chapter 4 Section B

Propagation
Propagation Models
Models

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 16

Types Of Propagation Models And Their Uses

Examples of various model types

Simple Analytical models

Used for understanding and

predicting individual paths and
specific obstruction cases
General Area models

Primary drivers: statistical

Used for early system
dimensioning (cell counts, etc.)
Point-to-Point models

Primary drivers: analytical

Used for detailed coverage
analysis and cell planning
Local Variability models

Primary drivers: statistical

Characterizes microscopic level
fluctuations in a given locale,
confidence-of-service probability
February, 2005

Simple Analytical
Free space (Friis formula)
Reflection cancellation
Knife-edge diffraction

Area
Okumura-Hata
Euro/Cost-231
Walfisch-Betroni/Ikegami

Point-to-Point
Ray Tracing
- Lees Method, others
Tech-Note 101
Longley-Rice, Biby-C

Local Variability
Rayleigh Distribution
Normal Distribution
Joint Probability Techniques

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 17

General Principles Of Area Models

-50

+90

-60

+80

-70

+70

-80

+60

Field
Strength,
+50 dBV/m

RSSI,
-90
dBm
-100

+40

-110

+30

-120

+20
0

9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33

Distance from Cell Site, km

Green Trace shows actual measured signal

strengths on a drive test radial, as determined
by real-world physics.
Red Trace shows the Okumura-Hata
prediction for the same radial. The smooth
curve is a good fit for real data. However,
the signal strength at a specific location on the
radial may be much higher or much lower
than the simple prediction.
February, 2005

Area models mimic an average

path in a defined area
Theyre based on measured data
alone, with no consideration of
individual path features or
physical mechanisms
Typical inputs used by model:
Frequency
Distance from transmitter to
receiver
Actual or effective base
station & mobile heights
Average terrain elevation
Morphology correction loss
(Urban, Suburban, Rural, etc.)
Results may be quite different
than observed on individual paths
in the area

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 18

The Okumura Model: General Concept

70

Urban Area

35

50

(dB)
Correction factor, Garea

80
70
d, km

Median Attenuation A(f,d), dB

100

40
30
26

area
Open

25
Q

io
ua s

pen

area

20
r
an a
urb
b
u
S

15

10
9 dB

ea

1
10

30

850 MHz

850
100

500
Frequency f, MHz

3000

100

200

300
500 700 1000
Frequency f, (MHz)

2000

3000

The Okumura model is based on detailed analysis of exhaustive drive-test measurements

made in Tokyo and its suburbs during the late 1960s and early 1970s. The collected
date included measurements on numerous VHF, UHF, and microwave signal sources,
both horizontally and vertically polarized, at a wide range of heights.
The measurements were statistically processed and analyzed with respect to almost every
imaginable variable. This analysis was distilled into the curves above, showing a
median attenuation relative to free space loss Amu (f,d) and correlation factor Garea
(f,area), for BS antenna height ht = 200 m and MS antenna height hr = 3 m.
Okumura has served as the basis for high-level design of many existing wireless
systems, and has spawned a number of newer models adapted from its basic
concepts and numerical parameters.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 19

Structure of the Okumura Model

Path Loss [dB] = LFS + Amu(f,d) - G(Hb) - G(Hm) - Garea

Base Station
Height Gain
= 20 x Log (Hb/200)

Amu(f,d) Additional Median Loss

from Okumuras Curves
Urban Area
100
80
50

70

Mobile Station
Height Gain
= 10 x Log (Hm/3)

d, km

Median Attenuation A(f,d), dB

70

35

Correction factor, Garea (dB)

Free-Space
Path Loss

Morphology Gain
0 dense urban
5 urban
10 suburban
17 rural
30

Open

area

25
Qua

si o

a
pen

rea

20
15
Sub

10

an
urb

a
are

5
850 MHz

40

100

30
26

200

300
500 700 1000 2000 3000
Frequency f, (MHz)

5
2
1

10

Frequency f, MHz
100

500

850
3000

The Okumura Model uses a combination of terms from basic physical

mechanisms and arbitrary factors to fit 1960-1970 Tokyo drive test data
Later researchers (HATA, COST231, others) have expressed Okumuras
curves as formulas and automated the computation
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 20

The Hata Model: General Concept

The Hata model is an empirical formula for propagation loss derived from
Okumuras model, to facilitate automatic calculation.
The propagation loss in an urban area is presented in a simple general format A +
B x log R, where A and B are functions of frequency and antenna height, R is
distance between BS and MS antennas
The model is applicable to frequencies 100 MHz-1500 MHz, distances 1-20 km, BS
antenna heights 30-200 m, MS antenna heights 1-10 m
The model is simplified due to following limitations:
Isotropic antennas
Quasi-smooth (not irregular) terrain
Urban area propagation loss is presented as the standard formula
Correction equations are used for other areas
Although Hata model does not imply path-specific corrections, it has significant
practical value and provide predictions which are very closely comparable with
Okumuras model

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 21

Hata Model General Concept and Formulas

(1) LHATA (urban) [dB] =69.55 + 26.16 x log ( f ) + [ 44.9 - 6.55 x log ( hb ) ] x log ( d )
-13.82 x log ( hb ) - A ( hm )
(2) LHATA (suburban) [dB] = LHATA (urban) - 2 x [ log ( f/28 ) ]2 - 5.4
(3) LHATA (rural) [dB] =LHATA (urban) - 4.78 x [ log ( f ) ]2 - 18.33 x log ( f ) -40.98
(4) A ( hm ) [dB] = [ 11 x log ( f ) - 0.7 ] x hm - [ 1.56 x log ( f ) - 0.8 ]
(5) A ( hm ) [dB] = 8.29 x [ log ( 1.54 x hm ) ]2 - 1.1

(for f<= 300 MHz.)

(6) A ( hm ) [dB] = 3.2 x [ log ( 1175 x hm ) ]2 - 4.97 (for f > 300 MHz.)

Formulas for median path loss are:

(1) - Standard formula for urban areas
(2) - For suburban areas
(3) - For rural areas
Formulas for MS antenna ht. gain
correction factor A(hm)
(4) - For a small to medium sizes cities
(5) and (6) - For large cities

February, 2005

f - carrier frequency, MHz

hb and hm - BS and MS
antenna heights, m
d - distance between BS
and MS antennas, km
Environmental Factor C
0
dense urban
-5 urban
-10 suburban
-17 rural

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 22

The EURO COST-231 Model

LCOST (urban) [dB] = 46.3 + 33.9 x log ( f ) + [ 44.9 - 6.55 x log ( hb ) ]
x log ( d ) + Cm -13.82 x log ( hb ) - A ( hm )
The COST-231 model was developed by European
COoperative for Scientific and Technical Research
committee. It extends the HATA model to the 1.8-2
GHz. band in anticipation of PCS use.
COST-231 is applicable for frequencies 1500-2000
MHz, distances 1-20 km, BS antenna heights 30-200
m, MS antenna heights 1-10 m
Parameters and variables:
f is carrier frequency , in MHz
hb and hm are BS and MS antenna heights (m)
d is BS and MS separation, in km
A(hm) is MS antenna height correction factor
(same as in Hata model)
Cm is city size correction factor: Cm=0 dB for
suburbs and Cm=3 dB for metropolitan centers
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Environmental
Factor C
1900
-2
dense urban
-5
urban
-10 suburban
-26 rural

4 - 23

Examples of Morphological Zones

Suburban

Urban

Dense Urban

Suburban

Urban

Dense Urban

Suburban: Mix of
residential and business
communities. Structures
include 1-2 story houses
50 feet apart and 2-5
story shops and offices.
Urban: Urban residential
and office areas (Typical
structures are 5-10 story
buildings, hotels,
hospitals, etc.)
Dense Urban: Dense
business districts with
skyscrapers (10-20 stories
and above) and high-rise
apartments

Although zone definitions are arbitrary, the examples and definitions illustrated above
are typical of practice in North American PCS designs.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 24

Example Morphological Zones

Rural - Highway

Rural - Highway

Rural

Rural

Suburban

Suburban

Rural - Highway:
Highways near open
farm land, large
open spaces, and
sparsely populated
residential areas.
Typical structures
are 1-2 story
houses, barns, etc.
Rural - In-town:
Open farm land,
large open spaces,
and sparsely
populated residential
areas. Typical
structures are 1-2
story houses, barns,
etc.

Notice how different zones may abruptly adjoin one another. In the case immediately
above, farm land (rural) adjoins built-up subdivisions (suburban) -- same terrain, but
different land use, penetration requirements, and anticipated traffic densities.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 25

The MSI Planet General Model

Pr = Pt + K1 + k2 log(d) + k3 log(Hb) + K4 DL + K5 log(Hb) log(d)
+ K6 log (Hm) + Kc + Ko
Pr - received power (dBm)
Pt - transmit ERP (dBm)
Hb - base station effective antenna height
Hm - mobile station effective antenna height
DL - diffraction loss (dB)
K1 - intercept
K2 - slope
K3 - correction factor for base station antenna height gain
K4 - correction factor for diffraction loss (accounts for clutter heights)
K5 - Okumura-Hata correction factor for antenna height and distance
K6 - correction factor for mobile station antenna height gain
Kc - correction factor due to clutter at mobile station location
Ko - correction factor for street orientation
This is the general model format used in MSIs popular PlaNET propagation
prediction software for wireless systems. It includes terms similar to
Okumura-Hata and COST-231 models, along with additional terms to
include effects of specific obstructions and clutter on specific paths in the
mobile environment.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 26

Typical Model Results

Including Environmental Correction
Okumura/Hata

Tower
Height,
m

EIRP
(watts)

C,
dB

Range,
km

30
30
30
50

200
200
200
200

0
-5
-10
-17

4.0
4.9
6.7
26.8

f =1900 MHz.

Tower
Height,
m

EIRP
(watts)

C,
dB

Range,
km

Dense Urban
Urban
Suburban
Rural

30
30
30
50

200
200
200
200

-2
-5
-10
-26

2.52
3.50
4.8
10.3

f = 870 MHz.
Dense Urban
Urban
Suburban
Rural

COST-231/Hata

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 27

Propagation at 1900 MHz. vs. 800 MHz.

Propagation at 1900 MHz. is similar to 800 MHz., but all effects are
more pronounced.
Reflections are more effective
Shadows from obstructions are deeper
Foliage absorption is more attenuative
Penetration into buildings through openings is more effective,
but absorbing materials within buildings and their walls
attenuate the signal more severely than at 800 MHz.
The net result of all these effects is to increase the contrast of hot
and cold signal areas throughout a 1900 MHz. system, compared
to what would have been obtained at 800 MHz.
Overall, coverage radius of a 1900 MHz. BTS is approximately
two-thirds the distance which would be obtained with the same
ERP, same antenna height, at 800 MHz.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 28

Walfisch-Betroni/Walfisch-Ikegami Models
Ordinary Okumura-type models do work in
this environment, but the Walfisch models
attempt to improve accuracy by exploiting
the actual propagation mechanisms
involved

Path Loss = LFS + LRT + LMS

LFS = free space path loss (Friis formula)
LRT = rooftop diffraction loss
LMS = multiscreen reflection loss

Area View

Signal
Level
Legend

February, 2005

-20 dBm
-30 dBm
-40 dBm
-50 dBm
-60 dBm
-70 dBm
-80 dBm
-90 dBm
-100 dBm
-110 dBm
-120 dBm

Propagation in built-up portions of cities is

dominated by ray diffraction over the tops of
buildings and by ray channeling through
multiple reflections down the street canyons

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 29

Statistical Techniques
Distribution Statistics Concept
Signal Strength Predicted Vs. Observed

An area model predicts signal

strength Vs. distance over an area
This is the median or most
probable signal strength at every
distance from the cell
The actual signal strength at any
real location is determined by
local physical effects, and will be
higher or lower
It is feasible to measure the
observed median signal strength
M and standard deviation
M and can be applied to find
probability of receiving an
arbitrary signal level at a given
distance
February, 2005

Model is tweaked to
produce Best-Fit curve

RSSI,
dBm

Observed
Signal Strength
50% of observed
data is above curve

Distance

Occurrences

50% of observed
data is below curve

Normal
Distribution

RSSI
Median
Signal
Strength

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

,
dB
4 - 30

Statistical Techniques
Practical Application Of Distribution Statistics
SIGNAL STRENGTH vs DISTANCE

General Approach:
Use favorite model to predict Signal
Strength
Analyze measured data, obtain:
median signal strength M
(build histogram of observed
vs. measured data)
standard deviation of error,
(determine from histogram)
add an extra allowance into model
drop curve so a desired % of
observations are above model
predictions

RSSI,
dBm

25% of locations
exceed blue curve
50% exceed red
75%
exceed
black

Min signal
reqd for
operation

Distance
Cell radius for
75% reliability
at edge

Occurrences

Cell radius for

Cell radius for 25% reliability
50% reliability
at edge
at edge

Normal
Distribution

RSSI
Median
Signal
Strength
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

,
dB
4 - 31

Cell Edge
Area Availability And Probability Of Service
Overall probability of service is best close to the
BTS, and decreases with increasing distance away
from BTS
Statistical View of
For overall 90% location probability within cell
Cell Coverage
coverage area, probability will be 75% at cell edge
Result derived theoretically, confirmed in
75%
modeling with propagation tools, and observed
from measurements
90%
True if path loss variations are log-normally
distributed around predicted median values, as
in mobile environment
90%/75% is a commonly-used wireless
numerical coverage objective
Area Availability:
90% overall within area
Recent publications by Nortels Dr. Pete
75%at edge of area
Bernardin describe the relationship between
area and edge reliability, and the field
measurement techniques necessary to
demonstrate an arbitrary degree of coverage
reliability
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 32

Application Of Distribution Statistics: Example

Lets design a cell to deliver at least 95 dBm to at least 75% of the
Cumulative Normal Distribution
locations at the cell edge
100%
(This will provide coverage to 90% of
90%
total locations within the cell)
80%
Assume that measurements you
75%
have made show a 10 dB standard
70%
deviation
60%
On the chart:
50%
To serve 75% of locations at the
40%
cell edge , we must deliver a
30%
median signal strength which is
20%
.675 times stronger than -95
0.675
dBm
10%
Calculate:
0%
- 95 dBm + ( .675 x 10 dB )
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
= - 88 dBm
Standard Deviations from
Median (Average) Signal Strength
So, design for a median signal
strength of -88 dBm!
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 33

Statistical Techniques:
Normal Distribution Graph & Table For Convenient Reference
Cumulative Normal Distribution
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
-3

-2.5 -2

-1.5 -1

-0.5

0.5

1.5

2.5

Standard Deviation from Mean Signal Strength

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Standard
Deviation
-3.09
-2.32
-1.65
-1.28
-0.84
-0.52
0
0.52
0.675
0.84
1.28
1.65
2.35
3.09
3.72
4.27

Cumulative
Probability
0.1%
1%
5%
10%
20%
30%
50%
70%
75%
80%
90%
95%
99%
99.9%
99.99%
99.999%

4 - 34

Building Penetration
Statistical Characterization
Building penetration

Vehicle penetration

Typical Penetration Losses, dB

compared to outdoor street level

Environment
Type
(morphology)

Median Std.
Loss, Dev.
dB
, dB

Dense Urban Bldg.

20

Urban Bldg.

15

Suburban Bldg.

10

Rural Bldg.

10

Typical Vehicle

February, 2005

Statistical techniques are effective

against situations that are difficult to
characterize analytically
Many analytical parameters, all
highly variable and complex
Building coverage is modeled using
existing outdoor path loss plus an
additional building penetration loss
Median value estimated/sampled
Statistical distribution determined
Standard deviation estimated or
measured
Additional margin allowed in link
budget to offset assumed loss
Typical values are shown at left

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 35

Composite Probability Of Service

Adding Multiple Attenuating Mechanisms

Building

Outdoor Loss + Penetration Loss

COMPOSITE = ((OUTDOOR)2+( ENETRATION)2)1/2

P

LOSSCOMPOSITE = LOSSOUTDOOR+LOSSPENETRATION
For an in-building user, the actual signal level includes regular
outdoor path attenuation plus building penetration loss
Both outdoor and penetration losses have their own variabilities
with their own standard deviations
The users overall composite probability of service must include
composite median and standard deviation factors
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 36

Composite Probability of Service

Calculating Fade Margin For Link Budget
Example Case: Outdoor attenuation is 8 dB., and penetration loss
is 8 dB. Desired probability of service is 75% at the cell edge
What is the composite ? How much fade margin is required?
COMPOSITE = ((OUTDOOR)2+(PENETRATION)2)1/2
= ((8)2+(8)2)1/2 =(64+64)1/2 =(128)1/2 = 11.31 dB
Cumulative Normal Distribution

On cumulative normal distribution curve, 75%

probability is 0.675 above median.
Fade Margin required =

(11.31) (0.675) = 7.63 dB.

100%
90%

Composite Probability of Service

80%

Calculating Required Fade Margin

Building
OutComposite
Penetration Door
Total
Environment
Type
Median Std.
Std.
Area
Fade
(morphology) Loss, Dev. Dev.
Availability
Margin
dB
Target, %
dB
, dB , dB
Dense Urban Bldg. 20
8
8
90%/75% @edge
7.6
Urban Bldg.
15
8
8
90%/75% @edge
7.6
Suburban Bldg.
10
8
8
90%/75% @edge
7.6
Rural Bldg.
10
8
8
90%/75% @edge
7.6
Typical Vehicle
8
4
8
90%/75% @edge
6.0

75%

70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

.675

Standard Deviations from

Median (Average) Signal Strength

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 37

Chapter 4 Section C

Commercial
Commercial
Propagation
Propagation Prediction
Prediction
Software
Software

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 38

Point-To-Point Path-Driven Prediction Models

Use of models based on deterministic methods

Use of terrain data for construction of path profile

Path analysis (ray tracing) for obstruction, reflection analysis
Appropriate algorithms applied for best emulation of underlying
physics
May include some statistical techniques
Automated point-to-point analysis for enough points to appear
to provide large area coverage on raster or radial grid
Commonly-used Resources

Terrain databases
Morphological/Clutter Databases
Databases of existing and proposed sites
Antenna characteristics databases
Unique user-defined propagation models

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 39

Path-Driven Propagation Prediction Tools

Data Structure
Geographic Overlay Format:
Output Map(s) on screen or plotter

Coverage
field strengths @ probability
probabilities @ field strength
Best-Server
C/I (Adjacent Channel & CoChannel)
Cell locations, cell grid
Terrain elevation data

USGS & Commercial databases

Satellite or aerial photography
Clutter data

Roads, rivers, railroads, etc.

State, county, MTA, BTA
boundaries
Traffic density overlay
Land use overlay
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 40

The World as seen by a

Propagation Prediction Tool
Propagation tools use a terrain
database, clutter data for land
use, and vectors to represent
features and traffic levels.
The figure at right is a 3-D
view of such databases in the
area of this demonstration.
Notice the granularity of the
data and the very mild terrain
undulations in the area,
exaggerated 8 times in this
view.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 41

Survey Of Commercially Available Tools

A wide variety of software
tools are available for
propagation prediction and
system design
Some tools are
implemented on
PC/DOS/Windows
platforms, others on more
powerful UNIX platform
Capabilities and user
interfaces vary greatly
Several of the better-known
tools for cellular RF
engineering are shown in
the table at right

RF Prediction Software Tools

Qualcomm
QEDesign CDMA Tool
(Unix)

MSI
PlaNet

(Unix)

LCC
CellCad
ANet

(Unix)
(DOS PC)

CNET
Wings
Solutions

(Unix)
(mainframe)

ComSearch
IQSignum

(Unix)

AT&T
PACE

(DOS PC)

Motorola
proprietary

(Unix)

TEC Cellular:
Wizard (DOS)
Elebra: CONDOR, CELTEC
Virginia Tech MPRG
SMT-Plus Indoor Site Planning Tool

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 42

Composite Coverage Plot

A composite coverage plot shows
the overall coverage produced by
each sector in the field of view
The color of each pixel corresponds
to the signal level of the strongest
server at that point
Such plots are useful for identifying
coverage holes and overall coverage
extent

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 43

Equal Power Handoff Boundaries Plot

A Best Server Plot or in CDMA
terms, an Equal Power
Handoff Boundaries plot paints
each pixel with a unique color
to identify the best-serving
sector at that point
the boundaries shown are
the equal-power points
between cells
This type of plot is extremely
useful in creating initial
neighbor lists and identifying
areas of no dominant server
Some tools (MSI Planet) can
generate automatic neighbor
lists from such a plot
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 44

Qualcomms QEDesign

Qualcomms commercial tool QEDesign offers a number of features targeted

at CDMA system design and analysis. The figures above show the output
of its microcell propagation analysis tool in the Washington, DC area, and
a three-dimensional view of an antenna pattern. Other features of this
package include live cursor mode in which the user can drag the cursor
about and see in near-real-time the line-of-sight area visible from the
selected location, or a coverage footprint calculated from that location.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 45

General Survey Of Tool Features

Universal Basic Features of Most Tools
Automatically calculates signal strength
at many points over a geographic area
Use databases of terrain data,
environmental conditions, land use,
building clutter, estimated
geographic traffic distribution, etc.
User-definable 3-dimensional
antenna patterns
Automatically analyzes paths, selects
appropriate algorithms based on path
geometry
Produces plots of coverage, C/I, etc.
Used for analysis of sites, interference,
frequency planning, C/I evaluation, etc.
Drawback: requires significant
computation power, time and RF staff
special training
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Signal
Level
Legend

C/I
Legend

-20 dBm
-30 dBm
-40 dBm
-50 dBm
-60 dBm
-70 dBm
-80 dBm
-90 dBm
-100 dBm
-110 dBm
-120 dBm

>20 dB
<20 dB
<17 dB
<14 dB

4 - 46

General Survey Of Tool Features, Continued

A

Pred.
Meas
Mean
-76
72
Std. Dv
9
12
Samples 545
545

Popular Features of Advanced Tools

A
A
A A AA

Accepts measurement input, can

automatically generate predicted-vsmeasured statistics and map displays
Automatic hexagon-manipulation grid
utility
Maintains cell sites in relational
database
Easy manipulation, import, export
Flexible user interface allows
multitasking
Allows multiple user-defined
propagation models
Three dimensional terrain view
Roads, boundaries, coastline easily
overlaid onto any display
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

A
A

A
A
A A

Date: Initial Service

Area Name: DALLAS
Subs: 100,000
Site Name Site # LatitudeLongitudeType Capacity
SITE - 1
SITE - 2
SITE - 3
SITE - 4
SITE - 5

A1
A2
A3
A4
A5

Number of Sites
5

33/17/4696/08/33
33/20/0896/11/49
33/16/5096/12/14
33/10/2896/11/51
33/25/2196/03/53

77
37
91
8
8

S322
S211
S332
S11
01

Total Capacity (Erlangs)221

7
9

1
3

10

3
11
2

4
6

4 - 47

General Survey Of Tool Features, Continued

More Popular Advanced Features
Produces plots of server boundaries,
C/I plots, handoff boundaries, etc.
Allows interactive change of antenna
number, type, orientation, power and
tilt
Using growth-scaleable traffic input
mask, can predict traffic carried by
each site, # channels required
Can automatically highlight cells
not meeting specified grade of
service
Algorithms for automatic frequency
planning and optimization
User can define or mask cells to be
changed or unchanged during
automatic optimization
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

CELL
14
22
26X
26Y
26Z

2
3
7
1
6
4
5

ERL Channels
8.3
17
2.1
5
1.7
4
23
31
14
20

2
3
7
1
6
4
5

4 - 48

General Survey Of Tool Features, Continued

More Popular Advanced Features
Identification of server and
interferer signal levels in live
cursor mode upon graphical
coverage display
Generates bin C/I & coverage
statistics for system evaluation
Predicted handoff analysis
Statistical analysis of most
likely handoff candidates
Automatic generation of
neighbor cell lists
Percentage probability of
handover
Runs on powerful workstations to
minimize computation time
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Cell 51 -82 dBm

Cell 76 -97 dBm
C/I +15 dB

C/I Pct. of Area

>20 dB 93.0%
<20 dB
7.0%
<17 dB
2.2%
Cell 18
Cell 24 48%
Cell 16 22%
Cell 17 18%
Cell 05 8%
Cell 22 4%

4 - 49

Resolution Of Terrain Databases

Elevation data in terrain
databases can be stored in any
of several formats:
Contour vectors: lines of
constant elevation in vector
segment form, digitized
from topographic maps
Elevation sample points on
rectangular grids with fixed
spacing
Elevation sample points on
latitude-longitude grids with
spacing of a fixed number
of arc-seconds
Data can be converted from
one format to another

February, 2005

10m
10m

3 arc-seconds

3 arc-seconds

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 50

Resolution Of Terrain Databases, Continued

Latitude

Longitude

It is useful to know the horizontal

(North Pole) N90
0 Greenwich, UK
spacing in feet between sample points
N60
W 30
in a terrain database using arc-seconds,
N30
i.e., latitude-longitude spacing
W 60
(Equator) 0
North-South spacing is constant,
W 90
S30
everywhere on the planet
S60
W 120
1 arc-second = 101.34 feet
(South Pole) S90
1 degree = 69.096 miles
East-West sample spacing varies with
the cosine of the North Latitude
1
101.34 ft
= 101.34 feet/arcsecond
sec.
at the Equator
= 0 feet/arcsecond at Poles
101.34 ft * Cos (N Lat )
= 101.34 ft. * Cos (N Lat)
per arcsecond, everywhere

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 51

Chapter 4 Section D

Commercial
Commercial
Measurement
Measurement Tools
Tools

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 52

Propagation Data Collection Philosophy

RF testing of sites is usually performed for one of two reasons:
Drive Testing for model calibration
Prior to cell design of a wireless system, accurate models of
propagation in the area must be developed for use by the prediction
software. A significant number of typical sites are evaluated using the
test transmitter and receiver to determine signal decay rates and to
get a fairly accurate understanding of the effects of typical clutter in
the area.
Tests are also conducted to evaluate the additional attenuation which
the signal suffers during penetration of typical buildings and vehicles.
The focus is on developing models generally applicable to the area,
not on the performance of specific individual sites.
Drive Testing for site evaluation
Although propagation models for an area already have been refined,
coverage of a particular site is so critical, or its environment so
variable due to urban clutter, that it is essential to actually measure
the coverage and interference it will produce. The focus is on this
specific site.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 53

CW or Modulated Test Signals?

Can measurements of unmodulated RF carriers provide adequate
propagation data for system design, or is it advisable to use a
modulated RF signal similar to the type which will be radiated by
actual BTS in the contemplated system?
CW (continuous wave, i.e., unmodulated carriers) transmitters
are moderately priced ($10K-$25K). CW-only receivers are
priced from $5K to over $20K.
Technology-specific GSM or CDMA modulated test transmitterreceiver systems are available, at costs in the $100,000$275,000 range per TX-RX system.
Multiple Sites Simultaneously
Propagation Loss Mapping
FER, BER statistics

Multipath Characteristics

February, 2005

Modulated Systems
Too expensive!
Yes
Yes

CW Systems
Yes
Yes
No

Delay Spread

Usually Not. However, DSP

post-processing can yield
some multipath data using
various transforms. (Not
commercially available yet.)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 54

Summary of Commercial Data Collection Tools

Measurement data can be
collected manually, but it is
simply too tedious to obtain
statistically useful quantities
by hand
There are many commercial
data collection systems
available to automate the
collection process
Many modern propagation
prediction software packages
have the capability to import
measurement data, compare
it with predicted values, and
generate statistical outputs
(mean error, standard
deviation, etc.).

February, 2005

Commercial Measurement Systems

Agilent (formerly HP)
Digital receiver with spectrum analyzer
and PN scanner capabilities; handset
data collection capabilities

Andrew (formerly Grayson):

Invex device and collection software
Interpreter post-processing tool

COMARCO
configurable multi-device tool with
scanners, receivers, handset data
capture

Ericsson TEMS tool

handset capture

Qualcomm
CAIT tool (Common Air Interface Tester)
Willtech
Bluerose tool with handset, PN scanner,
and receiver functions)

ZKSAM
collection tool and postprocessing
module

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 55

Elements of Typical Measurement Systems

Main Features
Field strength measurement
Accurate collection in real-time
Multi-channel, averaging
capability
Location Data Collection Methods:
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Dead reckoning on digitized map
database using on-board
compass and wheel revolutions
sensor
A combination of both methods is
recommended for the best results
Ideally, a system should be calibrated
in absolute units, not just raw
received power level indications
Record normalized antenna gain,
measured line loss
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Wireless
Receiver

PC or
Collector

GPS
Receiver
Dead
Reckoning

4 - 56

Typical Test Transmitter Operations

Typical Characteristics
portable, low power needs
weatherproof or weather resistant
regulated power output
frequency-agile: synthesized
Operational Concerns
spectrum coordination and proper
authorization to radiate test signal
antenna unobstructed
stable AC power
SAFETY:
people/equipment falling due to
wind, or tripping on obstacles
electric shock
damage to rooftop
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 57

Example of Mobile Receiver:

Andrews Invex3G Tool
100 MB ethernet connection to PC
the eight card slots can hold
receivers or dual-phone cards
theres also room for two internal
PN scanners
Multiple Invex units can be
cascaded for multi-phone load-test
applications
Cards are field-swappable - Users
can reconfigure the unit in the field
for different tasks without factory
assistance
Receivers and decoders are
installed only for the appropriate
technologies and frequency bands
Internal GPS or external GPS may
be used, with or without deadreckoning capabilities
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 58

Selecting and Tuning Propagation Models

Parameters of propagation
models must be adjusted for
best fit to actual drive-test
measured data in the area
where the model is applied
The figure at right shows drivetest signal strengths obtained
using a test transmitter at an
actual test site
Tools automate the process of
comparing the measured data
with its own predictions, and
deriving error statistics
Prediction model parameters
then can be tuned to
minimize observed error
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 59

Measured Data vs. Model Predictions

Is the propagation model approximately correct?

Is the data scatter small enough to justify use of a model?
correct slope to match data
correct position up/down on Y-axis?
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 60

Analysis of Measured vs. Predicted

Several tools produce histograms showing the distribution of the
differences between measured and predicted values
The mean of the difference between predicted and measured is a
very important quantity. It should be small (on order of a few dB).
The standard deviation of the difference also should be small. If it is
substantially larger than 8 dB., then either:
the environment is very diverse
(perhaps it should be broken
into pieces with separate
models for better fit) or
the slope of the model is
significantly different than the
observed slope of the
measurements (review the Sig.
vs. Dist. graph)

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 61

Displaying Error Distribution by Location

Suppose a major hill blocked

the signal in one direction, or
the antenna pattern had an
unexpected minimum in that
direction
This would cause the data in
the shadowed region to differ
substantially from data in all
remaining directions
Some tools can display the
error values on a map like the
one at right, to provide quick
visual evidence for recognizing
this type of problem

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4 - 62

Chapter 5

Radiating
Radiating Systems
Systems
for
for Wireless
Wireless Networks
Networks
Dipole

Isotropic
Typical Wireless
Omni Antenna

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5-1

Chapter 5 Section A

Antennas
Antennas for
for Wireless
Wireless

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5-2

Understanding Antenna Radiation

The Principle Of Current Moments

An antenna is just a passive

conductor carrying RF current

Zero current
at each end
each tiny
imaginary slice
of the antenna
does its share
of radiating

TX

RX
Maximum current
at the middle
Current induced in
receiving antenna
is vector sum of
contribution of every
tiny slice of
radiating antenna
Width of band
denotes current
magnitude

February, 2005

RF power causes the current

flow
Current flowing radiates
electromagnetic fields
Electromagnetic fields cause
current in receiving antennas
The effect of the total antenna is the
sum of what every tiny slice of the
antenna is doing

Radiation of a tiny slice is

proportional to its length times
the current in it
remember, the current has a
magnitude and a phase!
RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5-3

Different Radiation In Different Directions

Each slice of the antenna produces
a definite amount of radiation at a
specific phase angle
Strength of signal received varies,
depending on direction of departure
from radiating antenna

Minimum
Radiation:
contributions
out of phase,
cancel

Maximum
Radiation:

TX

contributions
in phase,
reinforce

Minimum
Radiation:
contributions
out of phase,
cancel

February, 2005

In some directions, the

components add up in phase
to a strong signal level
In other directions, due to the
different distances the various
components must travel to
reach the receiver, they are
out of phase and cancel,
leaving a much weaker signal
An antennas directivity is the same
for transmission & reception

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5-4

Antenna Polarization
Antenna 1
Vertically
Polarized
Electromagnetic
Field

Antenna 2
Horizontally
Polarized

TX
current

RX
almost
no
current

RF current in a conductor causes

electromagnetic fields that seek to
induce current flowing in the same
direction in other conductors.
The orientation of the antenna is
called its polarization.
Coupling between two antennas is
proportional to the cosine of the
angle of their relative orientation

To intercept significant energy, a receiving antenna must be oriented

parallel to the transmitting antenna
A receiving antenna oriented at right angles to the transmitting
antenna is cross-polarized; will have very little current induced
Vertical polarization is the default convention in wireless telephony
In the cluttered urban environment, energy becomes scattered and
de-polarized during propagation, so polarization is not as critical
Handset users hold the antennas at seemingly random angles..
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5-5

Antenna Gain
Antennas are passive devices: they do not produce
power

Can only receive power in one form and pass

it on in another, minus incidental losses
Cannot generate power or amplify

Omni-directional
Antenna

However, an antenna can appear to have gain

compared against another antenna or condition. This
gain can be expressed in dB or as a power ratio. It
applies both to radiating and receiving
A directional antenna, in its direction of maximum
radiation, appears to have gain compared against a
non-directional antenna
Gain in one direction comes at the expense of less
radiation in other directions
Antenna Gain is RELATIVE, not ABSOLUTE

When describing antenna gain, the

comparison condition must be stated or
implied
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Directional
Antenna
5-6

Reference Antennas
Isotropic Radiator

Truly non-directional -- in 3 dimensions

Difficult to build or approximate physically, Isotropic
Antenna
but mathematically very simple to describe
A popular reference: 1000 MHz and above
PCS, microwave, etc.

Dipole Antenna

Non-directional in 2-dimensional plane only

Can be easily constructed, physically
practical
A popular reference: below 1000 MHz
800 MHz. cellular, land mobile, TV & FM
Quantity
Gain above Isotropic radiator
Gain above Dipole reference
Effective Radiated Power Vs. Isotropic
Effective Radiated Power Vs. Dipole
February, 2005

Units
dBi
dBd
(watts or dBm) EIRP
(watts or dBm) ERP

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Dipole Antenna
Notice that a dipole
has 2.15 dB gain
compared to an
isotropic antenna.
5-7

Effective Radiated Power

Reference
Antenna

An antenna radiates all power fed to it from the

transmitter, minus any incidental losses.
Every direction gets some amount of power
Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is the apparent
power in a particular direction

100 W

Equal to actual transmitter power times

antenna gain in that direction
Effective Radiated Power is expressed in
comparison to a standard radiator

ERP: compared with dipole antenna

EIRP: compared with Isotropic antenna
Example: Antennas A and B each radiate 100 watts from
their own transmitters. Antenna A is our reference, it
happens to be isotropic.
Antenna B is directional. In its maximum direction, its
signal seems 2.75 stronger than the signal from antenna
A. Antenna Bs EIRP in this case is 275 watts.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

TX

B
Directional
Antenna
ERP B

TX

100 W

A (ref)

A
B
275w

100w

5-8

Antenna Gain And ERP

Examples

Many wireless systems at 1900 & 800 MHz use omni

antennas like the one shown in this figure
These patterns are drawn to scale in E-field radiation
units, based on equal power to each antenna
Notice the typical wireless omni antenna concentrates
most of its radiation toward the horizon, where users
are, at the expense of sending less radiation sharply
upward or downward
The wireless antennas maximum radiation is 12.1 dB
stronger than the isotropic (thus 12.1 dBi gain), and
10 dB stronger than the dipole (so 10 dBd gain).

Gain Comparison
12.1 dBi

Isotropic

10dBd

Dipole

Isotropic

Dipole

Typical Wireless
Omni Antenna

Gain 12.1 dBi or 10 dBd

Omni

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5-9

Radiation Patterns

Key Features And Terminology

An antennas directivity is
expressed as a series of patterns
The Horizontal Plane Pattern graphs
the radiation as a function of azimuth
(i.e..,direction N-E-S-W)
The Vertical Plane Pattern graphs the
radiation as a function of elevation (i.e..,
up, down, horizontal)
Antennas are often compared by noting
specific landmark points on their
patterns:

-3 dB (HPBW), -6 dB, -10 dB

points
Front-to-back ratio
Angles of nulls, minor lobes, etc.

Typical Example

Horizontal Plane Pattern

Notice -3 dB points
0 (N)
0
-10
-20
-30 dB
270
(W)

10 dB
points
Main
Lobe

nulls or
a Minor
minima
Lobe
Front-to-back Ratio

180 (S)

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 10

90
(E)

How Antennas Achieve Their Gain

Quasi-Optical Techniques (reflection, focusing)

Reflectors can be used to concentrate

radiation
technique works best at microwave frequencies,
where reflectors are small

Examples:
corner reflector used at cellular or higher
frequencies
parabolic reflector used at microwave
frequencies
grid or single pipe reflector for cellular

Array techniques (discrete elements)

Power is fed or coupled to multiple

antenna elements; each element radiates
Elements radiation in phase in some
directions
In other directions, a phase delay for each
element creates pattern lobes and nulls
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

In phase

Out of
phase

5 - 11

Types Of Arrays
Collinear
Vertical
Array

Collinear vertical arrays

Essentially omnidirectional in
horizontal plane
Power gain approximately
equal to the number of
elements
Nulls exist in vertical pattern,
unless deliberately filled
Arrays in horizontal plane

Directional in horizontal
plane: useful for sectorization
Yagi

RF
power

Yagi

one driven element, parasitic

coupling to others

Log-periodic
all elements driven
wide bandwidth

All of these types of antennas are

used in wireless
February, 2005

RF
power

Log-Periodic

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 12

Omni Antennas

Collinear Vertical Arrays

The family of omni-directional wireless
antennas:
Number of elements determines

Typical Collinear Arrays

Number of
Elements
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Physical size
Gain
Beamwidth, first null angle
Models with many elements have
very narrow beamwidths

Require stable mounting and

careful alignment
Watch out: be sure nulls do
not fall in important coverage
areas
Rod and grid reflectors are
sometimes added for mild directivity
Examples: 800 MHz.: dB803, PD10017,
BCR-10O, Kathrein 740-198
1900 MHz.: dB-910, ASPP2933
February, 2005

Power
Gain
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Gain,
dB
0.00
3.01
4.77
6.02
6.99
7.78
8.45
9.03
9.54
10.00
10.41
10.79
11.14
11.46

Angle

n/a
26.57
18.43
14.04
11.31
9.46
8.13
7.13
6.34
5.71
5.19
4.76
4.40
4.09

Vertical Plane Pattern

beamwidth

-3
d
B

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Angle
of
first
null

5 - 13

Sector Antennas

Reflectors And Vertical Arrays

Typical commercial sector
antennas are vertical combinations
of dipoles, yagis, or log-periodic
elements with reflector (panel or
grid) backing

Vertical plane pattern is

determined by number of
vertically-separated
elements
varies from 1 to 8, affecting
mainly gain and vertical plane
beamwidth

Horizontal plane pattern is

determined by:
number of horizontally-spaced
elements
shape of reflectors (is reflector
folded?)

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Vertical Plane Pattern

Up

Down
Horizontal Plane Pattern
N

5 - 14

Example Of Antenna Catalog Specifications

Electrical Data
ASPP2933
1850-1990
3/5.1
<1.5:1
32
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.

ASPP2936
1850-1990
6/8.1
<1.5:1
15
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.

dB910C-M
1850-1970
10/12.1
<1.5:1
5
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.

Mechanical Data
Antenna Model
ASPP2933
Overall length - in (mm)
24 (610)
Radome OD - in (mm)
1.1 (25.4)
Wind area - ft2 (m2)
.17 (.0155)
Wind load @ 125 mph/201 kph lb-f (n)
4 (17)
Maximum wind speed - mph (kph)
140 (225)

ASPP2936
36 (915)
1.0 (25.4)
.25 (.0233)
6 (26)
140 (225)

dB910C-M
77 (1955)
1.5 (38)
.54 (.05)
14 (61)
125 (201)

6 (2.7)
13 (5.9)
ASPA320

5.2 (2.4)
9 (4.1)
Integral

Antenna Model
Frequency Range, MHz.
Gain - dBd/dBi
VSWR
Beamwidth (3 dB from maximum)
Polarization
Maximum power input - Watts
Input Impedance - Ohms
Lightning Protection
Termination - Standard
Jumper Cable

Weight - lbs (kg)

Shipping Weight - lbs (kg)
Clamps (steel)

February, 2005

4 (1.8)
11 (4.9)
ASPA320

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 15

Example Of Antenna Catalog Radiation Pattern

Vertical Plane Pattern

E-Plane (elevation plane)

Gain: 10 dBd
Dipole pattern is superimposed at
scale for comparison (not often
shown in commercial catalogs)
Frequency is shown
Pattern values shown in dBd
Note 1-degree indices through
region of main lobe for most
accurate reading
Notice minor lobe and null detail!

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 16

Chapter 5 Section B

Other
Other RF
RF Elements
Elements

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 17

Antenna Systems
Antenna

Directional
Coupler
Jumper

Transmission Line

F R
Jumpers

D
u
p
l
e
x
e
r

Combiner

TX
TX

BPF

RX

Antenna systems include more than just antennas

Transmission Lines
Necessary to connect transmitting and receiving equipment
Other Components necessary to achieve desired system function
Filters, Combiners, Duplexers - to achieve desired connections
Directional Couplers, wattmeters - for measurement of performance
Manufacturers system may include some or all of these items
Remaining items are added individually as needed by system operator
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 18

Characteristics Of Transmission Lines

Typical coaxial cables

Physical Characteristics
Type of line

Used as feeders in wireless applications

Coaxial, stripline, openwire

Balanced, unbalanced
Physical configuration

Dielectric:
air
foam

Outside surface
unjacketed
jacketed

Size (nominal outer diameter)

1/4,1/2, 7/8, 1-1/4,

1-5/8, 2-1/4, 3

February, 2005

Foam
Dielectric

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Air
Dielectric

5 - 19

Transmission Lines

Some Practical Considerations

Transmission lines practical considerations

Periodicity of inner conductor

supporting structure can cause
VSWR peaks at some frequencies,
so specify the frequency band
when ordering
Air dielectric lines
lower loss than foam-dielectric; dry air
is excellent insulator
shipped pressurized; do not accept
delivery if pressure leak

Foam dielectric lines

simple, low maintenance; despite
slightly higher loss
small pinholes and leaks can allow
water penetration and gradual
attenuation increases

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Air
Dielectric

Foam
Dielectric

5 - 20

Characteristics Of Transmission Lines, Continued

Electrical Characteristics
Attenuation
Varies with frequency, size, dielectric
D
d
characteristics of insulation
Usually specified in dB/100 ft and/or
dB/100 m
Characteristic impedance Z0 (50 ohms is the
Impedance
usual standard; 75 ohms is sometimes used) Characteristic
of a Coaxial Line
Value set by inner/outer diameter ratio
Zo = ( 138 / ( 1/2 ) ) Log10 ( D / d )
and dielectric characteristics of
= Dielectric Constant
insulation
= 1 for vacuum or dry air
Connectors must preserve constant
impedance (see figure at right)
Velocity factor
Determined by dielectric characteristics
of insulation.
Power-handling capability
Varies with size, conductor materials,
dielectric characteristics

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 21

Transmission Lines

Special Electrical Properties

Transmission lines have impedancetransforming properties

When terminated with same

impedance as Zo, input to line
appears as impedance Zo
When terminated with
impedance different from Zo,
input to line is a complex
function of frequency and line
length. Use Smith Chart or
formulae to compute
Special case of interest: Line section
one-quarter wavelength long has
convenient properties useful in
matching networks

Matched condition
ZIN = 50

ZLOAD=
50

Mismatched condition
ZIN =

Zo=50

ZLOAD=
83
-j22

Deliberate mismatch
for impedance transformation
/4

ZIN=25

ZIN = (Zo2)/(ZLOAD)
February, 2005

Zo=50

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Zo=50

ZLOAD=
100

ZIN= ZO2/ ZLOAD

5 - 22

Transmission Lines

Important Installation Practices

Respect specified minimum
bending radius!

Inner conductor must

remain concentric,
otherwise Zo changes
Dents, kinks in outer
conductor change Zo
Dont bend large, stiff lines (15/8 or larger) to make direct
connection with antennas
Use appropriate jumpers,
weatherproofed properly.
Secure jumpers against wind
vibration.

February, 2005

Observe
Minimum
Bending
Radius!

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 23

Transmission Lines

Important Installation Practices, Continued

During hoisting
Allow line to support its own
weight only for distances
approved by manufacturer
Deformation and stretching
may result, changing the Zo
Use hoisting grips,
messenger cable
After mounting
Support the line with proper
mounting clamps at
manufacturers
recommended spacing
intervals
Strong winds will set up
damaging metal-fatigueinducing vibrations
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

200 ft 3-6 ft
~60 m
Max.

5 - 24

RF Filters

Basic Characteristics And Specifications

Typical RF bandpass filter
insertion
loss
0

Types of Filters

Attenuation, dB

Single-pole:
pass
reject (notch)

Multi-pole:
band-pass
band-reject

Key electrical characteristics

Insertion loss
Passband ripple
Passband width
upper, lower cutoff frequencies

Attenuation slope at band edge

Ultimate out-of-band attenuation
February, 2005

-3 dB

passband ripple
passband
width

Frequency, megaHertz

Typical bandpass filters have

insertion loss of 1-3 dB. and
passband ripple of 2-6 dB.
Bandwidth is typically 1-20% of
center frequency, depending on
application. Attenuation slope
and out-of-band attenuation
depend on # of poles & design

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 25

RF Filters

Types And Applications

Filters are the basic building
blocks of duplexers and more
complex devices
Most manufacturers network
equipment includes internal
bandpass filters at receiver input
and transmitter output
Filters are also available for
special applications
Number of poles (filter elements)
and other design variables
determine filters electrical
characteristics

Bandwidth rejection
Insertion loss
Slopes
Ripple, etc.

February, 2005

Typical RF Bandpass Filter

/4

Notice construction: RF input

excites one quarter-wave
element and electromagnet
fields propagate from element
to element, finally exciting the
last element which is directly
coupled to the output.
Each element is individually set
and forms a pole in the filters
overall response curve.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 26

Basics Of Transmitting Combiners

Typical tuned combiner
application

Allows multiple transmitters to feed single

antenna, providing

Antenna

Minimum power loss from

transmitter to antenna
Maximum isolation between
transmitters

TX TX TX TX TX TX TX TX

Combiner types

Tuned
low insertion loss ~1-3 dB
transmitter frequencies must be
significantly separated

Typical hybrid combiner

application
Antenna

Hybrid
insertion loss -3 dB per stage
no restriction on transmitter
frequencies

Linear amplifier
linearity and intermodulation are
major design and operation issues

February, 2005

~-3 dB
~-3 dB
~-3 dB

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

TX TX TX TX TX TX TX TX

5 - 27

Duplexer Basics
Duplexer allows simultaneous
transmitting and receiving on one
antenna
Nortel 1900 MHz BTS RFFEs
include internal duplexer
Nortel 800 MHz BTS does not
include duplexer but commercial
units can be used if desired
Important duplexer specifications
TX pass-through insertion loss
RX pass-through insertion loss
TX-to-RX isolation at TX
frequency (RX intermodulation
issue)
TX-to-RX isolation at RX
frequency (TX noise floor issue)
Internally-generated IMP limit
specification
February, 2005

Antenna

Duplexer
fR

fT

RX

TX

Principle of operation
Duplexer is composed of individual
bandpass filters to isolate TX from
RX while allowing access to antenna
for both. Filter design determines
actual isolation between TX and RX,
and insertion loss TX-to-Antenna
and RX-to-Antenna.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 28

Directional Couplers
Couplers are used to measure
forward and reflected energy in a
transmission line; it has 4 ports:
Input (from TX),
Output (to load)
Forward and Reverse Samples
Sensing loops probe E& I in line
Equal sensitivity to E & H fields
Terminations absorb induced
current in one direction,
leaving only sample of other
direction
Typical performance specifications
Coupling factor ~20, ~30,
~40 dB., order as appropriate
for application
Directivity ~30-~40 dB., f($)
defined as relative
attenuation of unwanted
direction in each sample
February, 2005

Typical directional coupler

Principle of operation
RT

Reverse Sample

Input

Forward Sample

RT

ZLOAD=
50

Main lines E & I induce equal signals in

sense loops. E is direction-independent,
but Is polarity depends on direction and
cancels sample induced in one direction.
Thus sense loop signals are directional.
One end is used, the other terminated.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 29

Chapter 5 Section C

Basics
Basics of
of Antenna
Antenna Testing
Testing

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 30

Testing Communications Feedlines and Antennas

AC power wiring and voice telephone wiring do not
require extremely critical wiring practices
just make sure the connections and insulation are
good, heat is not allowed to build up, and youll have
good results
AC power frequencies and audio signal frequencies
have wavelengths of many miles
a few feet of wire wont radiate much energy
High frequency RF wiring practice is much more critical
since signal wavelengths are only a few inches or feet
any bend or protruding bit of wire can serve as an
unintentional antenna, leaking energy
even splices and connections can leak energy unless
their shape and dimensions are closely controlled
abrupt changes in cable shape reflect energy back
down the transmission line, causing many problems
Precisely shaped cables and connectors, careful
installation and accurate testing are required to avoid
significant antenna system performance problems
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 31

Forward and Reflected Energy

Antenna
50
Transmitter

50

Transmission Line

50

Forward Power
Virtually no reflected power

In a perfect antenna system, the transmission line and the

antenna have the same impedance
we say they are impedance matched
All the energy from the transmitter passes through and is radiated
from the antenna
virtually no energy is reflected back to the transmitter

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 32

Forward and Reflected Energy

Antenna
42-j17

Transmitter

dent or kink
50 Transmission Line 37
Forward Power

Significant Reflected Power

In a damaged antenna system, the impedance match is not good

there could be a dent, kink, or a spot with water in the transmission
line
the different impedance in the line at this spot will cause some of
the energy to be reflected backwards
the antenna could be damaged or dangling, causing it to have an
altered impedance
the antennas different impedance will reflect some of the energy
backwards down the line
The Site Master Distance-To-Fault mode will be helpful in finding the
location of the damage
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 33

How Much Reflection? Four Ways to Say It

There are four ways of expressing how
much energy is being reflected
different users like different methods
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
(used by hobbyists and consumers)
the reflected voltage is in phase with the
incident voltage at some places and out
of phase at others
VSWR is the ratio of Vmax/Vmin
Reflected Power as % of Forward Power
(used by field personnel in some industries)
just divide Rev by Fwd, use percent
Return Loss (used by field personnel)
how many db weaker is the reflected
energy than the forward energy
Reflection Coefficient (academic users)
vector ratio of reflected/incident voltage
or current
usually expressed as a polar vector, with
magnitude and phase
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

SWR: Standing Wave Ratio

= Vmax/ Vmin
Vmin

Vmax

Reflected Power (%)

FORWARD

= 100 x

RevPwr
FwdPwr

REFLECTED

Return Loss (db)

FORWARD

= 10 x Log10

RevPwr
FwdPwr

REFLECTED

Reflection Coefficient (vector ratio)

FORWARD
REFLECTED

Vreflected
Vincident
5 - 34

Comparing Reflection Reports in Different Forms

Reflection expressed in one form can be
converted and expressed in the other forms
For example, consider a VSWR of 1.5 : 1
this is 4% reflected power
this is a return loss of 14 db
to calculate the reflection coefficient, the
phase of the reflection is also needed

SWR: STANDING WAVE RATIO

=

Vmin

Reflected Power
Forward Power

1-

Reflected Power
Forward Power

Reflected Power (%)

FORWARD

VSWR vs. Return Loss

1+
=

Vmax

Vmax/ Vmin

= 100 x

RevPwr
FwdPwr

REFLECTED

50

Return Loss (db)

40

FORWARD

30

= 10 x Log10

RevPwr
FwdPwr

REFLECTED

20

Reflection Coefficient (vector ratio)

10

FORWARD

0
1

1.5

2.5

VSWR
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

REFLECTED

Vreflected
Vincident
5 - 35

Antenna

Swept Return Loss and TDR

Measurements

Jumper

Feedline

Jumper

-10

Site Master

-20

-30

f1

f2

Its a good idea to take swept and

TDR return loss measurements of a
new antenna at installation and to
recheck periodically
maintain a printed or
electronically stored copy of the
analyzer output for comparison
most types of antenna or
transmission line failures are
easily detectable by comparison
with stored data

What is the maximum acceptable value of return loss as seen in sketch above?
Given:
Antenna VSWR max spec is 1.5 : 1 between f1 and f2
Transmission line loss = 3 dB.
Consideration & Solution:
From chart, VSWR of 1.5 : 1 is a return loss of -14 dB, measured at the antenna
Power goes through the line loss of -3 db to reach the antenna, and -3 db to return
Therefore, maximum acceptable observation on the ground is -14 -3 -3 = - 20 dB.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 36

Example Frequency Sweep Test Plot

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 37

Example Distance-to-Fault Plot

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 38

Chapter 5 Section D

Some
Some Antenna
Antenna
Application
Application Considerations
Considerations

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 39

Near-Field/Far-Field Considerations
Antenna behavior is very different close-in and far out
Near-field region: the area within about 10 times the
spacing between antennas internal elements

Inside this region, the signal behaves as

independent fields from each element of the
antenna, with their individual directivity

Near-field

Far-field region: the area beyond roughly 10 times the

spacing between the antennas internal elements

In this region, the antenna seems to be a

point-source and the contributions of the
individual elements are indistinguishable
The pattern is the composite of the array
Obstructions in the near-field can dramatically alter the
antenna performance

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Far-field

5 - 40

Local Obstruction at a Site

Obstructions near the site are
sometimes unavoidable
Near-field obstructions can
seriously alter pattern shape
More distant local
obstructions can cause
severe blockage, as for
example roof edge in the
figure at right
Knife-edge diffraction
analysis can help
estimate diffraction loss in
these situations
Explore other antenna
mounting positions

February, 2005

Local obstruction example

Diffraction
over
obstructing
edge

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 41

Estimating Isolation Between Antennas

Often multiple antennas are needed at a
site and interaction is troublesome
Electrical isolation between antennas

Coupling loss between isotropic

antennas one wavelength apart is
22 dB
6 dB additional coupling loss with
each doubling of separation
Add gain or loss referenced from
horizontal plane patterns
Measure vertical separation
between centers of the antennas
vertical separation usually is very
effective

One antenna should not be mounted in

main lobe and near-field of another

Typically within 10 feet @ 800 MHz

Typically 5-10 feet @ 1900 MHz

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 42

Visually Estimating Depression Angles

in the field
Before considering downtilt,
beamwidths, and depression
angles, do some personal
experimentation at a high site
to gain a sense of the angles
involved
Visible width of fingers, etc. can
be useful approximate
benchmark for visual
evaluation
Measure and remember width
of your own chosen references
Standing at a site, correlate
your sightings of objects you
want to cover with angles in
degrees and the antenna
pattern
February, 2005

Visually estimating angles

with tools always at hand
distance
width

angle = arctangent (width / distance)

Typical Angles
Thumb width
Nail of forefinger
All knuckles

~2 degrees
~1 degree
~10 degrees

Calibrate yourself using the formula!

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 43

Antenna Downtilt
Whats the goal?

Scenario 1
Cell A
Cell B

Downtilt is commonly used for two

reasons
1. Reduce Interference

Reduce radiation toward a

distant co-channel cell
Concentrate radiation within
the serving cell
Scenario 2

2. Prevent Overshoot

Improve coverage of
nearby targets far below the
antenna
otherwise within null of
antenna pattern

Are these good strategies?

How is downtilt applied?

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 44

Consider Vertical Depression Angles

Basic principle: important to match
vertical pattern against intended
coverage targets

Compare the angles toward

objects against the antenna
vertical pattern -- whats radiating

Depression
angle

toward the target?

Dont position a null of the

antenna toward an important
coverage target!
Sketch and formula

Vertical
distance

Horizontal
distance

Notice the height and horizontal

distance must be expressed in
the same units before dividing
(both in feet, both in miles, etc.)

= ArcTAN ( Vertical distance / Horizontal distance )

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 45

Types Of Downtilt
Mechanical downtilt
Physically tilt the antenna
The pattern in front goes
down, and behind goes up
Popular for sectorization
and special omni
applications
Electrical downtilt
Incremental phase shift is
applied in the feed network
The pattern droops all
around, like an inverted
saucer
Common technique when
downtilting omni cells
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 46

Reduce Interference
Scenario 1

Concept

Cell A

Cell B

weak

strong

Reality
2
1

height
difference
150 ft
4

12 miles

1
2

= ArcTAN ( 150 / ( 4 * 5280 ) )

= -0.4 degrees
= ArcTAN ( 150 / ( 12 * 5280 ) )
= -0.1 degrees

February, 2005

The Concept:
Radiate a strong signal toward
everything within the serving
cell, but significantly reduce
the radiation toward the area
of Cell B
The Reality:
When actually calculated, its
surprising how small the
difference in angle is between
the far edge of cell A and the
near edge of Cell B
Delta in the example is
only 0.3 degrees!!
Lets look at antenna
patterns

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 47

Reduce Interference
Scenario 1 , Continued

1
2

= -0.4 degrees

Its an attractive idea, but usually the

angle between edge of serving cell
and nearest edge of distant cell is
just too small to exploit
Downtilt or not, cant get much
difference in antenna radiation
between 1 and 2
-0.1
Even if the pattern were sharp
-0.4
enough, alignment accuracy and
wind-flexing would be problems
delta in this example
is less than one degree!
Also, if downtilting -- watch out
for excessive RSSI and IM
involving mobiles near cell!
Soft handoff and good CDMA power
control is more important

= -0.1 degrees

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 48

Avoid Overshoot
Scenario 2

Scenario 2

Application concern: too little radiation

toward low, close-in coverage targets
The solution is common-sense matching
of the antenna vertical pattern to the
angles where radiation is needed
Calculate vertical angles to targets!!
Watch the pattern nulls -- where do
they fall on the ground?
Choose a low-gain antenna with a
fat vertical pattern if you have a
wide range of vertical angles to hit
Downtilt if appropriate
If needed, investigate special nullfilled antennas with smooth
patterns

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 49

Other Antenna Selection Considerations

Before choosing an antenna for widespread deployment, investigate:
Manufacturers measured patterns
Observe pattern at low end of band, mid-band, and high end of band
Any troublesome back lobes or minor lobes in H or V patterns?
Watch out for nulls which would fall toward populated areas
Be suspicious of extremely symmetrical, clean measured patterns
Obtain Intermod Specifications and test results (-130 or better)
Inspect return loss measurements across the band
Inspect a sample unit
Physical integrity? weatherproof?
Dissimilar metals in contact anywhere?
Collinear vertical antennas: feed method?
End (compromise) or center-fed (best)?
Complete your own return loss measurements, if possible
Ideally, do your own limited pattern verification
Check with other users for their experiences
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

5 - 50

Chapter 6

Traffic
Traffic Engineering
Engineering
Typical Traffic Distribution
on a Cellular System

80%

100%
90%

SUN

80%

Efficiency %
41

MON

70%
60%

TUE

50%

WED

40%

THU

30%

Capacity,
Erlangs

FRI

20%

SAT

10%

0%

# Trunks

50

Hour

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6-1

A Game of Avoiding Extremes

The traffic engineer must walk a fine line
between two problems:
Overdimensioning
too much cost
insufficient resources to construct
traffic revenue is too low to
support costs
very poor economic efficiency!
Underdimensioning
blocking
poor technical performance
(interference)
capacity for billable revenue is low
revenue is low due to poor quality
users unhappy, cancel service
very poor economic efficiency!

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6-2

Dimensioning the System:

An Interactive, Iterative Process
Some traffic engineering decisions trigger
resource acquisition
additional blocks of numbers from the
local exchange carrier
additional cards for various functions in
the switch and peripherals
additional members in PSTN trunk
groups; additional T-1/E-1s to busy sites
Some traffic engineering decisions trigger
more engineering
adding additional carriers to congested
areas
adding additional cells to relieve blocking
finding short-term fixes for unanticipated
problems
This course is concerned primarily with
determining the number of voice channels
required in cells, with the related site
engineering and frequency or code planning
February, 2005

PSTN
Office
Cell
DMS-MTX

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6-3

Basics of Traffic Engineering

Terminology & Concept of a Trunk
Traffic engineering in telephony is focused on the voice paths
which users occupy. They are called by many different names:
trunks
circuits
radios (AMPS, TDMA), transceivers (TRXs in GSM),
channel elements (CDMA)
Some other common terms are:
trunk group
a trunk group is several trunks going to the same
destination, combined and addressed in switch
translations as a unit , for traffic routing purposes
member
one of the trunks in a trunk group
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6-4

Units of Traffic Measurement

Traffic is expressed in units of Circuit Time

General understanding of telephone traffic engineering began

around 1910. An engineer in the Danish telephone system, Mr.
Erlang, was one of the first to master the science of trunk
dimensioning and publish the knowledge for others. In his honor,
the basic unit of traffic is named the Erlang.
An Erlang of traffic is one circuit continuously used during an
observation period one hour long.
Other units have become popular among various users:
CCS (Hundred-Call-Seconds)
MOU (Minutes Of Use)
Its easy to convert between traffic units if the need arises:

1 Erlang = 60 MOU = 36 CCS

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6-5

How Much Traffic Can One Trunk Carry?

Traffic studies are usually for periods of one hour

In one hour, one trunk can carry one hour of traffic -- One Erlang
If nothing else matters, this is the limit!
If anyone else wants to talk -- sorry!

Absolute Maximum Capacity

of One Trunk
One Trunk
Constant
Talker

One Erlang

Its not acceptable to keep all trunks busy all the time. There must
be a reserve to accommodate new talkers! How much?
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6-6

Traffic Engineering And Queuing Theory

Ticket counter analogy

Servers
Queue
User population
Queues we face in
everyday life
1) for telephone calls
2) at the bank
3) at the gas station
4) at the airline counter

February, 2005

Traffic engineering is an application of a

science called queuing theory
Queuing theory relates user arrival
statistics, number of servers, and
various queue strategies, with the
probability of a user receiving service
If waiting is not allowed, and a blocked
call simply goes away, Erlang-B
formula applies (popular in wireless)
If unlimited waiting is allowed before a
call receives service, the Erlang-C
formula applies
If a wait is allowed but is limited in
time, Binomial & Poisson formulae
apply
Engset formulae apply to rapid,
packet-like transactions such as
paging channels

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6-7

Offered And Carried Traffic

Offered traffic is what users attempt to
originate
Carried traffic is the traffic actually
successfully handled by the system
Blocked traffic is the traffic that could
not be handled
Since blocked call attempts never
materialize, blocked traffic must be
estimated based on number of
blocked attempts and average
duration of successful calls
BTSBlocked
Offered Traffic =
Traffic
Carried Traffic + Blocked Traffic

PSTN or other
Wireless user

Carried
Traffic

MTXBSC
BTS BTS BTS BTS BTS

Offered
Traffic

TOff = NCA x TCD

TOff = Offered traffic
NCA = Number of call attempts
TCD = Average call duration

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6-8

Principles of Traffic Engineering

Blocking Probability / Grade of Service
Blocking is inability to get a circuit when one is needed
Probability of Blocking is the likelihood that blocking will
happen
In principle, blocking can occur anywhere in a wireless system:
not enough radios, the cell is full
not enough paths between cell site and switch
not enough paths through the switching complex
not enough trunks from switch to PSTN
Blocking probability is usually
Typical Wireless System
expressed as a percentage
Design Blocking Probabilities
using a shorthand notation:
PSTN Office
P.02 is 2% probability, etc.
Blocking probability sometimes
P.005
is called Grade Of Service
Cell
DMS-MTX
Most blocking in cellular systems
P.02
occurs at the radio level.
P.02 is a common goal at the
P.001
P.005
radio level in a system
Cell

Cell

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6-9

Number of Trunks
vs. Utilization Efficiency
Imagine a cell site with just one voice channel. At a P.02
Grade of Service, how much traffic could it carry?
The trunk can only be used 2% of the time, otherwise the
blocking will be worse than 2%.
98% availability forces 98% idleness. It can only carry
.02 Erlangs. Efficiency 2%!
Adding just one trunk relieves things greatly.
Now we can use trunk 1 heavily, with trunk 2
handling the overflow. Efficiency rises to 11%

Erlang-B P.02 GOS

Trks Erl Eff%
1

0.02

2%

0.22 11%

The Principle of Trunking Efficiency

80%
Efficiency %
For a given grade of service, trunk
41
utilization efficiency increases as the
number of trunks in the pool grows larger.
Capacity,
For trunk groups of several hundred,
Erlangs
utilization approaches 100%.
1
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

50

# Trunks
6 - 10

Number of Trunks,
Capacity, and Utilization Efficiency

Capacity and Trunk Utilization

Erlang-B for P.02 Grade of Service
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

10

Utilization
Efficiency
Percent

February, 2005

20

30

Trunks

40

50

Capacity,
Erlangs

The graph at left illustrates

the capacity in Erlangs of a
given number of trunks, as
well as the achievable
utilization efficiency
For accurate work, tables of
traffic data are available
Capacity, Erlangs
Blocking Probability
(GOS)
Number of Trunks
Notice how capacity and
utilization behave for the
numbers of trunks in typical
cell sites

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6 - 11

Traffic Engineering & System Dimensioning

Using Erlang-B Tables to determine Number of Circuits Required
Probability
of blocking

E
0.0001 0.002

0.02

0.2

1
2

2.935

Number of
available
circuits

Capacity
in Erlangs

300
A = f (E,n)

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6 - 12

Erlang-B Traffic Tables

Abbreviated - For P.02 Grade of Service Only
#TrunksErlangs
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

0.0204
0.223
0.602
1.09
1.66
2.28
2.94
3.63
4.34
5.08
5.84
6.61
7.4
8.2
9.01
9.83
10.7
11.5
12.3
13.2
14
14.9
15.8
16.6
17.5

#TrunksErlangs #TrunksErlangs
26
18.4
51
41.2
27
19.3
52
42.1
28
20.2
53
43.1
29
21
54
44
30
21.9
55
44.9
31
22.8
56
45.9
32
23.7
57
46.8
33
24.6
58
47.8
34
25.5
59
48.7
35
26.4
60
49.6
36
27.3
61
50.6
37
28.3
62
51.5
38
29.2
63
52.5
39
30.1
64
53.4
40
31
65
54.4
41
31.9
66
55.3
42
32.8
67
56.3
43
33.8
68
57.2
44
34.7
69
58.2
45
35.6
70
59.1
46
36.5
71
60.1
47
37.5
72
61
48
38.4
73
62
49
39.3
74
62.9
50
40.3
75
63.9

February, 2005

#TrunksErlangs #TrunksErlangs
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100

64.9
65.8
66.8
67.7
68.7
69.6
70.6
71.6
72.5
73.5
74.5
75.4
76.4
77.3
78.3
79.3
80.2
81.2
82.2
83.1
84.1
85.1
86
87
88

100
102
104
106
108
110
112
114
116
118
120
122
124
126
128
130
132
134
136
138
140
142
144
146
148

88
89.9
91.9
93.8
95.7
97.7
99.6
101.6
103.5
105.5
107.4
109.4
111.3
113.3
115.2
117.2
119.1
121.1
123.1
125
127
128.9
130.9
132.9
134.8

#TrunksErlangs
150
152
154
156
158
160
162
164
166
168
170
172
174
176
178
180
182
184
186
188
190
192
194
196
198

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

136.8
138.8
140.7
142.7
144.7
146.6
148.6
150.6
152.6
154.5
156.5
158.5
160.4
162.4
164.4
166.4
168.3
170.3
172.4
174.3
176.3
178.2
180.2
182.2
184.2

#TrunksErlangs
200
202
204
206
208
210
212
214
216
218
220
222
224
226
228
230
232
234
236
238
240
242
244
246
248

186.2
188.1
190.1
192.1
194.1
196.1
198.1
200
202
204
206
208
210
212
213.9
215.9
217.9
219.9
221.9
223.9
225.9
227.9
229.9
231.8
233.8

#TrunksErlangs
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100

235.8
285.7
335.7
385.9
436.1
486.4
587.2
688.2
789.3
890.6
999.1
1093

6 - 13

The Equation behind the Erlang-B Table

The Erlang-B formula is fairly simple to implement on
hand-held programmable calculators, in spreadsheets,
or popular programming languages.

Pn(A) =

max # of
trunks

An
n!
n
1 + A + ... + A
1!
n!

Pn(A) = Blocking Rate (%)

with n trunks
as function of traffic A

A = Traffic (Erlangs)
n = Number of Trunks

February, 2005

Number
of
Trunks
Offered
Traffic,
A

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

Offered Traffic
lost due to
blocking

average
# of busy
channels

time

6 - 14

Wireless Traffic Variation with Time:

A Cellular Example
Typical Traffic Distribution
on a Cellular System
100%
90%

SUN

80%

MON

70%
60%

TUE

50%

WED

40%

THU

30%
FRI

20%

SAT

10%
0%
Hour

Actual traffic from a cellular system in the

mid-south USA in summer 1992. This
system had 45 cells and served an area
of approximately 1,000,000 population.
February, 2005

Peak traffic on cellular systems

is usually daytime businessrelated traffic; on PCS systems,
evening traffic becomes much
more important and may actually
contain the system busy hour
Evening taper is more gradual
than morning rise
Wireless systems for PCS and
LEC-displacement have peaks
of residential traffic during early
evening hours, like wireline
systems
Friday is the busiest day,
followed by other weekdays in
backwards order, then Saturday,
then Sunday
There are seasonal and
annual variations, as well as
long term growth trends

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6 - 15

Busy-Hour
In telephony, it is customary to collect and analyze traffic in hourly
blocks, and to track trends over months, quarters, and years
When making decisions about number of trunks required, we
plan the trunks needed to support the busiest hour of a normal
day
Special events (disasters, one-of-a-kind traffic tie-ups, etc.)
are not considered in the analysis (unless a marketingsponsored event)
Which Hour should be used as the Busy-Hour?
Some planners choose one specific hour and use it every day
Some planners choose the busiest hour of each individual day
(floating busy hour)
Most common preference is to use floating (bouncing) busy
hour determined individually for the total system and for each
cell, but to exclude special events and disasters
In the example just presented, 4 PM was the busy hour every
day
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6 - 16

Where is the Traffic?

Wireline telephone systems have a big
advantage in traffic planning.
They know the addresses where
their customers generate the traffic!
Wireless systems have to guess where
the customers will be next

Existing System
Traffic In Erlangs

on existing systems, use

measured traffic data by sector and
cell
analyze past trends

8
11
7
10
7
6 11
16
19
8 7
16
7
6
3
9
9
5

2
5
7

February, 2005

compare subscriber forecast

trend into future, find overloads
for new systems or new cells,
we must use all available clues

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6 - 17

Traffic Clues
27 mE/Sub in BH
103,550 Subscribers
1,239,171 Market Population
adding 4,350 subs/month

Population Density

new
Shopping Center

Vehicular Traffic
920

Land Use
Databases

5110

22,100

4215

3620

February, 2005

1230

6620

Subscriber Profiles:
Busy Hour Usage, Call Attempts, etc.
Market Penetration:
# Subscribers/Market Population
use Sales forecasts, usage forecasts
Population Density
Geographic Distribution
Construction Activity
Vehicular Traffic Data
Vehicle counts on roads
Calculations of density on major
roadways from knowledge of vehicle
movement, spacing, market
penetration
Land Use Database: Area Profiles
Aerial Photographs: Count Vehicles!

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6 - 18

Traffic Density Along Roadways

Number of lanes and speed are the main
variable determining number of vehicles on
major highways

Vehicles per mile

Vehicle Vehicle Vehicles
Speed, Spacing, per mile,
MPH
feet
per lane
0
20
264
10
42
126
20
64
83
30
86
61
45
119
44
60
152
35

Typical headway ~1.5 seconds

Table and figure show capacity of 1
lane
When traffic stops, users generally increase
calling activity
Multiply number of vehicles by percentage
penetration of population to estimate number
of subscriber vehicles

Vehicle spacing 20 ft. @stop

Running Headway 1.5 seconds

Vehicle Spacing At Common Roadway Speeds

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800 feet

0 MPH
10 MPH
20 MPH
30 MPH
40 MPH
50 MPH
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6 - 19

Methodical Estimation of Required Trunks

Traffic
Density

3.5%

27mE
Land Use

Cell Grid

February, 2005

Modern propagation prediction

tools allow experimentation and
estimation of traffic levels
Estimate total overall traffic from
subscriber forecasts
Form traffic density outlines
from market knowledge,
forecasts
Overlay traffic density on land
use data; weight by land use
Accumulate intercepted traffic
into serving cells,
obtain Erlangs per cell &
sector
From tables, determine number
of trunks required per cell/sector
Modern software tools automate
major parts of this process
RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6 - 20

Determining Number of Trunks

required for a new Growth Cell
When new growth cells are added, they absorb
some of the traffic formerly carried by
surrounding cells
Two approaches to estimating traffic on the
new cell and on its older neighbors:
if blocking was not too severe, you can
estimate redistributed traffic in the area
based on the new division of coverage
if blocking is severe, (often the case),
users will stop trying to call in locations
where theyve learned to expect blocking.
Users are self-programming!!
reapply basic traffic assumptions in
the area, like engineering new
system, for every nearby cell
watch out! overall traffic in the area
may increase to fill the additional
capacity and the new cell itself may
block as soon as it goes in service

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6 - 21

Dimensioning
System Administrative Functions
System administrative functions also require traffic engineering input. While
these functions are not necessarily performed by the RF engineer, they
require RF awareness and understanding.
Paging
The paging channel has a definite capacity which must not be
exceeded. When occupancy approaches this limit, the system must
be divided into zones, and zone paging implemented.
Impact of Short Message Service (and others) must be considered
Autonomous Registration
Autonomous registration involves numerous parameters and the
registration attempts must be monitored and controlled to avoid
overloading.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c)2005 Scott Baxter

6 - 22

Course RF100 Chapter 7

Technical
Technical
Introduction
Introduction to
to CDMA
CDMA

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7-1

Course Outline
Basic CDMA Principles
Coding
Forward and Reverse Channels
CDMA Operational Details
Multiplexing, Forward and Reverse Power Control
CDMA Handset Architecture
CDMA Handoffs
CDMA Network Architecture
CDMA Messaging and Call Flow
Optional Topics
Wireless Multiple Access Technologies
Overview of Current Technologies
Capacity; CDMA Overlays, Spectrum Clearing
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7-2

Section A

How
How Does
Does CDMA
CDMA Work?
Work?
Introduction
Introduction to
to Basic
Basic Principles
Principles

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7-3

CDMA: Using A New Dimension

All CDMA users occupy the same frequency
at the same time! Frequency and time are
not used as discriminators
CDMA operates by using CODING to
discriminate between users
CDMA interference comes mainly from
nearby users
Each user is a small voice in a roaring
crowd -- but with a uniquely recoverable
code

CDMA

Figure of Merit: C/I

(carrier/interference ratio)

AMPS: +17 dB
TDMA: +14 to +17 dB
GSM: +7 to 9 dB.
CDMA: -10 to -17 dB.
CDMA: Eb/No ~+6 dB.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7-4

Two Types of CDMA

Frequency Hopping CDMA
User 1 User 2 User 3 User 4

User 3 User 4 User 1 unused User 2

User 1 User 4 User 3 User 2 unused

unused User 1 User 2 User 4 User 3

There are Two types of CDMA:

Frequency-Hopping
Each users narrowband signal hops
among discrete frequencies, and the
receiver follows in sequence
Frequency-Hopping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS) CDMA is NOT
currently used in wireless systems,
although used by the military

Direct Sequence
Frequency

Direct Sequence CDMA

Time

Frequency
User 1

+
=
February, 2005

Code 1

Composite

narrowband input from a user is

coded (spread) by a user-unique
broadband code, then transmitted
broadband signal is received;
receiver knows, applies users code,
recovers users data
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS) CDMA IS the method used
in IS-95 commercial systems
RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7-5

DSSS Spreading: Time-Domain View

Input A: Users Data

At Originating Site:
Input A: Users Data @
19,200 bits/second
Input B: Walsh Code #23
@ 1.2288 Mcps
Output: Spread
spectrum signal

via air interface

At Destination Site:

Input B: Spreading Code

XOR
Exclusive-OR

Gate

Spread Spectrum Signal

Input A: Received Signal

Input B: Spreading Code

Input A: Received
spread spectrum signal
Input B: Walsh Code #23
@ 1.2288 Mcps
Output: Users Data @
19,200 bits/second just
as originally sent
February, 2005

Originating Site

Destination Site
XOR
Exclusive-OR
Gate

Output: Users Original Data

Drawn to actual scale and time alignment

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7-6

Spreading from a Frequency-Domain View

Traditional technologies try

to squeeze signal into
minimum required
bandwidth
CDMA uses larger
bandwidth but uses
resulting processing gain to
increase capacity

TRADITIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

Spread
Spectrum
Narrowband
Signal

Slow
Information
Sent
TX

Slow
Information
Recovered

RX

SPREAD-SPECTRUM SYSTEM
Wideband
Signal
Slow
Information
Sent

Slow
Information
Recovered
TX

Fast
Spreading
Sequence

RX

Fast
Spreading
Sequence

Spread Spectrum Payoff:

Processing Gain

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7-7

The CDMA Spread Spectrum Payoff:

Would you like a lump-sum, or monthly payments?
Shannon's work suggests that a certain
bit rate of information deserves a
certain bandwidth
If one CDMA user is carried alone by a
CDMA signal, the processing gain is
large - roughly 21 db for an 8k vocoder.
Each doubling of the number of
users consumes 3 db of the
processing gain
Somewhere above 32 users, the
signal-to-noise ratio becomes
undesirable and the ultimate
capacity of the sector is reached
Practical CDMA systems restrict the
number of users per sector to ensure
processing gain remains at usable
levels

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

CDMA Spreading Gain

Consider a user with a 9600
bps vocoder talking on a
CDMA signal 1,228,800 hz
wide. The processing gain is
1,228,800/9600 = 128, which
is 21 db. What happens if
additional users are added?

# Users Processing Gain

1

21 db

18 db

15 db

12 db

16

9 db

32

6 db

64..Uh, Regis, can I just

take the money I've already
won, and go home now?

7-8

CDMA Uses Code Channels

Building a
CDMA Signal

A CDMA signal uses many chips to convey just

one bit of information
Bits
Each user has a unique chip pattern, in effect a
from Users Vocoder
code channel
To recover a bit, integrate a large number of chips
interpreted by the users known code pattern
Forward Error
Correction
Other users code patterns appear random and
Symbols
integrate in a random self-canceling fashion, dont
disturb the bit decoding decision being made with
the proper code pattern
Coding and
Spreading

Chips

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7-9

CDMA: The Code Magic behind the Veil

QPSK RF

Users

Analog
Summing

1
if 0 =
if 1 =

BTS
Demodulated
Received
CDMA Signal
Despreading Sequence
(Locally Generated, =0)
Received energy: Correlation
matches
opposite

Decision:

+10
-26

Time
Integration

Matches!
(=0) 1
Opposite
( =1)
-16

This figure illustrates the basic technique of

CDMA signal generation and recovery.
The actual coding process used in IS-95 CDMA includes
a few additional layers, as well see in following slides.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 10

Spreading: What we do, we can undo

ORIGINATING SITE

DESTINATION
Spread Data Stream

Input
Data

Recovered
Data

Spreading
Sequence

Spreading
Sequence

Sender combines data with a fast spreading sequence, transmits

spread data stream
Receiver intercepts the stream, uses same spreading sequence
to extract original data

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 11

Shipping and Receiving via CDMA

Mailer

FedEx

Data

Receiving
FedEx

Shipping

Mailer

Data

Whether in shipping and receiving, or in CDMA, packaging is

extremely important!
Cargo is placed inside nested containers for protection and to
allow addressing
The shipper packs in a certain order, and the receiver unpacks in
the reverse order
CDMA containers are spreading codes

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 12

CDMAs Nested Spreading Sequences

ORIGINATING SITE
X+A

DESTINATION

Spread-Spectrum Chip Streams

X+A+B
X+A+B+C
X+A+B

X+A

Input
Data

Recovered
Data

X
Spreading Spreading Spreading
Sequence Sequence Sequence

Spreading Spreading Spreading

Sequence Sequence Sequence

CDMA combines three different spreading sequences to create

unique, robust channels
The sequences are easy to generate on both sending and receiving
ends of each link
What we do, we can undo

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 13

One of the CDMA Spreading Sequences:

Walsh Codes
WALSH CODES

64 Magic Sequences, each 64 chips long

Each Walsh Code is precisely Orthogonal
with respect to all other Walsh Codes
its simple to generate the codes, or
theyre small enough to use from ROM
Unique Properties:
Mutual Orthogonality
EXAMPLE:
Correlation of Walsh Code #23 with Walsh Code #59
#23
#59
Sum

0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111

Correlation Results: 32 1s, 32 0s: Orthogonal!!

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

#
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63

---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence -----------------------------------------0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111
0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010
0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011
0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100
0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110
0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110
0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001
0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000
0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101
0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010
0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011
0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100
0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110

7 - 14

Other Sequences: Generation & Properties

An Ordinary Shift Register

Other CDMA sequences are

generated in shift registers
Plain shift register: no fun,
sequence = length of register
Tapped shift register generates a
wild, self-mutating sequence 2N-1
chips long (N=register length)
Such sequences match if
compared in step (no-brainer,
any sequence matches itself)
Such sequences appear
approximately orthogonal if
compared with themselves not
exactly matched in time
false correlation typically <2%
February, 2005

Sequence repeats every N chips,

where N is number of cells in register
A Tapped, Summing Shift Register

Sequence repeats every 2N-1 chips,

where N is number of cells in register
A Special Characteristic of Sequences
Generated in Tapped Shift Registers
Compared In-Step: Matches Itself
Sequence:
Self, in sync:
Sum:

Complete Correlation: All 0s

Compared Shifted: Little Correlation

Sequence:
Self, Shifted:
Sum:

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Practically Orthogonal: Half 1s, Half 0s

7 - 15

Another CDMA Spreading Sequence:

The Short PN Code, used for Scrambling
Original IS-95 CDMA PN Scrambling
32,768 chips long
26-2/3 ms.
(75 repetitions in 2 sec.)

I
Q

I-sequence
Walsh
users
symbols

RF: cos t

Same
information
duplicated
on I and Q

Q-sequence
Short PN
Scrambling

QPSKmodulated
RF
Output

RF: sin t

QPSK

Serial to
Parallel

Output

The short PN code consists of

two PN Sequences, I and Q, each
New CDMA2000 1x Complex Scrambling
32,768 chips long
RF:
Generated in similar but
cos t
differently-tapped 15-bit shift
I-sequence +
registers
users

Walsh
symbols
the two sequences scramble

+
the information on the I and Q

Different
phase channels
+
Information
Q-sequence
on I and Q
Figures to the right show how one
sin t
users channel is built at the bTS
RF
Complex Scrambling
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 16

Generating the PN Long Code

at a desired Timing Offset
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER dynamic contents, zero timing shift

clock

MASK REGISTER unique steady contents cause unique timing shift

SUMMER holds dynamic modulo-2 sum of LC State and Mask registers

Each clock cycle, all the Summer bits are

added into a single-bit modulo-2 sum
The shifted Long Code emerges, chip by chip!

Every phone and every BTS channel element has a Long Code generator
Long Code State Register makes long code at system reference timing
A Mask Register holds a user-specific unique pattern of bits
Each clock pulse drives the Long Code State Register to its next state
State register and Mask register contents are added in the Summer
Summer contents are modulo-2 added to produce just a single bit output
The output bits are the Long Code, but shifted to the users unique offset
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 17

Different Masks Produce

Different Long PN Offsets
TRAFFIC CHANNEL NORMAL
USING THE PUBLIC LONG CODE MASK
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER

PERMUTED ESN

fixed

SUMMING REGISTER

TRAFFIC CHANNEL PRIVATE

USING THE PRIVATE LONG CODE MASK
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER

calculated PRIVATE LONG CODE MASK

SUMMING REGISTER

ACCESS CHANNEL (IDLE MODE)

USING THE ACCESS CHANNEL LONG CODE MASK
LONG CODE STATE REGISTER

fixed

AC# PC#

BASE_ID

SUMMING REGISTER

February, 2005

PILOT PN

Ordinary mobiles use their ESNs and

the Public Long Code Mask to
produce their unique Long Code PN
offsets
main ingredient: mobile ESN
Mobiles needing greater privacy use
the Private Long Code Mask
instead of 32-bit ESN, the mask
value is produced from SSD
Word B in a calculation similar to
authentication
Each BTS sector has an Access
Channel where mobiles transmit for
registration and call setup
the Access Channel Long Code
Mask includes Access Channel
#, Paging Channel #, BTS ID,
and Pilot PN
The BTS transmits all of these
parameters on the Paging
Channel

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 18

Putting it All Together: CDMA Channels

FORWARD CHANNELS
One
Sector

LONG CODE:
Data
Scrambling

WALSH CODE: Individual User

SHORT PN OFFSET: Sector
REVERSE CHANNELS

LONG CODE OFFSET:

individual handset

BTS

WALSH CODES:
used as symbols
for robustness
SHORT PN:
used at 0 offset
for tracking

The three spreading codes are used in different ways to create the
forward and reverse links
A forward channel exists by having a specific Walsh Code
assigned to the user, and a specific PN offset for the sector
A reverse channel exists because the mobile uses a specific offset
of the Long PN sequence
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 19

Section B

IS-95
IS-95 CDMA
CDMA Forward
Forward and
and
Reverse
Reverse Channels
Channels

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 20

How a BTS Builds the Forward Code Channels

Switch BSC or
Access
Manager

BTS (1 sector)

Pilot

Walsh #0

Short PN Code
PN Offset 246
I Q
cos t

FEC

x
Transmitter,
+
Sector X
x
sin t

Walsh #32
Sync

FEC
Walsh #1

Paging

FEC
Walsh #12

Vocoder

FEC
Walsh #23

Vocoder

FEC

a Channel Element

Walsh #27
Vocoder

FEC
Walsh #44

Vocoder
more

more

February, 2005

A Forward Channel
is identified by:
its CDMA RF
carrier Frequency
Q the unique Short
Code PN Offset of
the sector
the unique Walsh
Code of the user

FEC
more
RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 21

Functions of the CDMA Forward Channels

Pilot

Walsh 0

Paging

Walsh 1
Walsh 11

PILOT: WALSH CODE 0

The Pilot is a structural beacon which
does not contain a character stream. It is a
timing source used in system acquisition
and as a measurement device during
handoffs

Walsh 19

SYNC: WALSH CODE 32

Walsh 6

Walsh 20
Sync

Walsh 32
Walsh 37
Walsh 41
Walsh 42
Walsh 55
Walsh 56
Walsh 60

February, 2005

This carries a data stream of system

identification and parameter information
used by mobiles during system acquisition

PAGING: WALSH CODES 1 up to 7

There can be from one to seven paging
channels as determined by capacity needs.
They carry pages, system parameters
information, and call setup orders

TRAFFIC: any remaining WALSH codes

The traffic channels are assigned to
individual users to carry call traffic. All
remaining Walsh codes are available,
subject to overall capacity limited by noise

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 22

Code Channels in the Reverse Direction

Switch

BSC,
BTS (1 sector)
CBSC,
Access Long Code Gen
Manager

Access Channels

Channel Element

A Reverse Channel is identified by:

its CDMA RF carrier Frequency
the unique Long Code PN Offset
of the individual handset
Long
Code
offset

Long Code Gen

Vocoder

Channel Element
Long Code Gen

Vocoder

Long
Code
offset

Receiver,
Sector X

Channel Element
a Channel Element

Long Code Gen

Vocoder

Channel Element

Long
Code
offset

Long Code Gen

more

Vocoder

Channel Element

more

more

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Long
Code
offset

Long
Code
offset

Long
Code
offset

7 - 23

Functions of the CDMA Reverse Channels

There are two types of CDMA Reverse Channels:
TRAFFIC CHANNELS are used by individual users
during their actual calls to transmit traffic to the BTS
a reverse traffic channel is really just a user-specific
public or private Long Code mask
there are as many reverse Traffic Channels as there
are CDMA phones in the world!
BTS

ACCESS CHANNELS are used by mobiles not yet in a

call to transmit registration requests, call setup
requests, page responses, order responses, and other
signaling information
an access channel is really just a public long code
offset unique to the BTS sector
Access channels are paired to Paging Channels.
Each paging channel can have up to 32 access
channels.

REG
1-800
242
4444

Although a sector can have up to seven paging channels, and each paging channel
can have up to 32 access channels, nearly all systems today use only one paging
channel per sector and only one access channel per paging channel.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 24

Summing Up Original IS-95 CDMA Channels

FORWARD CHANNELS

REVERSE CHANNELS

W0: PILOT
W32: SYNC

BTS

W1: PAGING

ACCESS

TRAFFIC

Wn: TRAFFIC
Existing IS-95A/JStd-008 CDMA uses the channels above for call setup and
traffic channels all call processing transactions use these channels
traffic channels are 9600 bps (rate set 1) or 14400 bps (rate set 2)
IS-2000 CDMA is backward-compatible with IS-95, but offers additional
radio configurations and additional kinds of possible channels
These additional modes are called Radio Configurations
IS-95 Rate Set 1 and 2 are IS-2000 Radio Configurations 1 & 2
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 25

The Channels at Phase One 1xRTT Launch

REVERSE CHANNELS

FORWARD CHANNELS
F-Pilot

Same coding as IS-95B,

Backward compatible

Includes Power
Control Subchannel

F-Sync

Same coding as IS-95B,

Backward compatible

1 to 7

PAGING

Same coding as IS-95B,

Backward compatible

Access Channel
(IS-95B compatible)
Enhanced
Access Channel

0 to 8

F-BCH

0 to 3

F-QPCH

Quick Paging Channel

F-CPCCH

Common
Power Control Channel

How many 1
Possible:
1

0 to 4

BTS

0 to 7
0 to 7

Users:
0 to many
1

Broadcast Channel

F-CACH

Common
Assignment Channel

F-CCCH

Common
Control Channels

F-TRAFFIC
F-FCH

Forward
Traffic Channels
Fundamental Channel
Dedicated
Control Channel

0 or 1

F-DCCH

0 to 7

F-SCH IS-95B only Channels IS-95B only

0 to 2

F-SCH

Supplemental

Supplemental
Channels RC3,4,5

Common
Control Channel

R-Pilot 1
R-ACH or
R-EACH

R-CCCH 0 or 1
R-TRAFFIC

Reverse Fundamental
Channel (IS95B comp.)
Dedicated
Control Channel
Reverse
Supplemental Channel

R-FCH 1
R-DCCH 0 or 1
R-SCH 0 to 2

CDMA2000 1xRTT has a rich

variety of traffic channels for
voice and fast date
There are also optional
additional control channels
for more effective operation
See Course 332 for more details.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 26

Basic CDMA Network Architecture

Switch

Access Manager
or (C)BSC

GPS

BTS
GPS
GPSR

SLM

CM

GPSR
BSM
TFU1

DMS-BUS

CDSU
LPP ENET

LPP

CDSU

DS0 in T1
DTCs

CDSU DISCO

Vocoders
Selectors

TFU

CDSU
DISCO 1

CDSU

Ch. Card

Packets
DISCO 2

ACC

CDSU

CDSU

CDSU

SBS
IOC

CDSU

Vocoder

Txcvr
A
Txcvr
B
Txcvr
C

RFFE
A
RFFE
B
RFFE
C

Chips

Channel
Element

RF

PSTN

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 27

Forward Traffic Channel:

Generation Details from IS-95
bits

symbols

chips
I PN

CHANNEL ELEMENT
9600 bps
4800 bps
R = 1/2
19.2
2400 bps
ksps
Convolutional
1200 bps
Encoding and
or
Symbol
Repetition
14400 bps
Puncturing
28.8
7200 bps
ksps (13 kb only)
3600 bps
1800 bps
(From Vocoder)
User Address
Mask
(ESN-based)

February, 2005

Power
Control
Bit

Scrambling
Block
Interleaving

Walsh
function

M
U
X

1.2288
Mcps

19.2
ksps

1.2288
Long PN Code Mcps
Generation

19.2
ksps
Decimator

Decimator

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Q PN
800 Hz

7 - 28

Reverse Traffic Channel:

Generation Details from IS-95

I PN
9600 bps
4800 bps
2400 bps
1200 bps
or
14400 bps
7200 bps
3600 bps
1800 bps

(no offset)

R = 1/3
Convolutional
Encoder &
Repetition

28.8
ksps

Block
Interleaver

28.8
307.2
ksps Orthogonal kcps Data Burst
Randomizer
Modulation

1/2 PN
Chip
Delay
D

R = 1/2
User Address
Mask

February, 2005

1.2288
Mcps

Long
PN Code
Generator

1.2288
Mcps

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Q PN
(no offset)
Direct
Sequence
Spreading

7 - 29

Section C

IS-95
IS-95 Operational
Operational Details
Details
Vocoding,
Vocoding, Multiplexing,
Multiplexing, Power
Power Control
Control

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 30

Variable Rate Vocoding & Multiplexing

DSP QCELP VOCODER
20ms Sample
Vocoders compress speech, reduce bit
Pitch
rate, greatly increasing capacity
Filter
CDMA uses a superior Variable Rate
Codebook
Vocoder
FeedCoded Result
back Formant
full rate during speech
Filter
low rates in speech pauses
increased capacity
bits
Frame Sizes
more natural sound
192/288
Full Rate Frame
Voice, signaling, and user secondary 96/144 1/2 Rate Frame
data may be mixed in CDMA frames
48/72 1/4 Rt.

24/36

1/8

Frame Contents: can be a mixture of

Primary
Signaling Secondary
Traffic
(System
(On-Air
(Voice or
data)

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Messaging)

activation, etc)

7 - 31

How Power Control Works

REVERSE LINK POWER ADJUSTMENT
BSC

BTS
Stronger than
setpoint?
Eb/No
Setpoint

Bad FER?
Raise Setpoint

Reverse Link

IS-95,
1xRTT
800 Power Control Bits per second!
ALL SAME METHOD

RX RF Digital
Open
Loop Closed
Loop
TX RF Digital

TXPO = -(RXdbm) -C + TXGA

FORWARD LINK POWER ADJUSTMENT

BSC

Voc- Selecoder
tor

Pilot
Sync
Paging
User 1
User 2
User 3

MOBILE

BTS (1 sector)

DGU

Transmitter,
Sector X

I Q
Short PN

Forward Link

Bad Frame
PMRM POWER MEAS. REPORT MSG 2 bad in last 4, Help!! Counter

February, 2005

MOBILE

FEI Bits Mark Bad Frames Received

FEI Bits

POWER CONTROL BITSTREAM RIDING ON MOBILE PILOT

Eb/No
Setpoint

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

IS-95 RS1
Method
IS-95 RS2
Method
1xRTT
Method
7 - 32

Details of Reverse Link Power Control

TXPO Handset Transmit Power
Actual RF power output of the
handset transmitter, including
combined effects of open
loop power control from
receiver AGC and closed
loop power control by BTS
cant exceed handsets
maximum (typ. +23 dBm)

Subscriber Handset
BTS

LNA
DUP

TXPO

Rake
R

IF

LO

Viterbi
Decoder

Open Loop

Closed Loop Pwr Ctrl

IF

Long PN

x
IF Mod

x
x
Q

Orth
Mod

Vocoder

FEC

<<Transmitter

Typical TXPO:
+23 dBm in a coverage hole
0 dBm near middle of cell
-50 dBm up close to BTS

C = +73 for 8K vocoder systems

= +76 for 13K vocoder systems

February, 2005

PA
LO
x

TXPO = -(RXdbm) -C + TXGA

TXGA Transmit Gain Adjust

Sum of all closed-loop
power control commands
from the BTS since the
beginning of this call

Receiver>>

0 dB

Typical Transmit Gain Adjust

-10 dB
-20 dB

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Time, Seconds
7 - 33

Section D
A
A Quick
Quick Introduction
Introduction to
to
CDMA
CDMA Messages
Messages and
and Call
Call Processing
Processing

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 34

Messages in CDMA
In CDMA, most call processing events are driven by messages
Some CDMA channels exist for the sole purpose of carrying
messages; they never carry users voice traffic
Sync Channel (a forward channel)
Paging Channel (a forward channel)
Access Channel (a reverse channel)
On these channels, there are only messages, continuously all
of the time
Some CDMA channels exist just to carry user traffic
Forward Traffic Channel
Reverse Traffic Channel
On these channels, most of the time is filled with traffic and
messages are sent only when there is something to do
All CDMA messages have very similar structure, regardless of the
channel on which they are sent
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 35

How CDMA Messages are Sent

CDMA messages on both forward
and reverse traffic channels are
normally sent via dim-and-burst
Messages include many fields of
binary data
The first byte of each message
identifies message type: this allows
the recipient to parse the contents
To ensure no messages are
missed, all CDMA messages bear
serial numbers and important
messages contain a bit requesting
acknowledgment
Messages not promptly
acknowledged are retransmitted
several times. If not acknowledged,
the sender may release the call
Field data processing tools capture
and display the messages for study
February, 2005

EXAMPLE:
A POWER MEASUREMENT
REPORT MESSAGE
Field

Length
(in bits)

MSG_TYPE (00000110)

ACK_SEQ

MSG_SEQ

ACK_REQ

ENCRYPTION

ERRORS_DETECTED

POWER_MEAS_FRAMES

10

LAST_HDM_SEQ

NUM_PILOTS

NUM_PILOTS occurrences of this field:

PILOT_STRENGTH
RESERVED (0s)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

6
0-7
7 - 36

Message Vocabulary: Acquisition & Idle States

Pilot Channel

Sync Channel

No Messages

Sync Channel Msg

Paging Channel
Access Parameters Msg

General Page Msg

System Parameters Msg

Order Msg

BTS

Access Channel
Registration Msg
Order Msg
Mobile Station Acknowldgment
Long Code Transition Request
SSD Update Confirmation
many others..

CDMA Channel List Msg

Base Station Acknowledgment

Lock until Power-Cycled
Maintenance required
many others..

Extended System
Parameters Msg

Channel Assignment
Msg

Origination Msg

Extended Neighbor
List Msg

Feature Notification Msg

Page Response Msg

Global Service
Redirection Msg

Authentication
Challenge Msg

Authentication Challenge
Response Msg

Service Redirection Msg

Status Request Msg

Status Response Msg

SSD Update Msg

TMSI Assignment Msg

TMSI Assignment
Completion Message

Null Msg

Data Burst Msg

Data Burst Msg

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 37

Message Vocabulary: Conversation State

Forward Traffic Channel
Order Msg
Base Station Acknowledgment
Base Station Challenge
Confirmation
Message Encryption Mode

Alert With
Information Msg

Reverse Traffic Channel

Service Request Msg

Service Request Msg

Origination
Continuation Msg

Authentication
Challenge Msg

Service Response Msg

Service Response Msg

Authentication Challenge
Response Msg

TMSI Assignment Msg

Service Connect Msg

Service Connect
Completion Message

TMSI Assignment
Completion Message

Send Burst DTMF Msg

Service Option
Control Msg

Service Option Control

Message

Send Burst DTMF Msg

Set Parameters Msg

Status Request Msg

Status Response Msg

Parameters Response
Message

Power Control
Parameters Msg.

Flash With
Information Msg

Flash With
Information Msg

Power Measurement
Report Msg

Retrieve Parameters Msg

Data Burst Msg

Data Burst Message

Order Message

Analog Handoff
Direction Msg

Extended Handoff
Direction Msg

Pilot Strength
Measurement Msg

SSD Update Msg

Neighbor List
Update Msg

Handoff Completion Msg

Mobile Station
Registered Msg

In-Traffic System
Parameters Msg

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Mobile Sta. Acknowledgment

Long Code Transition
Request
SSD Update Confirmation
Connect

7 - 38

Section E

CDMA
CDMA Handset
Handset Architecture
Architecture
CDMA
CDMA Handoffs
Handoffs

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 39

Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx

AGC

Duplexer
RF

Open Loop

RF

Transmitter
RF Section
February, 2005

Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx

bits

Symbols
time-aligned

Receiver
RF Section
IF, Detector

control

Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx

power

Chips

Digital
Rake Receiver
Symbols
Traffic Correlator
PN xxx Walsh xx

summing

Whats In a Handset? How does it work?

Viterbi Decoder,
Convl. Decoder,
Demultiplexer

Packets

Audio

Messages

Pilot Searcher
PN xxx Walsh 0

CPU

Vocoder

Transmit Gain Adjust

Transmitter
Digital Section

Audio
Messages

Long Code Gen.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 40

The Rake Receiver

Handset
RF
BTS
BTS

Rake Receiver
PN Walsh
PN

Walsh

PN

Walsh

Searcher
PN
W=0

Voice,
Data,
Messages
Pilot Ec/Io

Every frame, handset uses combined outputs of the three traffic

correlators (rake fingers)
Each finger can independently recover a particular PN offset and
Walsh code
Fingers can be targeted on delayed multipath reflections, or even on
different BTSs
Searcher continuously checks pilots

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 41

CDMA Soft Handoff Mechanics

Handset

Switch BSC
Sel.

RF
BTS
BTS

Rake Receiver
PN Walsh
PN

Walsh

PN

Walsh

Searcher
PN
W=0

Voice,
Data,
Messages
Pilot Ec/Io

CDMA soft handoff is driven by the handset

Handset continuously checks available pilots
Handset tells system pilots it currently sees
System assigns sectors (up to 6 max.), tells handset
Handset assigns its fingers accordingly
All messages sent by dim-and-burst, no muting!
Each end of the link chooses what works best, on a frame-by-frame
basis!
Users are totally unaware of handoff

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 42

The Complete Rules of Soft Handoff

February, 2005

PILOT SETS
Active
6
Candidate 5
Neighbor 20
Remaining

Min. Members
Reqd. By Std.

The Handset considers pilots in sets

Active: pilots of sectors actually in use
Candidates: pilots mobile requested, but
not yet set up & transmitting by system
Neighbors: pilots told to mobile by system,
as nearby sectors to check
Remaining: any pilots used by system but
not already in the other sets (div. by PILOT_INC)
Handset sends Pilot Strength Measurement
Message to the system whenever:
It notices a pilot in neighbor or remaining set
exceeds T_ADD
An active set pilot drops below T_DROP for
T_TDROP time
A candidate pilot exceeds an active by
T_COMP
The System may set up all requested handoffs,
or it may apply special manufacturer-specific
screening criteria and only authorize some

HANDOFF
PARAMETERS
T_ADD

T_DROP

T_TDROP

T_COMP

Exercise: How does a pilot

in one set migrate into
another set, for all cases?
Identify the trigger, and the
messages involved.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 43

Softer Handoff
Handset

Switch BSC
Sel.

BTS

RF

Rake Receiver
PN Walsh
PN

Walsh

PN

Walsh

Searcher
PN
W=0

Voice,
Data,
Messages
Pilot Ec/Io

Each BTS sector has unique PN offset & pilot

Handset will ask for whatever pilots it wants
If multiple sectors of one BTS simultaneously serve a handset, this is
called Softer Handoff
Handset cant tell the difference, but softer handoff occurs in BTS in
a single channel element
Handset can even use combination soft-softer handoff on multiple
BTS & sectors

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 44

What is Ec/Io?
Ec/Io
cleanness of the pilot
foretells the readability of
the associated traffic
channels
guides soft handoff decisions
digitally derived: ratio of good
to bad energy seen by the
search correlator at the
desired PN offset
Never appears higher than
Pilots percentage of serving
cells transmitted energy
Can be degraded by strong
RF from other cells, sectors
Imperfect orthogonality,
other PNs are ~-20 dB.
Can be degraded by noise
February, 2005

-25 -15 -10

Ec/Io

Ec
Io

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

dB

Energy of
desired pilot alone

Total energy received

7 - 45

Section F

CDMA
CDMA Call
Call Processing
Processing

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 46

Example 1

Lets
Lets Acquire
Acquire the
the System!
System!

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 47

Find a Frequency with a CDMA RF Signal

Reverse Link Frequencies
(Mobile Transmit)

Forward Link Frequencies

(Base Station Transmit)

800 MHz. Cellular Spectrum

835

824 MHz.

849

845

870

825

Paging, ESMR, etc.

890

880

869

846.5

894

891.5

1900 MHz. PCS Spectrum

A

1850MHz.

E F

unlic. unlic.
data voice

1910MHz.

E F

1930MHz.

Mobile scans forward link frequencies:

(Cellular or PCS, depending on model)
History List
Preferred Roaming List
until a CDMA signal is found.
NO CDMA?! Go to AMPS,
or to a power-saving standby mode
February, 2005

C
1990 MHz.

FREQUENCY LISTS:
HISTORY
LIST/MRU
Last-used:
Freq
Freq
Freq
Freq
Freq
etc.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

PREFERRED
ROAMING
LIST/PRL
System1
System2
System3
System4
System5
etc.

7 - 48

How Idle Mobiles Choose CDMA Carriers

At turnon, Idle mobiles use proprietary algorithms to find the initial CDMA
carrier intended for them to use
Within that CDMA signal, two types of paging channel messages could
cause the idle mobile to choose another frequency: CDMA Channel List
Message and GSRM

Start
Preferred
Only Bit

MRU

PRL

Acq Idx
Yes

Go to last
Strongest
Is SID
frequency
PN, read
permitted?
from MRU
Sync
No Signal
Denied SID

Is better
SID
available?
No
Read
Paging
Channel

CDMA Ch
List Message

HASH using
IMSI

Global Svc
Redir Msg

my ACCOLC?
redirect

F3
F2
F1

Config
Messages:
remain

to another CDMA frequency or system

Legend
Steps from
the CDMA
standards

Steps from
proprietary
SDAs

February, 2005

Proprietary
SDA
databases

to Analog
Typical Mobile
System Determination Algorithm

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 49

4. Is This the Right System to Use?

Scan the PRL for Anything Better
SYSTEM TABLE

February, 2005

ACQUISITION TABLE

NEG/
NID PREF
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref
65535 Pref

GEO
NEW
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
NEW
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME
SAME

a GEO GROUP

Its not enough just to find a

CDMA signal
We want the CDMA
signal of our own system
or a favorite roaming
partner
Phones look in the PRL to
see if there is a more
preferred signal than
whatever they find first
They check frequencies
in the Acquisition Table
until they find the best
system, or look down the
list level by level

SID
4144
4812
205
208
208
342
342
478
1038
1050
1058
1375
1385
143
143
4103
4157
312
444
444
1008
1012
1014
1688
113
113
179
179
465
2119
2094
1005
1013

a GEO GROUP

Roaming List Type:

IS-683A
Preferred Only:
FALSE
Default Roaming Indicator:
0
Preferred List ID:
10018

INDEX
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328

Climb!

ROAMING LIST

ACQ ROAM
PRI INDEX IND
SAME 13
1
MORE 21
1
SAME
4
0
MORE 37
0
SAME
4
0
MORE 37
0
SAME
4
0
SAME
4
0
SAME
4
0
SAME
4
0
SAME
4
0
SAME
4
0
MORE
4
0
MORE 37
0
MORE
4
0
SAME
3
1
MORE
2
1
SAME
4
0
MORE 37
0
SAME
4
0
SAME
4
0
SAME
4
0
SAME
4
0
MORE
4
0
MORE 37
0
SAME
4
0
MORE 37
0
SAME
4
0
SAME
4
0
MORE
4
0
MORE
4
0
SAME
4
0
SAME
4
0

INDEX ACQ TYPE

0
6
1
6
2
6
3
6
4
1
5
6
6
6
7
6
8
6
9
6
10
6
11
6
12
6
13
6
14
6
15
6
16
6
17
6
18
6
19
6
20
6
21
6
22
6
23
6
24
6
25
6
26
6
27
1
28
1
29
5
30
5
31
5
32
5
33
5
34
5
35
4
36
4
37
4
38
6
39
6
40
6
41
6
42
6
43
6
44
6
45
6
46
6

CH1
500
575
50
25
Both
450
675
250
550
75
200
425
500
500
650
25
425
200
825
350
750
325
1150
350
25
50
500
A
B
A
B
C
D
E
F
A
B
Both
350
25
675
850
650
450
325
150
1025

CH2
425
625
100
200

CH3
825
500
75
350

CH4
575
425
475
375

CH5 CH6 CH7 CH8 CH9

850 325 625

500
500
50
375
50
250
500
575
625
500
50
550
50
850
325
725
725
1175
875
1175
200
1075

350
600
175
425
175
175
575
475
350
675
375
225
175
925
375
775
350

575
575

650
475

625
250
50
25
25
50
25
350
725
375

325
675
375
75
250
750
250

325
825
25
850

375 1175
200 75 175 250
100 250 75
825

825
100
600

750

850 1175 775

825
725

850 175 250

50 475 175 250

650
775 575 725 425
425 50 575
175
775

675

25

1175 725 600 100

750

375

775 425 575 625

475
350 375 1025 1050 1075
475 625 675
1050 1075

PRL: Preferred Roaming List

Programmed into each phone by the system
operator; can be updated over the air.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 50

Ec/Io

Find Strongest Pilot, Read Sync Channel

All PN Offsets

1. Pilot Searcher Scans the Entire Range of PNs

-20
Chips 0
PN 0

32K
512
SYNC CHANNEL MESSAGE

2. Put Rake finger(s) on strongest

available PN, decode Walsh 32,
and read Sync Channel Message
Active Pilot
Handset

Rake Receiver
F1 PN168 W32

RF

F2 PN168 W32

F3 PN168 W32

LO

Srch PN??? W0

February, 2005

n Rake Fingers
o
p

Reference PN

98/05/24 23:14:09.817 [SCH]

MSG_LENGTH = 208 bits
MSG_TYPE = Sync Channel Message
P_REV = 3
MIN_P_REV = 2
SID = 179
NID = 0
PILOT_PN = 168
Offset Index
LC_STATE = 0x0348D60E013
SYS_TIME = 98/05/24 23:14:10.160
LP_SEC = 12
LTM_OFF = -300 minutes
DAYLT = 0
PRAT = 9600 bps
RESERVED = 1

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 51

The Configuration Messages

After reading the Sync Channel, the mobile is now capable of

reading the Paging Channel, which it now monitors constantly
Before it is allowed to transmit or operate on this system, the
mobile must collect a complete set of configuration messages
Collection is a short process -- all configuration messages are
repeated on the paging channel every 1.28 seconds
The configuration messages contain sequence numbers so the
mobile can recognize if any of the messages have been freshly
updated as it continues to monitor the paging channel
Access parameters message sequence number
Configuration message sequence number
If a mobile notices a changed sequence number, or if 600
seconds passes since the last time these messages were read,
the mobile reads all of them again
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 52

Ec/Io

Go to Paging Channel, Get Configured

All PN Offsets

-20
Chips 0
PN 0

Read the
Configuration Messages

32K
512

Access Parameters Msg

Keep Rake finger(s) on strongest

available PN, decode Walsh 1,
and monitor the Paging Channel

System Parameters Msg

CDMA Channel List Msg

Active Pilot
Handset

Rake Receiver
F1 PN168 W01

RF

F2 PN168 W01

F3 PN168 W01

LO

Extended System
Parameters Msg (*opt.)
(Extended*) Neighbor
List Msg

n Rake Fingers
o
p

Global Service
Redirection Msg (*opt.)

Srch PN??? W0

Now were ready to operate!!

Reference PN
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 53

Two Very Important Configuration Messages

SYSTEM PARAMETERS MESSAGE
ACCESS PARAMETERS MESSAGE
98/05/24 23:14:10.427 [PCH]
MSG_LENGTH = 184 bits
MSG_TYPE = Access Parameters Message
PILOT_PN = 168 Offset Index
ACC_MSG_SEQ = 27
ACC_CHAN = 1 channel
NOM_PWR = 0 dB INIT_PWR = 0 dB PWR_STEP = 4 dB
NUM_STEP = 5 Access Probes Maximum
MAX_CAP_SZ = 4 Access Channel Frames Maximum
PAM_SZ = 3 Access Channel Frames
Persist Val for Acc Overload Classes 0-9 = 0
Persist Val for Acc Overload Class 10 = 0
Persist Val for Acc Overload Class 11 = 0
Persist Val for Acc Overload Class 12 = 0
Persist Val for Acc Overload Class 13 = 0
Persist Val for Acc Overload Class 14 = 0
Persist Val for Acc Overload Class 15 = 0
Persistance Modifier for Msg Tx = 1
Persistance Modifier for Reg = 1
Probe Randomization = 15 PN chips
Acknowledgement Timeout = 320 ms
Probe Backoff Range = 4 Slots Maximum
Probe Sequence Backoff Range = 4 Slots Max.
Max # Probe Seq for Requests = 2 Sequences
Max # Probe Seq for Responses = 2 Sequences
Authentication Mode = 1
Random Challenge Value = Field Omitted
Reserved Bits = 99

February, 2005

98/05/24 23:14:11.126 [PCH] MSG_LENGTH = 264 bits

MSG_TYPE = System Parameters Message
PILOT_PN = 168 Offset Index
CONFIG_MSG_SEQ = 0
SID = 179 NID = 0
REG_ZONE = 0 TOTAL_ZONES = 0 ZONE_TIMER = 60 min
MULT_SIDS = 0 MULT_NID = 0 BASE_ID = 8710
BASE_CLASS = Public Macrocellular
PAGE_CHAN = 1 channel
MAX_SLOT_CYCLE_INDEX = 0
HOME_REG = 0 FOR_SID_REG = 0 FOR_NID_REG = 1
POWER_UP_REG = 0 POWER_DOWN_REG = 0
PARAMETER_REG = 1 REG_PRD = 0.08 sec
BASE_LAT = 00D00'00.00N BASE_LONG = 000D00'00.00E
REG_DIST = 0
SRCH_WIN_A = 40 PN chips
SRCH_WIN_N = 80 PN chips
SRCH_WIN_R = 4 PN chips
NGHBR_MAX_AGE = 0
PWR_REP_THRESH = 2 frames
PWR_REP_FRAMES = 56 frames
PWR_THRESH_ENABLE = 1
PWR_PERIOD_ENABLE = 0
PWR_REP_DELAY = 20 frames
RESCAN = 0
T_ADD = -13.0 Db T_DROP = -15.0 dB T_COMP = 2.5 dB
T_TDROP = 4 sec
EXT_SYS_PARAMETER = 1
RESERVED = 0
GLOBAL_REDIRECT = 0

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 54

Four Additional Configuration Messages

CDMA CHANNEL LIST MESSAGE

98/05/24 23:14:10.786 [PCH]
MSG_LENGTH = 72 bits
MSG_TYPE = CDMA Channel List Message
PILOT_PN = 168 Offset Index
CONFIG_MSG_SEQ = 0
CDMA_FREQ = 283
RESERVED = Field Omitted

NEIGHBOR LIST
98/05/24 23:14:11.486 [PCH]
MSG_LENGTH = 216 bits
MSG_TYPE = Neighbor List Message
PILOT_PN = 168 Offset Index
CONFIG_MSG_SEQ = 0
PILOT_INC = 4 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 220 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 52 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 500 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 8 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 176 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 304 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 136 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 384 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 216 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 68 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 328 Offset Index
NGHBR_CONFIG = 0 NGHBR_PN = 112 Offset Index
RESERVED = 0

February, 2005

EXTENDED SYSTEM PARAMETERS

98/05/24 23:14:10.946 [PCH]
MSG_LENGTH = 104 bits
MSG_TYPE = Extended System Parameters Message
PILOT_PN = 168 Offset Index
CONFIG_MSG_SEQ = 0 RESERVED = 0
PREF_MSID_TYPE = IMSI and ESN
MCC = 000 IMSI_11_12 = 00
RESERVED_LEN = 8 bits
RESERVED_OCTETS = 0x00
BCAST_INDEX = 0
RESERVED = 0

GLOBAL SERVICE REDIRECTION

98/05/17 24:21.566 Paging Channel: Global Service Redirection
PILOT_PN: 168, MSG_TYPE: 96, CONFIG_MSG_SEQ: 0
Redirected access overload classes: { 0, 1 },
RETURN_IF_FAIL: 0,
DELETE_TMSI: 0,
Redirection to an analog system:
EXPECTED_SID = 0
Do not ignore CDMA Available indicator on the redirected analog
system
Attempt service on either System A or B with the custom system
selection process

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 55

Example 2

Lets
Lets do
do an
an
Idle
Idle Mode
Mode Handoff!
Handoff!

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 56

Idle Mode Handoff

An idle mobile always demodulates the best available signal
In idle mode, it isnt possible to do soft handoff and listen to
multiple sectors or base stations at the same time -- the paging
channel information stream is different on each sector, not
synchronous -- just like ABC, NBC, CBS, and CNN TV news
programs arent in word-sync for simultaneous viewing
Since a mobile cant combine signals, the mobile must switch
quickly, always enjoying the best available signal
The mobiles pilot searcher is constantly checking neighbor pilots
If the searcher notices a better signal, the mobile continues on the
current paging channel until the end of the current superframe,
then instantly switches to the paging channel of the new signal
The system doesnt know the mobile did this! (Does NBCs
Tom Brokaw know you just switched your TV to CNN?)
On the new paging channel, if the mobile learns that registration is
required, it re-registers on the new sector
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Ec/Io

Idle Mode on the Paging Channel:

Meet the Neighbors, track the Strongest Pilot
All PN Offsets

-20
SRCH_WIN_A

Chips 0
PN 0

F1 PN168 W01

Active Pilot
Rake Fingers

SRCH_WIN_N

Reference PN

32K
512

Mobile Rake RX

n
o
p

F2 PN168 W01
F3 PN168 W01
Srch PN??? W0

The phones pilot searcher constantly checks

the pilots listed in the Neighbor List Message

Neighbor Set

If the searcher ever notices a neighbor pilot substantially stronger than

the current reference pilot, it becomes the new reference pilot
and the phone switches over to its paging channel on the next superframe.
This is called an idle mode handoff.
February, 2005

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Phone Operation on the Access Channel

A Successful Access Attempt
A sectors Paging Channel announces 1
(typ) to 32 (max) Access Channels: PN
Long Code offsets for mobiles to use if
accessing the system.
For mobiles sending Registration,
Origination, Page Responses
Base Station always listening!
On the access channel, phones are not
yet under BTS closed-loop power control!
Phones access the BTS by probing at
power levels determined by receive power
and an open loop formula
If probe not acknowledged by BTS
within ACC_TMO (~400 mS.), phone
will wait a random time (~200 mS)
then probe again, stronger by PI db.
There can be 15 max. (typ. 5) probes
in a sequence and 15 max. (typ. 2)
sequences in an access attempt
most attempts succeed on first probe!
The Access Parameters message on the
paging channel announces values of all
related parameters

Origination Msg

ACCESS

Success!
BTS

MS
Probing

an Access Probe
a Probe Sequence
an Access Attempt
PAGING Base Sta. Acknlgmt. Order
FW TFC TFC frames of 000s
PAGING

Channel Assnmt. Msg.

TFC preamble of 000s RV TFC

FW FC

Base Sta. Acknlgmt. Order

Mobile Sta. Ackngmt. Order RV TFC

FW TFC

Service Connect Msg.

Svc. Connect Complete Msg RV TFC

FW TFC Base Sta. Acknlgmt. Order

Call is Established!
February, 2005

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7 - 59

Example 3

Lets
Lets Register!
Register!

February, 2005

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7 - 60

Registration
Registration is the process by which an idle mobile lets the system
know its awake and available for incoming calls
this allows the system to inform the mobiles home switch of
the mobiles current location, so that incoming calls can be
delivered
registration also allows the system to intelligently page the
mobile only in the area where the mobile is currently located,
thereby eliminating useless congestion on the paging channels
in other areas of the system
There are many different conditions that could trigger an obligation
for the mobile to register
there are flags in the System Parameters Message which tell
the mobile when it must register on the current system

February, 2005

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An Actual Registration
SYSTEM PARAMETERS MESSAGE
18:26.826 [PCH] System Parameters Message
Pilot_PN: 32
CONFIG_MSG_SEQ: 14
SID: 16420
NID: 0,
REG_ZONE: 0 TOTAL_ZONES: 0 Zone timer length (min): 1
MULT_SIDS: 0 MULT_NIDS: 0
BASE_ID: 1618 BASE_CLASS: Reserved
PAG_CHAN: 1 MAX_SLOT_CYCLE_INDEX: 2
HOME_REG: 1
FOR_SID_REG: 1
FOR_NID_REG: 1,
POWER_UP_REG: 1
POWER_DOWN_REG: 1
PARAMETER_REG: 1 Registration period (sec): 54
Base station 00000.00 Lon., 00000.00 Lat. REG_DIST: 0
SRCH_WIN_A (PN chips): 28
SRCH_WIN_N (PN chips): 100,
SRCH_WIN_R (PN chips): 130 NGHBR_MAX_AGE: 2
PWR_REP_THRESH: 2
PWR_REP_FRAMES (frames): 15
PWR_THRESH_ENABLE: 1 PWR_PERIOD_ENABLE: 0,
PWR_REP_DELAY: 1 (4 frames) RESCAN: 0,
T_ADD: -14.0dB
T_DROP: -16.0dB
T_COMP: 2.5dB,
T_TDROP: 4s
EXT_SYS_PARAMETER: 1
EXT_NGHBR_LIST: 1
GLOBAL_REDIRECT: 0

BASE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT

16:18:27.506 Paging Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 1 MSG_SEQ: 0 ACK_REQ: 0 VALID_ACK: 1
MSID_TYPE: 2 IMSI: (Class: 0, Class_0_type: 3)
[0x 02 47 8d 31 74 29 36] (302) 00-416-575-0421
Order type: Base Station Acknowledgement Order

February, 2005

The System Parameters Message tells

all mobiles when they should register.
This mobile notices that it is obligated to
register, so it transmits a Registration
Message.
REGISTRATION MESSAGE
16:18:27.144 Access Channel: Registration
ACK_SEQ: 7 MSG_SEQ: 1 ACK_REQ: 1 VALID_ACK: 0
ACK_TYPE: 0
MSID_TYPE: 3, ESN: [0x 01 99 0d fc]
MFR 1, Reserved 38, Serial Number 69116,
IMSI: (Class: 0, Class_0_type: 1) [0x 01 8d 31 74 29 36]
00-416-575-0421
AUTH_MODE: 0
REG_TYPE: Timer-based
SLOT_CYCLE_INDEX: 2
MOB_P_REV: 1
EXT_SCM: 1
SLOTTED_MODE: 1
MOB_TERM: 1

The base station confirms that the

mobiles registration message was
received. Were officially registered!

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Example 4

Lets
Lets Receive
Receive
an
an incoming
incoming Call!
Call!

February, 2005

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Receiving an Incoming Call

All idle mobiles monitor the paging channel to receive incoming
calls.
When an incoming call appears, the paging channel notifies the
mobile in a General Page Message.
A mobile which has been paged sends a Page Response
Message on the access channel.
The system sets up a traffic channel for the call, then notifies the
mobile to use it with a Channel Assignment Message.
The mobile and the base station notice each others traffic channel
signals and confirm their presence by exchanging
acknowledgment messages.
The base station and the mobile negotiate what type of call this will
be -- I.e., 13k voice, etc.
The mobile is told to ring and given a calling line ID to display.
When the human user presses the send button, the audio path is
completed and the call proceeds.
February, 2005

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An Actual Page and Page Response

GENERAL PAGE MESSAGE
98/05/24 23:14:46.127 [PCH] General Page Message
MSG_LENGTH = 128 bits
MSG_TYPE = General Page Message
CONFIG_MSG_SEQ = 1
ACC_MSG_SEQ = 20
CLASS_0_DONE = 1
CLASS_1_DONE = 1
RESERVED = 0
BROADCAST_DONE = 1
RESERVED = 0
ADD_LENGTH = 0 bits
ADD_PFIELD = Field Omitted
PAGE_CLASS = 0
PAGE_SUBCLASS = 0
MSG_SEQ = 1
IMSI_S = 6153300644
SPECIAL_SERVICE = 1
SERVICE_OPTION = 32768
RESERVED = Field Omitted

The system pages the mobile,

615-330-0644.
PAGE RESPONSE MESSAGE

The mobile responds to the page.

BASE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT
98/05/24 23:14:46.768 [PCH] Order Message
MSG_LENGTH = 112 bits
MSG_TYPE = Order Message
ACK_SEQ = 2 MSG_SEQ = 0 ACK_REQ = 0
VALID_ACK = 1
ADDR_TYPE = IMSI
ADDR_LEN = 40 bits
IMSI_CLASS = 0 IMSI_CLASS_0_TYPE = 0 RESERVED = 0
IMSI_S = 6153300644
ORDER = Base Station Acknowledgement Order
ADD_RECORD_LEN = 0 bits
Order-Specific Fields = Field Omitted
RESERVED = 0

February, 2005

98/05/24 23:14:46.425 [ACH] Page Response Message

MSG_LENGTH = 216 bits
MSG_TYPE = Page Response Message
ACK_SEQ = 1 MSG_SEQ = 2 ACK_REQ = 1
VALID_ACK = 1 ACK_TYPE = 2
MSID_TYPE = IMSI and ESN
MSID_LEN = 9 octets
ESN = 0xD30E415C
IMSI_CLASS = 0
IMSI_CLASS_0_TYPE = 0 RESERVED = 0
IMSI_S = 6153300644
AUTH_MODE = 1
AUTHR = 0x307B5
RANDC = 0xC6
COUNT = 0
MOB_TERM = 1
SLOT_CYCLE_INDEX = 0
MOB_P_REV = 3
SCM = 106
REQUEST_MODE = Either Wide Analog or CDMA Only
SERVICE_OPTION = 32768
PM = 0
NAR_AN_CAP = 0
RESERVED = 0

The base station confirms that the mobiles

page response was received. Now the
mobile is waiting for channel assignment,
expecting a response within 12 seconds.

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Channel Assignment and

Traffic Channel Confirmation
CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT MESSAGE
18:14:47.027 Paging Channel: Channel Assignment
ACK_SEQ: 2 MSG_SEQ: 1 ACK_REQ: 0 VALID_ACK: 1
MSID_TYPE: 2 IMSI: (Class: 0, Class_0_type: 0)
[0x 01 f8 39 6a 15] 615-330-0644
ASSIGN_MODE: Traffic Channel Assignment
ADD_RECORD_LEN: 5 FREQ_INCL: 1 GRANTED_MODE: 2
CODE_CHAN: 43 FRAME_OFFSET: 2
ENCRYPT_MODE: Encryption disabled
BAND_CLASS: 800 MHz cellular band
CDMA_FREQ: 283

The base station is already

sending blank frames on
the forward channel,using
the assigned Walsh code.
BASE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT
18:14:47.581 Forward Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 7 MSG_SEQ: 0 ACK_REQ: 1
ENCRYPTION: 0 USE_TIME: 0
ACTION_TIME: 0
Base Station Acknowledgement Order

The base station acknowledges

receiving the mobiles preamble.
February, 2005

Only about 400 ms. after the base station

acknowledgment order, the mobile receives
the channel assignment message.

The mobile sees at least two

good blank frames in a row on
the forward channel, and
concludes this is the right traffic
channel. It sends a preamble
of two blank frames of its own
on the reverse traffic channel.
MOBILE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT
18:14:47.598 Reverse Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 0 MSG_SEQ: 0 ACK_REQ: 0
ENCRYPTION: 0
Mobile Station Acknowledgement Order

The mobile station acknowledges the

base stations acknowledgment.
Everybody is ready!

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Service Negotiation and Mobile Alert

SERVICE CONNECT MESSAGE
18:14:47.760 Forward Traffic Channel: Service Connect
ACK_SEQ: 0 MSG_SEQ: 1 ACK_REQ: 0 ENCRYPTION: 0
USE_TIME: 0 ACTION_TIME: 0 SERV_CON_SEQ: 0
Service Configuration: supported Transmission:
Forward Traffic Channel Rate (Set 2): 14400, 7200, 3600, 1800 bps
Reverse Traffic Channel Rate (Set 2): 14400, 7200, 3600, 1800 bps
Service option: (6) Voice (13k) (0x8000)
Forward Traffic Channel: Primary Traffic
Reverse Traffic Channel: Primary Traffic

ALERT WITH INFORMATION MESSAGE

18:14:47.961 Forward Traffic Channel:
Alert With Information
ACK_SEQ: 3 MSG_SEQ: 1 ACK_REQ: 1 ENCRYPTION: 0
SIGNAL_TYPE = IS-54B Alerting
ALERT_PITCH = Medium Pitch (Standard Alert)
SIGNAL = Long RESERVED = 0
RECORD_TYPE = Calling Party Number
RECORD_LEN = 96 bits
NUMBER_TYPE = National Number
NUMBER_PLAN = ISDN/Telephony Numbering Plan
PI = Presentation Allowed SI = Network Provided
CHARi = 6153000124 RESERVED = 0 RESERVED = 0

The base station orders the mobile to ring, and

gives it the calling partys number to display.
February, 2005

Now that both sides have arrived on the

traffic channel, the base station
proposes that the requested call
actually begin.
SERVICE CONNECT COMPLETE MSG.
18:14:47.835 Reverse Traffic Channel:
Service Connect Completion
ACK_SEQ: 1 MSG_SEQ: 3 ACK_REQ: 1
ENCRYPTION: 0 SERV_CON_SEQ: 0

The mobile agrees and

says its ready to play.
SERVICE CONNECT COMPLETE is a
major milestone in call processing. Up
until now, this was an access attempt.
Now it is officially a call.
18:14:48.018 Reverse Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 1 MSG_SEQ: 4 ACK_REQ: 0
ENCRYPTION: 0
Mobile Station Acknowledgement Order

The mobile says its ringing.

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The Human Answers! Connect Order

The mobile has been ringing for several
seconds. The human user finally
comes over and presses the send
button to answer the call.
CONNECT ORDER
18:14:54.758 Reverse Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 6 MSG_SEQ: 0 ACK_REQ: 1
ENCRYPTION: 0
Connect Order

BASE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT

18:14:54.920 Forward Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 0 MSG_SEQ: 1 ACK_REQ: 0
ENCRYPTION: 0 USE_TIME: 0 ACTION_TIME: 0
Base Station Acknowledgement Order

Now the switch completes the audio circuit and

the two callers can talk!

February, 2005

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7 - 68

Example 5

Lets
Lets make
make an
an Outgoing
Outgoing Call!
Call!

February, 2005

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7 - 69

Placing an Outgoing Call

The mobile user dials the desired digits, and presses SEND.
Mobile transmits an Origination Message on the access channel.
The system acknowledges receiving the origination by sending a
base station acknowledgement on the paging channel.
The system arranges the resources for the call and starts
transmitting on the traffic channel.
The system notifies the mobile in a Channel Assignment Message
on the paging channel.
The mobile arrives on the traffic channel.
The mobile and the base station notice each others traffic channel
signals and confirm their presence by exchanging
acknowledgment messages.
The base station and the mobile negotiate what type of call this will
be -- I.e., 13k voice, etc.
The audio circuit is completed and the mobile caller hears ringing.
February, 2005

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Origination
ORIGINATION MESSAGE
The mobile sends an
origination message
on the access
channel.

BASE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT

17:48:53.487 Paging Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 6 MSG_SEQ: 0 ACK_REQ: 0 VALID_ACK: 1
MSID_TYPE: 2
IMSI: (Class: 0, Class_0_type: 0)
[0x 03 5d b8 97 c2] 972-849-5073
Base Station Acknowledgment Order

17:48:53.144 Access Channel: Origination

ACK_SEQ: 7 MSG_SEQ: 6 ACK_REQ: 1
VALID_ACK: 0 ACK_TYPE: 0 MSID_TYPE: 3
ESN: [0x 00 06 98 24] MFR 0 Reserved 1
Serial Number 170020
IMSI: (Class: 0, Class_0_type: 0)
[0x 03 5d b8 97 c2] 972-849-5073
AUTH_MODE: 0 MOB_TERM: 1
SLOT_CYCLE_INDEX: 2 MOB_P_REV: 1 EXT_SCM: 1
DualMode: 0 SLOTTED_MODE: 1 PowerClass: 0
REQUEST_MODE: CDMA only SPECIAL_SERVICE: 1
Service option: (6) Voice (13k) (0x8000) PM: 0
DIGIT_MODE: 0 MORE_FIELDS: 0 NUM_FIELDS: 11
Chari: 18008900829
NAR_AN_CAP: 0

CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT MESSAGE

The base station confirms

that the origination message
was received.

17:48:54.367 Paging Channel: Channel Assignment

ACK_SEQ: 6 MSG_SEQ: 1 ACK_REQ: 0 VALID_ACK: 1
MSID_TYPE: 2
IMSI: (Class: 0, Class_0_type: 0)
[0x 03 5d b8 97 c2] 972-849-5073
ASSIGN_MODE: Traffic Channel Assignment,
ADD_RECORD_LEN: 5 FREQ_INCL: 1 GRANTED_MODE: 2
CODE_CHAN: 12 FRAME_OFFSET: 0
ENCRYPT_MODE: Encryption disabled
BAND_CLASS: 1.8 to 2.0 GHz PCS band
CDMA_FREQ: 425

The base station sends a

Channel Assignment
Message and the mobile
goes to the traffic channel.

February, 2005

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Traffic Channel Confirmation

The base station is already

sending blank frames on
the forward channel,using
the assigned Walsh code.
BASE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT
17:48:54.757 Forward Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 7 MSG_SEQ: 0 ACK_REQ: 1 ENCRYPTION: 0
USE_TIME: 0 ACTION_TIME: 0
Base Station Acknowledgment Order

The base station acknowledges

receiving the mobiles preamble.

February, 2005

The mobile sees at least two

good blank frames in a row on
the forward channel, and
concludes this is the right traffic
channel. It sends a preamble
of two blank frames of its own
on the reverse traffic channel.
MOBILE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT
17:48:54.835 Reverse Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 0 MSG_SEQ: 0 ACK_REQ: 0
ENCRYPTION: 0
Mobile Station Acknowledgment Order

The mobile station acknowledges the

base stations acknowledgment.
Everybody is ready!

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Service Negotiation and Connect Complete

SERVICE CONNECT MESSAGE
17:48:55.098 Forward Traffic Channel: Service Connect
ACK_SEQ: 7 MSG_SEQ: 1 ACK_REQ: 1 ENCRYPTION: 0
USE_TIME: 0 ACTION_TIME: 0 SERV_CON_SEQ: 0
Service Configuration Supported Transmission:
Forward Traffic Channel Rate (Set 2): 14400, 7200, 3600, 1800 bps
Reverse Traffic Channel Rate (Set 2): 14400, 7200, 3600, 1800 bps
Service option: (6) Voice (13k) (0x8000)
Forward Traffic Channel: Primary Traffic
Reverse Traffic Channel: Primary Traffic

Now that the traffic channel is working

in both directions, the base station
proposes that the requested call
actually begin.
SERVICE CONNECT COMPLETE MSG.
17:48:55.137 Reverse Traffic Channel: Service Connect
Completion ACK_SEQ: 1, MSG_SEQ: 0, ACK_REQ: 1,
ENCRYPTION: 0, SERV_CON_SEQ: 0

BASE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT

17:48:55.779 Forward Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 0 MSG_SEQ: 0 ACK_REQ: 0 ENCRYPTION: 0
USE_TIME: 0 ACTION_TIME: 0
Base Station Acknowledgment Order

The base station agrees.

The mobile agrees and

says its ready to play.

SERVICE CONNECT COMPLETE is a

major milestone in call processing. Up
until now, this was an access attempt.
Now it is officially a call.

Now the switch completes the audio circuit and

the two callers can talk!
February, 2005

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7 - 73

Example 6

Lets
Lets End
End aa Call!
Call!

February, 2005

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7 - 74

Ending A Call
A normal call continues until one of the parties hangs up. That
action sends a Release Order, normal release.
The other side of the call sends a Release Order, no reason given.
If a normal release is visible, the call ended normally.
At the conclusion of the call, the mobile reacquires the system.
Searches for the best pilot on the present CDMA frequency
Reads the Sync Channel Message
Monitors the Paging Channel steadily
Several different conditions can cause a call to end abnormally:
the forward link is lost at the mobile, and a fade timer acts
the reverse link is lost at the base station, and a fade timer acts
a number of forward link messages arent acknowledged, and the
base station acts to tear down the link
a number of reverse link messages arent acknowledged, and the
mobile station acts to tear down the link
February, 2005

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A Beautiful End to a Normal Call

MOBILE RELEASE ORDER
17:49:21.715 Reverse Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 1 MSG_SEQ: 1 ACK_REQ: 1
ENCRYPTION: 0
Release Order (normal release)

BASE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT

17:49:21.936 Forward Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 1 MSG_SEQ: 2 ACK_REQ: 0 ENCRYPTION: 0,
USE_TIME: 0 ACTION_TIME: 0
Base Station Acknowledgement Order

BASE STATION RELEASE ORDER

17:49:21.997 Forward Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 1 MSG_SEQ: 3 ACK_REQ: 0 ENCRYPTION: 0
USE_TIME: 0 ACTION_TIME: 0
Release Order (no reason given)

SYNC CHANNEL MESSAGE

17:49:22.517 Sync Channel
MSG_TYPE: 1 Sync Channel Message
P_REV: 1 MIN_P_REV: 1
SID: 4112
NID: 2
Pilot_PN: 183
LC_STATE: 0x318fe5d84a5
SYS_TIME: 0x1ae9683dc
LP_SEC: 9
LTM_OFF: -10 DAYLT: 1
Paging Channel Data Rate: 9600
CDMA_FREQ: 425

February, 2005

At the end of a normal call, this

mobile user pressed end.

The base station acknowledged

receiving the message, then sent
a release message of its own.

The mobile left the traffic channel,

scanned to find the best pilot, and read
the Sync Channel Message.

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7 - 76

Example 7

Lets
Lets receive
receive Notification
Notification
of
of aa Voice
Voice Message!
Message!

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 77

Feature Notification
FEATURE NOTIFICATION MESSAGE
98/06/30 21:16:44.368 [PCH] Feature Notification Message
MSG_LENGTH = 144 bits
MSG_TYPE = Feature Notification Message
ACK_SEQ = 0
MSG_SEQ = 0
ACK_REQ = 1
VALID_ACK = 0
ADDR_TYPE = IMSI
ADDR_LEN = 56 bits
IMSI_CLASS = 0
IMSI_CLASS_0_TYPE = 3
RESERVED = 0
MCC = 302
IMSI_11_12 = 00
IMSI_S = 9055170325
RELEASE = 0
RECORD_TYPE = Message Waiting
RECORD_LEN = 8 bits
MSG_COUNT = 1
RESERVED = 0

The Feature Notification Message on

the Paging Channel tells a specific
mobile it has voice messages waiting.
There are other record types to notify
the mobile of other features.

MOBILE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The mobile confirms it has received the
notification by sending a Mobile Station
Acknowledgment Order on the access
channel.
February, 2005

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7 - 78

Example 8

Lets
Lets do
do aa Handoff!
Handoff!

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 79

Ec/Io

The Call is Already Established. What Next?

All PN Offsets

-20
Chips

10752

PN 0

14080

32002

168 220

Active Pilot

Mobile Rake RX
F1 PN168 W61

Rake Fingers

F2 PN168 W61
F3 PN168 W61
Srch PN??? W0

Reference PN
T_ADD

n
o
p

500 512

The call is already in progress.

PN 168 is the only active signal,
and also is our timing reference.
Continue checking the neighbors.
Neighbor Set

If we ever notice a neighbor with Ec/Io above T_ADD,

ask to use it! Send a Pilot Strength Measurement Message!
February, 2005

32K

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7 - 80

Mobile Requests the Handoff!

PILOT STRENGTH MEASUREMENT MESSAGE

Just prior to this message, this particular

mobile already was in handoff with PN 168
and 220.
This pilot strength measurement message
reports PN 500 has increased above
T_Add, and the mobile wants to use it too.

98/05/24 23:14:02.205 [RTC]

Pilot Strength Measurement Message
MSG_LENGTH = 128 bits
MSG_TYPE = Pilot Strength Measurement Message
ACK_SEQ = 5 MSG_SEQ = 0 ACK_REQ = 1
ENCRYPTION = Encryption Mode Disabled
REF_PN = 168 Offset Index (the Reference PN)
PILOT_STRENGTH = -6.0 dB
KEEP = 1
PILOT_PN_PHASE = 14080 chips (PN220+0chips)
PILOT_STRENGTH = -12.5 dB
KEEP = 1
PILOT_PN_PHASE = 32002 chips (PN500 + 2 chips)
PILOT_STRENGTH = -11.0 dB
KEEP = 1
RESERVED = 0

BASE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT

98/05/24 23:14:02.386 [FTC] Order Message
MSG_LENGTH = 64 bits
MSG_TYPE = Order Message
ACK_SEQ = 0 MSG_SEQ = 0 ACK_REQ = 0
ENCRYPTION = Encryption Mode Disabled
USE_TIME = 0 ACTION_TIME = 0
ORDER = Base Station Acknowledgment Order
ADD_RECORD_LEN = 0 bits
Order-Specific Fields = Field Omitted
RESERVED = 0

February, 2005

The base station acknowledges receiving

the Pilot Strength Measurement Message.

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7 - 81

System Authorizes the Handoff!

HANDOFF DIRECTION MESSAGE
98/05/24 23:14:02.926 [FTC] Extended Handoff Direction Message
MSG_LENGTH = 136 bits
MSG_TYPE = Extended Handoff Direction Message
ACK_SEQ = 0 MSG_SEQ = 6 ACK_REQ = 1
ENCRYPTION = Encryption Mode Disabled
USE_TIME = 0 ACTION_TIME = 0 HDM_SEQ = 0
SEARCH_INCLUDED = 1
SRCH_WIN_A = 40 PN chips
T_ADD = -13.0 dB T_DROP = -15.0 dB T_COMP = 2.5 dB
T_TDROP = 4 sec
HARD_INCLUDED = 0 FRAME_OFFSET = Field Omitted
PRIVATE_LCM = Field Omitted RESET_L2 = Field Omitted
RESET_FPC = Field Omitted RESERVED = Field Omitted
ENCRYPT_MODE = Field Omitted RESERVED = Field Omitted
NOM_PWR = Field Omitted NUM_PREAMBLE = Field Omitted
BAND_CLASS = Field Omitted CDMA_FREQ = Field Omitted
ADD_LENGTH = 0
PILOT_PN = 168 PWR_COMB_IND = 0 CODE_CHAN = 61
PILOT_PN = 220 PWR_COMB_IND = 1 CODE_CHAN = 20
PILOT_PN = 500 PWR_COMB_IND = 0 CODE_CHAN = 50
RESERVED = 0

The base station sends a Handof

Direction Message authorizing the
mobile to begin soft handoff with all
three requested PNs. The pre-existing
link on PN 168 will continue to use
Walsh code 61, the new link on PN220
will use Walsh Code 20, and the new
link on PN500 will use Walsh code 50.

MOBILE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The mobile acknowledges it has received

the Handoff Direction Message.

February, 2005

98/05/24 23:14:02.945 [RTC] Order Message

MSG_LENGTH = 56 bits MSG_TYPE = Order Message
ACK_SEQ = 6 MSG_SEQ = 6 ACK_REQ = 0
ENCRYPTION = Encryption Mode Disabled
ORDER = Mobile Station Acknowledgment Order
ADD_RECORD_LEN = 0 bits
Order-Specific Fields = Field Omitted RESERVED = 0

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Mobile Implements the Handoff!

HANDOFF COMPLETION MESSAGE

The mobile searcher quickly re-checks

all three PNs. It still hears their pilots!
The mobile sends a Handoff Completion
Message, confirming it still wants to go
ahead with the handoff.

98/05/24 23:14:02.985 [RTC] Handoff Completion Message

MSG_LENGTH = 72 bits
MSG_TYPE = Handoff Completion Message
ACK_SEQ = 6 MSG_SEQ = 1 ACK_REQ = 1
ENCRYPTION = Encryption Mode Disabled
LAST_HDM_SEQ = 0
PILOT_PN = 168 Offset Index
PILOT_PN = 220 Offset Index
PILOT_PN = 500 Offset Index
RESERVED = 0

BASE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT

98/05/24 23:14:03.085 [FTC] Forward Traffic Channel: Order
ACK_SEQ: 1 MSG_SEQ: 1 ACK_REQ: 0 ENCRYPTION: 0
USE_TIME: 0 ACTION_TIME: 0
Base Station Acknowledgement Order

February, 2005

The base station confirms it has

received the mobiles Handoff
Completion message, and will
continue with all of the links
active.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 83

Neighbor List Updated, Handoff is Complete!

NEIGHBOR LIST UPDATE MESSAGE
98/05/24 23:14:03.166 [FTC] Neighbor List Update Message
MSG_LENGTH = 192 bits
MSG_TYPE = Neighbor List Update Message
ACK_SEQ = 1 MSG_SEQ = 7 ACK_REQ = 1
ENCRYPTION = Encryption Mode Disabled
PILOT_INC = 4 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 164 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 68 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 52 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 176 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 304 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 136 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 112 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 372 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 36 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 8 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 384 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 216 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 328 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 332 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 400 Offset Index
NGHBR_PN = 96 Offset Index
RESERVED = 0

In response to the mobiles Handoff

Completion Message, the base station
assembles a new composite neighbor
list including all the neighbors of each of
the three active pilots.
This is necessary since the mobile
could be traveling toward any one of
these pilots and may need to request
soft handoff with any of them soon.

MOBILE STATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The mobile confirms receiving the

Neighbor List Update Message. It is
already checking the neighbor list and
will do so continuously from now on.
The handoff is fully established.
February, 2005

98/05/24 23:14:03.245 [RTC] Order Message

MSG_LENGTH = 56 bits MSG_TYPE = Order Message
ACK_SEQ = 7 MSG_SEQ = 7 ACK_REQ = 0
ENCRYPTION = Encryption Mode Disabled
ORDER = Mobile Station Acknowledgement Order
ADD_RECORD_LEN = 0 bits
Order-Specific Fields = Field Omitted
RESERVED = 0

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 84

Ec/Io

Handoff Now In Effect, but still check Pilots!

All PN Offsets

-20
Chips

10752

PN 0

14080

168 220
n

F1 PN168 W61
F3 PN220 W20

Rake Fingers

T_DROP

Srch PN??? W0

Reference PN

Neighbor Set

T_ADD

Continue checking each ACTIVE pilot. If any are less than T_DROP and remain
so for T_TDROP time, send Pilot Strength Measurement Message, DROP IT!!
Continue looking at each NEIGHBOR pilot. If any ever rises above T_ADD, send
Pilot Strength Measurement Message, ADD IT!
February, 2005

32K

500 512

Active Set

Mobile Rake RX
F2 PN500 W50

32002

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 85

Ec/Io

The Complete Picture of Handoff & Pilot Sets

All PN Offsets

-20
Chips 0
PN 0
SRCH_WIN_A

Rake Fingers

SRCH_WIN_A

Active Set
Pilots of sectors
now used for
communication

T_DROP

T_DROP

T_ADD

Reference PN
Candidate Set
SRCH_WIN_N
Pilots requested
by mobile but not
set up by system

32K
512
Mobile Rake RX
F1 PN168 W61
F2 PN500 W50
F3 PN220 W20
Srch PN??? W0

Neighbor Set
Pilots suggested
by system for
more checking

Remaining Set

All other pilots divisible by PILOT_INC but not

presently in Active, Candidate, or Neighbor sets

T_ADD
SRCH_WIN_R

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 86

Section G

Deeper
Deeper Handoff
Handoff Details:
Details:
Search
Search Windows
Windows &
& Timing
Timing

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 87

The Pilot Searchers Measurement Process

CURRENT PILOT SET CONTENTS
3 A A A
1 C
12 N N N N N N N N N N N N
112 R R R R R R R R R R R R
R

The searcher checks pilots in nested

loops, much like meshed gears.
Actives and candidates
N
N
occupy the fastestspinning wheel.
N
A
Neighbors are
next, advancing
N
A A
one pilot for each
N
Act+Cand. revolution.
Remaining is slowest,
N
N
advancing one pilot each
time the Neighbors revolve.

R
R
NR
R
R
R
N
R

PILOT SEARCHER VIEWED IN SEQUENCE: Typical Elapsed Time = 4 seconds

A

Only 3 of 112 remaining set pilots have been checked thus far!

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 88

A Quick Primer on Pilot Search Windows

The phone chooses one strong sector and
locks to it, accepting its offset at face value
and interpreting all other offsets by
comparison to it
In messages, system gives to handset a
neighbor list of nearby sectors PNs
Propagation delay skews the apparent PN
offsets of all other sectors, making them
seem earlier or later than expected
To overcome skew, when the phone
searches for a particular pilot, it scans an
extra wide delta of chips centered on the
expected offset (called a search window)
Search window values can be datafilled
individually for each Pilot set:
There are pitfalls if the window sizes are
improperly set
too large: search time increases
too small: overlook pilots from far away
too large: might misinterpret identity of a
distant BTS signal
February, 2005

PROPAGATION DELAY
SKEWS APPARENT PN OFFSETS
33
4
Chips
Chips
A
BTS
B
BTS
If the phone is locked to BTS A, the
signal from BTS B will seem 29 chips
earlier than expected.
If the phone is locked to BTS B, the
signal from BTS A will seem 29 chips
later than expected.

One chip is 801 feet or 244.14 m

1 mile=6.6 chips; 1 km.= 4.1 chips

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 89

Setting Pilot Search Window Sizes

When the handset first powers up, it does an
exhaustive search for the best pilot. No windows
are used in this process.
On the paging channel, the handset learns the
window sizes SRCH_WIN_A, N, R and uses
them when looking for neighbors both in idle
mode and during calls.
When a strong neighbor is requested in a PSMM,
the former neighbor pilot is now a candidate. Its
offset is precisely remembered and frequently
rechecked and tracked by the phone.
Window size for actives and candidates can be
small, since their exact position is known. Only
search wide enough to include multipath energy!
This greatly speeds up overall searching!
Most post-processing tools deliver statistics on
the spread (in chips) between fingers locked to
the same pilot. These statistics literally show us
how wide the SRCH_WIN_A should be set.
Neighbor and Remaining search windows should
be set to accommodate the maximum intercell
distances which a mobile might experience
February, 2005

SEARCH WINDOW SETTINGS

AND PROPAGATION DISTANCES
Window
Datafill N,R Delta Distance
Size (Chips) Value
Miles
KM.
14 (7)
20 (10)
28 (14)
40 (20)
60 (30)
80 (40)
100 (50)
130 (65)
160 (80)
226 (113)
320 (160)
452 (226)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

1.06
1.52
2.12
3.03
4.55
6.07
7.59
9.86
12.1
17.1
24.3
34.3

1.71
2.44
3.42
4.88
7.32
9.77
12.2
15.9
19.5
27.6
39.1
55.2

7 - 90

Handoff Problems: Window Dropped Calls

Calls often drop when strong
neighbors suddenly appear
outside the neighbor search
window and cannot be used to
establish soft handoff.
Neighbor Search Window
SRCH_WIN_N should be set
to a width at least twice the
propagation delay between
any site and its most distant
neighbor site
Remaining Search Window
SRCH_WIN_R should be set
to a width at least twice the
propagation delay between
any site and another site
which might deliver occasional
RF into the service area
February, 2005

SITUATION 1
A
BTS

12
80 mile
Ch s
ips

Locked to distant
mo site, cant see
un one nearby
tai
ns
B

BTS
SRCH_WIN_N = 130
BTS A is reference.
1 mi.
BTS B appears (7-80) chips
7 Chips
early due to its closer distance.
vel
This is outside the 65-chip window.Tra
Mobile cant see BTS Bs pilot, but its
strong signal blinds us and the call drops.

SITUATION 2
A

Locked to nearby
mo site, cant see
un distant one
tai
ns
B

12
80 mile
Ch s
ips
SRCH_WIN_N = 130
BTS
BTS B is reference.
1 mi.
BTS A appears (80-7) chips
7 Chips
late due to its farther distance.
l
This is outside the 65-chip window. Trave
Mobile cant see BTS As pilot.
BTS

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 91

Overall Handoff Perspective

Soft & Softer Handoffs are preferred, but not always possible
a handset can receive BTS/sectors simultaneously only on one
frequency
all involved BTS/sectors must connect to a networked BSCs.
Some manufacturers do not presently support this, and so are
unable to do soft-handoff at boundaries between BSCs.
frame timing must be same on all BTS/sectors
If any of the above are not possible, handoff still can occur but can
only be hard break-make protocol like AMPS/TDMA/GSM
intersystem handoff: hard
change-of-frequency handoff: hard
CDMA-to-AMPS handoff: hard, no handback
auxiliary trigger mechanisms available (RTD)

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 92

Section H

CDMA
CDMA Network
Network Architecture
Architecture

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 93

Structure of a Typical Wireless System

HLR Home Location Register
(subscriber database)

HLR

SUPPORT
FUNCTIONS

BASE STATIONS
Voice Mail System

PSTN
Local Carriers
Long Distance
Carriers

February, 2005

BASE STATION
CONTROLLER

SWITCH

Mobile Telephone
Switching Office
ATM Link
to other CDMA
Networks
(Future)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 94

Signal Flow: Two-Stage Metamorphosis

MTX

BSC-BSM

GPS

BTS
GPS
GPSR

SLM

CM

GPSR
BSM
TFU1

DMS-BUS

CDSU
LPP ENET

LPP

CDSU

DS0 in T1
DTCs

CDSU DISCO

Vocoders
Selectors

TFU

CDSU
DISCO 1

CDSU

Ch. Card

Packets
DISCO 2

ACC

CDSU

CDSU

CDSU

SBS
IOC

CDSU

Vocoder

Txcvr
A
Txcvr
B
Txcvr
C

RFFE
A
RFFE
B
RFFE
C

Chips

Channel
Element

RF

PSTN

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 95

Nortel
Nortel CDMA
CDMA Network
Network
Architecture
Architecture

www.nortel.com
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 96

NORTEL CDMA System Architecture

MTX

BSC-BSM

GPS

BTS
GPS
GPSR

SLM

CM

GPSR
BSM
TFU1

DMS-BUS

CDSU
LPP ENET

LPP

CDSU

DTCs

CDSU

CDSU DISCO

TFU

CDSU
DISCO 1
DISCO 2

CDSU

Ch. Card

ACC

CDSU

CDSU

CDSU

Txcvr
A
Txcvr
B
Txcvr
C

RFFE
A
RFFE
B
RFFE
C

SBS
IOC

Vocoders
Selectors

PSTN & Billing

Other MTXs
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 97

Switch: The Nortel MTX

MTX
SLM

CM

Primary functions
CDMA
Call Processing
BSC
LPP ENET
LPP
Unch. T1
Mobility Management
HLR-VLR access
Ch.T1 CDMA
DTCs
SBS
Intersystem call delivery (IS-41C)
Inter-MTX handover (IS-41C)
IOC
Billing Data Capture
Ch
MAP,
Calling Features & Services
T1
VDUs
CCS7
Collecting System OMs, Pegs
Billing
PSTN &
High reliability, redundancy
DMS-BUS

Other MTXs

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 98

The Nortel BSC

GPS
GPSR

BSC
BSM

TFU1

MTX
LPP

CDSU
CDSU

CDSU

DISCO 1

CDSU

CDSU

DISCO 2

CDSU
CDSU
CDSU

MTX
(voice
trunks)

SBS
Vocoders
Selectors

T1 channelized (24 DS0)

T1 unchannelized
BCN link (HDLC)
February, 2005

BTSs

Primary functions
vocoding
soft handoff management
FER-based power control
routing of all traffic and control
packets
Scaleable architecture
expand SBS to keep pace with
traffic growth
expandable DISCO

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 99

The Nortel BTS

BTS
GPS
GPSR
CDSU DISCO

TFU

BSC
Ch. Card

ACC

February, 2005

Txcvr
A
Txcvr
B
Txcvr
C

RFFE
A
RFFE
B
RFFE
C

Base Transceiver Station

Primary function: Air link
generate, radiate, receive CDMA RF
signal IS-95/J.Std. 8
high-efficiency T1 backhaul
test capabilities
Configurations
1, 2, or 3 sectors
800 MHz.: indoor
1900 MHz.: self-contained outdoor,
remotable RFFEs
new 1900 MHz. indoor, 800 MHz. &
1900 MHz. multi-carrier options

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 100

The Nortel BSM

BSM

NORTEL CDMA
BSM

Ethernet LAN

X-Windows terminals

GNP TELCO
WORKSERVER
SHELF
--------HIGH
AVAILABILITY

BSM Workstation

BCN Links
BSC

GPS

BTS

GPS
GPSR

GPSR
CDSU
TFU1

CDSU DISCO

TFU

CDSU

CDSU

DISCO 1

CDSU

CDSU

DISCO 2

CDSU

Ch. Card

CDSU
CDSU

ACC

Txcvr
A
Txcvr
B
Txcvr
C

RFFE
A
RFFE
B
RFFE
C

Base Station Manager

Primary functions: OA&M for CDMA
components
Configuration management
BSC, BTS configuration and
parameters
Fault management
Alarm Reporting
Performance management
interface for CDMA statistics
and peg counts collection
Security management
Unix-based

SBS
Vocoders
Selectors

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 101

Summary of CDMA Capacity Considerations

DISCO has
192 ports
max.
Each
GPS
BTS uses 1,
SBS shelf 1,
LPP CIU 1,
Link 2, Ctrl. 2,
GPSR
BSM
4.

MTX
Typical CM processor
capacity considerations
CDMA LPP:
CM
One pair SLM
CIUs and
One pair
CAUs per
approx. 600
DMS-BUS
erlangs

BSC-BSM
BSM

LPP ENET

CDSU

TFU1
CDSU
LPP

CDSU

DTCs

One T-1 can carry all

traffic originated by a
one-carrier BTS; special
consideration required if
daisy-chaining

IOC

Vocoders
Selectors

PSTN

GPS
GPSR

CDSU DISCO

TFU
Sufficient channel

Ch. Card

elements required for

traffic of all sectors:
one CE per link; 20
CE per Channel Card

CDSU
DISCO 1
DISCO 2

CDSU

ACC

CDSU

Txcvr
RFFE
Codes/sector
64 Walsh
A
A

CDSU

Txcvr
RFFE
Codes/sector
64 Walsh
B
B

CDSU

Codes/sector
Txcvr
RFFE
64 Walsh
C
C

SBS

DTC & ENET:

One port per
Vocoder plus
one port per
outgoing trunk.

BTS

Forward RF Capacity:
links use available
BTS TX power
Sufficient vocoders/selectors
required in BSC SBS, one per
simultaneous call on the system.
8 Vocoders per SBS card, 12
cards per shelf, 4 shelves per
SBS cabinet.

Reverse RF Capacity:
links cause noise floor
rise, use mobile power

PSTN trunk groups must

be dimensioned to
support erlang load.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 102

Lucent
Lucent CDMA
CDMA Network
Network
Architecture
Architecture

www.lucent.com
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 103

Lucent CDMA System Architecture

PSTN &
Other MTXs

ECP
Executive
Cellular
Processor
Complex
(ECPC)

5ESS-2000 DCS

BTS

Circuit Switch
Platform

CDMA Speech
Handling Equipment

Channel ACU
Unit
Cluster

Packet Switch
Platform

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Baseband
Combiner & Radio

Baseband
Combiner & Radio

Baseband
Combiner & Radio

7 - 104

The Lucent ECP

ECP
Executive
Cellular
Processor
Complex
(ECPC)

February, 2005

Executive Cellular Processor

Primary functions
Call Processing
Mobility Management
HLR-VLR access
Intersystem call delivery (IS-41C)
Inter-MTX handover (IS-41C)
Billing Data Capture
Calling Features & Services
Collecting System OMs, Pegs
High reliability, redundancy

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 105

The Lucent #5ESS and Access Manager

PSTN &
Other MTXs

5ESS-2000 DCS
Circuit Switch
Platform

CDMA Speech
Handling Equipment

Primary functions
vocoding
soft handoff management
FER-based power control
routing of all traffic and control
packets
Scaleable architecture
expand speech handlers
expandable packet switch

Packet Switch
Platform

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 106

The Lucent BTS

Primary function: Air link

generate, radiate, receive
CDMA RF signal IS-95/J.Std. 8
high-efficiency T1 backhaul
test capabilities

BTS

Channel ACU
Unit
Cluster

Baseband
Combiner & Radio

Baseband
Combiner & Radio

Baseband
Combiner & Radio

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 107

Motorola
Motorola CDMA
CDMA Network
Network
Architecture
Architecture

www.motorola.com
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 108

Motorola CDMA System Architecture

PCSC
Personal
Communications
Switching
Center

PSTN

DSC
EMX-2500
or
EMX-5000

OMC-R

BTS (SC614T/611)

OMC-R
Processor

Motorola
Advanced
Wideband
Interface
(MAWI)

Application
Processor
(or SC-UNO)

CBSC

BTS (SC9600/4800/2400)

Mobility Manager

Group Line
Interface (GLI)

Transcoder

Multichannel
CDMA Card (MCC)
PC

Local
Maintenance
Facility
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 109

The Motorola PCSC

EMX-2500

EMX-5000

PSTN

Personal Communications Switching Center

Primary functions
Call Processing
HLR-VLR access
Intersystem call delivery (IS-41C)
Billing Data Capture
Calling Features & Services

DSC
EMX-2500
or
EMX-5000

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 110

The Motorola CBSC

CBSC
Mobility Manager

Centralized Base Station Controller

Mobility Manager
allocation of BTS resources
handoff management
Call management & supervision
Transcoder
vocoding
soft handoff management
FER-based power control
routing of all traffic and control
packets

Transcoder

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 111

The Motorola BTS Family

BTS (SC614T/611)
Motorola
Advanced
Wideband
Interface
(MAWI)

Primary function: Air link

generate, radiate, receive
CDMA RF signal IS95/J.Std. 8
high-efficiency T1
backhaul
test capabilities
SC611 Microcell

BTS (SC9600/4800/2400)
Group Line
Interface (GLI)
Multichannel
CDMA Card (MCC)
PC

Local
Maintenance
Facility

SC614T
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

SC4852
7 - 112

Section I

Introduction
Introduction to
to Optimization
Optimization

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 113

What is Performance Optimization?

The words performance optimization mean different things to
different people, viewed from the perspective of their own jobs
System Performance Optimization includes many different smaller
processes at many points during a systems life
recognizing and resolving system-design-related issues (cant
build a crucial site, too much overlap/soft handoff, coverage
holes, etc.)
cluster testing and cell integration to ensure that new base
station hardware works and that call processing is normal
fine-tuning system parameters to wring out the best possible
call performance
identifying causes of specific problems and customer
complaints, and fixing them
carefully watching system traffic growth and the problems it
causes - implementing short-term fixes to ease hot spots, and
recognizing problems before they become critical

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 114

Performance Optimization Phases/Activities

Phase

Drivers/Objectives

Activities

Main Tools

Success Indicators

RF Design and
Cell Planning

Cover desired area;

have capacity for
anticipated traffic

Plan cells to effectively cover

as needed and divide traffic
load appropriately

Prop. Models,
Test Transmitters,
planning tools

Model results

New Cluster
Testing and
Cell Integration

Ensure cells properly

constructed and
configured to give
normal performance

Drive-test: coverage, all

handoff boundaries, all call
events and scenarios

Drive-test tools;
cell diagnostics and
hardware test

All handoffs occur;

all test cases
verified

Solve Specific
Performance
Problems

Identify problems
from complaints or
statistics; fix them!

Detect, Investigate, Resolve

performance problems

Drive-test tools,
system stats,
customer reports

Identified
problems are
resolved

Well-System
Performance
Management

Ensure present plant

is giving best possible
performance

Watch stats: Drops, Blocks,

Access Failures; identify/fix hot
spots

System statistics

Acceptable levels
and good trends
for all indicators

Capacity
Optimization

Manage congested
areas for most
effective performance

Watch capacity indicators;

identify problem areas, tune
parameters & configuration

Smart optimization
of parameters;
system statistics

Stats-Derived
indicators; carried
traffic levels

Traffic analysis and

trending tools;
prop. models for
cell spliiting; carrier
additions

Sectors are
expanded soon
after first signs of
congestion;
capital budget
remains within
comfortable
bounds

Growth
Management:
Optimizing both
Performance
and Capital
Effectiveness

hello

Overall traffic
increases and
congestion;
competition for capital
during tight times

February, 2005

Predict sector and area

exhaustion: plan and validate
effective growth plan, avoid
integration impact

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 115

Good Performance is so Simple!!

BTS

BTS

FORWARD
LINK

February, 2005

BTS C

BTS B

BTS A

Ec/Io

BTS

One, Two, or Three good signals in handoff

Composite Ec/Io > -10 db
Enough capacity
No resource problems Ive got what I
need

-10

available
power
Traffic
Channels
In use
Paging
Sync
Pilot

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 116

Bad Performance Has Many Causes

+41
+8

360
A

360+33c

BTS

B
BTS

BTS Sector Transmitter

No
Available
Power!
Traffic
Channels
In Use

Paging
Sync
Pilot

BTS Rx Pwr
Overload

CEs

Vocoders
Selectors

BTS A
PN 100

BTS B
PN 99
ACTIVE SEARCH WINDOW

1 mile

11 miles

February, 2005

Weak Signal / Coverage Hole

Pilot Pollution
Excessive Soft Handoff
Handoff Failures, Rogue mobiles
Missing Neighbors
Search Windows Too Small
BTS Resource Overload / No Resources
No Forward Power, Channel
Elements
No available Walsh Codes
No space in Packet Pipes
Pilot Surprise ambush; Slow Handoffs
PN Plan errors
Slow Data Problems: RF or IP congestion
Improper cell or reradiator configuration
Hardware and software failures
But on analysis, all of these problems bad
effects happen because the simple few-signal
ideal CDMA environment isnt possible.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 117

Aeronautical Analogy: Tools for Problem Investigation

Control & Parameters
11500

114.50
118.25
125.75

Messaging

11500

Aeronautical
Investigations
Flight Data Recorder

Cockpit Voice Recorder

CDMA
Investigations

BTS
Temporal Analyzer Data

Layer 3 Message Files

To study the cause of an aeronautical accident, we try to recover the Flight Data
Recorder and the Cockpit Voice Recorder.
To study the cause of a CDMA call processing accident, we review data from the
Temporal Analyzer and the Layer 3 Message Files -- for the same reasons.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 118

Starting Optimization on a New System

RF Coverage Control
try to contain each sectors coverage, avoiding gross spillover
into other sectors
tools: PN Plots, Handoff State Plots, Mobile TX plots
Search Window Settings
find best settings for SRCH_WIN_A, _N, _R
especially optimize SRCH_WIN_A per sector using collected
finger separation data; has major impact on pilot search speed
Neighbor List Tuning
try to groom each sectors neighbors to only those necessary
but be alert to special needs due to topography and traffic
tools: diagnostic data, system logs
Access Failures, Dropped Call Analysis
finally, iterative corrections until within numerical goals
Getting these items into shape provides a solid baseline and foundation from
which future performance issues can be addressed.
February, 2005

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Solving Problems on Existing Systems

CDMA optimization is very different from optimization in analog
technologies such as AMPS
AMPS: a skilled engineer with a handset or simple equipment can
hear, diagnose, and correct many common problems
co-channel, adjacent channel, external interferences
dragged handoffs, frequency plan problems

CDMA impairments have one audible symptom: Dropped Call

voice quality remains excellent with perhaps just a hint of garbling
even as the call approaches dropping in a hostile RF environment

Successful CDMA Optimization requires:

recognition and understanding of common reasons for call failure
capture of RF and digital parameters of the call prior to drop
analysis of call flow, checking messages on both forward and reverse
links to establish what happened, where, and why
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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CDMA Problems Attacked in Optimization

Excessive Access Failures
typical objectives: <2% (IS-95B will bring improvements)
Excessive Dropped Calls
typical objective: ~1%, <2%
Forward Link Interference
typical objective: eliminate situations which prevent handoff!
Slow Handoff
typical objective: eliminate situations which delay handoff!
Handoff Pilot Search Window Issues
avoid handoff drops!
Excessive Soft Handoff
control coverage, not T_Add/T_Drop, to manage soft handoff levels (~<50%)
Grooming Neighbor Lists
if you need it, use it!
Software Bugs, Protocol Violations
Neither system software, nor mobile software, nor the CDMA standard is
perfect. Dont humbly accept problems -- dig in and find out whats happening!

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Sources of CDMA Data and Tools for Processing

HANDSET

CDMA NETWORK EQUIPMENT

Switch
SLM

CM

Switch Data
LPP
ENETlogs
LPP
pegs,
DMS-BUS

DTCs

CBSC
GPSR
TFU1
CDSU
CDSU

SBS
IOC

Vocoders
Selectors

Various
External
Analysis
Tools

BTS

IS-95/J-STD-8
Messages

GPSR

BSM

CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU
CDSU

DISCO 1
DISCO
2
System

CDSU
Ch. Card

DISCO

TFU1

ACC

Txcvr A
Internal Messages
Txcvr B

RFFE A
RFFE B

Txcvr C RFFE C

IS-95/J-STD-008 Messages
Unix-based,
PC-based
Data Analysis
Post-Processing
Tools

Handset
Messages

PC-based
Mobile Data
Capture Tools

PC-based
Mobile Data
Post-Processing
Tools

CDMA optimization data flows from three places:

Switch
CDMA peripherals (CBSC & BTS)
Handset
Each stream of data has a family of software and hardware tools
for collection and analysis
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Department Store Analogy: Tops-Down, Bottoms-Up

ce
n
a
ur
s
In

Co
sts

Profits

TaLosses
xe
s

Management

Dis
trib
utio
n
Capital

Complex!!!

Lea
s

vice
r
e
S
ion
t
c
e
Sel

Simpler

es

ing
s
Stocking Su
i
pp
ert
v
lations
e
R
lie
r
o
d
b
a
L
A
rs

Test Shopper

Con
ven
ienc
Price
e

System
are Administration
w
t
f
o
S
TransProvisioning
mission

nce
Phone
e
r
e
f
r
Inte
alls
C
d
ppe
o
r
D

Switch CBSC

Simpler

Complex!!!

Data C
apture
PSTN TrunkingData
Analys
is
BTS
Neighbor Lists Configuration

Acces
s

Cov
erag
e
Failur
es

Field Tools

Some things are easier to measure from the customer side!

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Aeronautical Analogy: Tools for Problem Investigation

Control & Parameters
11500

114.50
118.25
130.75

Messaging

11500

Aeronautical
Case
Flight Data Recorder

Cockpit Voice Recorder

CDMA Case

BTS
Temporal Analyzer Data

Layer 3 Message Files

To study the cause of an aeronautical accident, we try to recover the Flight Data
Recorder and the Cockpit Voice Recorder.
To study the cause of a CDMA call processing accident, we review data from the
Temporal Analyzer and the Layer 3 Message Files -- for the same reasons.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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So S L O W ! !
IP Data Environment

Backbone
Network
SECURE TUNNELS

PDSN
Home Agent

PDSN/Foreign Agent

Authentication
Authorization
Accounting

AAA

CDMA RF Environment

R-P Interface
BTS

PSTN

t1
Switch

t1

v SEL

t1

(C)BSC/Access Manager

Traditional Telephony

CDMA IOS PPP

CE

IP Data Environment

Internet
VPNs

Wheres My Data?!!

Coverage Holes
Pilot Pollution
Missing Neighbors
Fwd Pwr Ovld
Rev Pwr Ovld
Search Windows
Wireless
Island Cells
Mobile Device
Slow Handoff

Some sessions are tormented by long latency and slow throughput

Where is the problem? Anywhere between user and distant host:
Is the mobile users data device mis-configured and/or congested?
Is the BTS congested, with no power available to produce an SCH?
Poor RF environment, causing low rates and packet retransmission?
Congestion in the local IP network (PCU, R-P, PDSN FA)?
Congestion in the wireless operators backbone (OSSN) network?
Congestion in the PDSN HA?
Congestion in the outside-world internet or Private IP network?
Is the distant host congested, with long response times?
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Finding Causes of Latency and Low Throughput

Test
Server
IP Data Environment

Internet
VPNs

PDSN/Foreign Agent

Backbone
Network
SECURE TUNNELS

PDSN
Home Agent

Test
Server

Authentication
Authorization
Accounting

AAA

CDMA RF Environment

R-P Interface
BTS

PSTN

t1
Switch

t1

v SEL

t1

(C)BSC/Access Manager

Traditional Telephony

CDMA IOS PPP

CE

IP Data Environment

Test
Server

Coverage Holes
Pilot Pollution
Missing Neighbors
Fwd Pwr Ovld
Rev Pwr Ovld
Search Windows
Wireless
Island Cells
Mobile Device
Slow Handoff

IP network performance can be measured using test servers

Problems between mobile a local test server? The problem is local
check RF conditions, stats: poor environment, SCH blocking?
if the RF is clean, investigate BSC/PCU/R-P/PDSN-FA
Local results OK, problems accessing test server at PDSN-HA?
problem is narrowed to backbone network, or PDSN-HA
Results OK even through test server at PDSN-HA
then the problem is in the public layers beyond.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Autonomous
Autonomous Data
Data Collection
Collection
By
By Subscriber
Subscriber Handsets
Handsets

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Autonomous Collection:
A New Way to See Network Performance
Collection Server
software download
collected data upload
data management, analysis

BTS

PDSN/Foreign Agent

Internet
VPNs

PDSN
Home Agent

Backbone
Network
SECURE TUNNELS
Authentication
Authorization
Accounting

AAA

BTS
T

R-P Interface
BTS

PSTN

t1
Switch

t1

v SEL

t1

(C)BSC/Access Manager

BTS

An exciting new trend in network RF performance is to embed data

collection software on mobile platforms
Offers big advantages for RF optimization cost/effectiveness

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Using Autonomous Collection

Collection Server
software download
collected data upload
data management, analysis

BTS

PDSN/Foreign Agent
BTS
Backbone
Internet
Network
T SECURE TUNNELS T
VPNs
PDSN Authentication
Authorization
R-P Interface
Home Agent Accounting AAA

BTS

PSTN

t1
Switch

t1 v

SEL

t1

(C)BSC/Access Manager BTS

A Server downloads software to a large population of subscriber mobiles

Mobiles collect on custom profiles
all or groups of mobiles can be enabled/disabled
new triggers can be rapidly developed and downloaded when desired
Mobiles upload compacted packets to server driven by custom triggers
may be immediately if needed, or at low-traffic pre-programmed times
collected data can include location/GPS/call event/L3
messaging/timestamps/etc.
Server manages data, provides filtering and reporting
Performance optimizers use terminals and post-processing software
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Advantages of Autonomous Collection

Mobile-reported data can be
location-binned
post-processing provides
visual identification of problem
areas
Collection can be rapidly enabled
per cell or area for immediate
investigation of problem reports
Requires less employee drive time
for collection
Customer mobiles cover area
more densely than drivetesters
Customer mobiles include inbuilding populations
Individual mobile identification can
be included with customer
permission for direct customer
service interaction

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 130

Conventional
Conventional Field
Field Tools
Tools

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 131

CDMA Field Test Tools

Field Collection Tools using Handset Data
Qualcomm

Motorola
Grayson

MDM, CAIT

Agilent
(HP + SAFCO)
Comarco

PN Scanners
Agilent
(HP + SAFCO)

Berkeley
Varitronics

Grayson

Qualcomm

DTI

Willtech

Willtech
Ericsson
TEMS

There are many commercial CDMA field test tools

Characteristics of many test tools:
capture data from data ports on commercial handsets
log data onto PCs using proprietary software
can display call parameters, messaging, graphs, and maps
store data in formats readable for post-processing analysis
small and portable, easy to use in vehicles or even on foot
A few considerations when selecting test tools:
does it allow integration of network and mobile data?
Cost, features, convenience, availability, and support
new tools are introduced every few months - investigate!
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Qualcomms MDM: Mobile Diagnostic Monitor

The Qualcomm Mobile Diagnostic
Monitor was the industrys first field
diagnostic tool
used industry-wide in the early
deployment of CDMA
pictures at right from Sprints first
1996-7 CDMA trials in Kansas City
Qualcomms Mobile Diagnostic Monitor
CDMA handset (customer provided)
Proprietary connecting cable
PC software for collection and field preanalysis
Temporal analyzer display mode
Messaging

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Graysons Invex3G Tool

100 MB ethernet connection to
PC
the eight card slots can hold
receivers or dual-phone cards
theres also room for two
internal PN scanners
Multiple Invex units can be
cascaded for multi-phone loadtest applications
Cards are field-swappable Users can reconfigure the unit
in the field for different tasks
without factory assistance

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 134

Grayson Invex 1x Data Example

153.6
kb/s

This mobile is in a 2-way soft handoff

(two green FCH walsh codes
assigned) in the middle of a downlink
SCH burst. Notice walsh code #3, 4
chips long, is assigned as an SCH
but only on one sector, and the
downlink data speed is 153.6kb/s.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 135

Grayson Invex 1xData Example

F-SCH rates 153.6 kbps; R-SCH 76.8kbps

CDMA Status

PN Scanner Data
Current Data Task Status

Layer-3 Messages

RF100
v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott BaxterTechnical Introduction to Wireless -- 1997 Scott Baxter - V0.0
February,
2005

136

WillTech Tools
Blue Rose platform can
manage multiple phones and
collect data
Internal processor
manages test operations
independently for standalone operation
Internal PCMCIA flash
card provides storage
An external PC can display
collected data during or
after data collection

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 137

Agilent Drive-Test Tools

Agilent offers Drive-Test tools
Serial interfaces for up to four
CDMA phones
A very flexible digital receiver
with several modes
PN Scanner
Fast, GPS-locked, can scan
two carrier frequencies
Spectrum Analyzer
Can scan entire 800 or 1900
mHz. Bands
Base-Station Over-Air Tester
(BOAT)
Can display all walsh channel
activity on a specific sector
Useful for identifying hardware
problems, monitoring
instantaneous traffic levels, etc.
Post-Processing tool: OPAS32
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 138

Comarco Mobile Tools

X-Series Units for more dataintensive collection activities
Multiple handsets can be
collected
Data is displayed and
collected on PC
LT-Series provides integrated
display and logging
"Workbench" Post-Processing
tool analyzes drive-test files

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 139

PN Scanners
Why PN scanners? Because phones cant
scan remaining set fast enough, miss
transient interfering signals
Berkeley Varitronics
high-resolution, GPS-locked
full-PN scan speed 26-2/3 ms.
2048 parallel processors for very fast
detection of transient interferors
Agilent (formerly Hewlett-Packard)
high resolution, GPS-locked
full-PN scan speed 1.2 sec.
Integrated with spectrum analyzer and
phone call-processing tool
Grayson Wireless
New digital receiver provides CDMA PN
searcher and and sector walsh domain
displays

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 140

Post-Processing Tools
Post-Processing tools display drive-test files
for detailed analysis - Faster, more
effective than studying data playback
with collection tools alone
Actix Analyzer
Imports/analyzes data from almost
every brand of drive-test collection
tool
Grayson Interpreter
Imports/analyzes data from Grayson
Wireless Inspector, Illuminator, and
Invex3G
Agilent OPAS32
Imports/analyzes a variety of data
Nortel RF Optimizer
Can merge/analyze drive-test and
Nortel CDMA system data
Wavelink
Comarco "Workbench" Tool
Verizon/Airtouch internal tool DataPro
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

OPAS32

COMARCO

7 - 141

Drive-Tests: Phones

Maintenance
Maintenance Features
Features of
of
CDMA
CDMA Handsets
Handsets

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 142

Handsets as Tools: Simple but always Available!

Most CDMA handsets provide some form of maintenance display (Debug
Mode) as well as instrumentation access
all CDMA drive-test tools use handsets as their front-ends
Using the handset as a manual tool without Commercial Test Tools:
Enter the maintenance mode by special sequence of keystrokes
Displayed Parameters
PN Offset, Handset Mode, Received RF Level , Transmit Gain Adjust
Maintenance Display Applications
best serving cell/sector
simple call debugging (symptoms of weak RF, forward link
interference, etc.)
Handset Limitations during manual observation
no memory: real-time observations only; no access to messages or
call details; serving PN offset not updated during voice calls

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 143

Older Qualcomm/Sony Maintenance Displays

Press This:
Menu

See This:

continue:

See This:

MAIN MENU
1:Volume
2:Call Info
3:Security

DEBUG 0
1:Screen
2:Test Calls
3:CDMA Only

DEBUG 0
4:Errors
5:Clr Errors
6:13K Voice

FEATURES 4
1:AutoAnswer
2:AutoRetry
3:Scratch

D
D

318 2 9D
X A
7F

ENTER FIELD
SERVICE CODE
******
0 0 0 0 0 0 *
(* or correct code, if different)
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

See following
legend for
maintenance
display values
7 - 144

Qualcomm & Sony Phones with Jog Dials

Enter 111111
Press dial in for OPTIONS
Dial to FIELD DEBUG, press
enter Field Debug Security Code
press Screen

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Interpreting the QCP Maintenance Display

0 - Pilot Channel Acquisition Substate
1 - Sync Channel Acquisition Substate
2 - MS Idle State
3 - System Access State
4 - Traffic Channel State

Receive State

318 2 94
X A
7F

PN Offset

Receive Power

Unsupported Transmit Adjust

80 -109
A = active pilots
80 -109
X = exit reason
00
0A
14
1E
28

February, 2005

0
-5
-10
-15
-20

QCP- QCP1900 800

FF -67
F5 -70
E6 -75
D7 -80
C8 -85
B9 -90
AA -95
9B -100
8C -105
80 -109

-64
-67
-72
-77
-82
-87
-92
-97
-102
-106

Receive Power Conversion:

RXdbm=XXDEC / 3 - 63.25 (800 MHz)
RXdbm=XXDEC / 3 - 66.25 (1900 MHz)
(if XX>7F, use XX = XXDEC-256)
Transmit Gain Adjust Conversion:
TXADJdb=XXDEC / 2
Transmit Power Output Conversion:
TXdbm= -73 -RXDBM - TXADJdb (800 MHz)
TXdbm= -76 -RXDBM - TXADJdb (1900 MHz)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 146

Kyocera 2035 Maintenance Mode

Steps to enter maintenance
mode:
111111
Enter
Options: Debug
Enter
Enter Field Debug Code
000000
Field Debug
Debug Screen
Enter
Basic
Enter
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 147

Kyocera 6035 Maintenance Mode

111111
Jog > Options
Jog > Debug
Open flip to continue
Enter Code
000000
OK
SCREEN

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 148

Early Samsung Maintenance Display

Press This:

See This:

continue:

SVC

SVC

Main Menu
1:Call Logs
2:Phone Book

Menu

See This:

Debug Menu
1:Screen
2:Test Calls

SVC

Debug Menu
3:Errors
4:Erase Error

SVC

Setup
1:Auto Retry
2:Anykey Ans
1
0
SVC

Service Code
??????

0 0 0 0 0 0 *
(* or correct code, if different)
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

SVC

S04379 SI0 1
T-63 D105-06
P016 CH0600
See following
legend for
maintenance
display values
7 - 149

Samsung SCH-3500 Maintenance Display

Here are the steps to enter
maintenance mode:
MENU
SETUP
0 (undocumented trap door)
000000 (operators code)
Screen
See the Samsung idle and in-call
maintenance screens at the
end of the Samsung phones.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 150

Samsung SCH-8500 Maintenance Display

Here are the steps to enter
maintenance mode:
[Menu]
[down][down][down][down]
[down][down][down]
Setup/Tool [OK]
[0]
Service Code ??????
[0] [4] [0] [7] [9] [3]
Screen [OK]
See the Samsung idle and incall maintenance screens
at the end of the Samsung
phones.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Samsung SCH-A500 Maintenance Display

Here are the steps to enter
maintenance mode:
Select settings
select display
select
enter 0
enter 040793
See the Samsung idle and incall maintenance screens
at the end of the Samsung
phones.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 152

Samsung SCH-A460 Maintenance Display

Enter the following to enter
maintenance mode:
##DEBUG
[OK]
[OK]
See the Samsung idle and incall maintenance screens
at the end of the Samsung
pages.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Samsung Uproar Maintenance Display

The uproar is no longer in
production but included an
MP3 player -- the ultimate
consumer device.
If youre still enjoying one,
here are the steps to enter the
maintenance display:
1. Press the MENU button.
2. Press 9 on the keypad.
3. Then press and hold the * key
until the field service code
screen appears.
4. Then type in the field service
code 040793

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Interpreting Samsung Maintenance Display:

Acquisition, Idle, and Access States

Display toggles between:

System Identifier (SID)
Network Identifier (NID)

Slot Cycle Index

svc
Transmit
Gain Adjust,
db

0 - Pilot Channel Acquisition Substate

1 - Sync Channel Acquisition Substate
2 - MS Idle State
3 - System Access State
4 - Traffic Channel State
5,6,7 - various call service options

Processing State
Receive
Power,
dbm

S04379 SI0 1
T-63 D085-06
P016 CH0600

Ec/Io, db
(primary PN only)
Frequency
(channel #)

PN Offset
Transmit Power Output Calculation:
TXdbm= -73 -RXDBM - TXADJdb (800 MHz)
TXdbm= -76 -RXDBM - TXADJdb (1900 MHz)
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Interpreting Samsung Maintenance Display:

Traffic Channel State
Transmit
Vocoder Rate
1 = 1/8
2 = 1/4
4 = 1/2
8 = Full
Transmit
Gain Adjust,
db

Receive
Vocoder
Rate

Walsh
code
assigned

0 - Pilot Channel Acquisition Substate

1 - Sync Channel Acquisition Substate
2 - MS Idle State
3 - System Access State
4 - Traffic Channel State
5,6,7 - various call service options

Processing State

svc

TV1 RV8 08 7
T-63 D085-06
P016 CH0600

Receive
Power,
dbm
Ec/Io, db
(primary PN only)
Frequency
(channel #)

PN Offset
Transmit Power Output Calculation:
TXdbm= -73 -RXDBM - TXADJdb (800 MHz)
TXdbm= -76 -RXDBM - TXADJdb (1900 MHz)
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Entering Denso Debug Mode

Enter ##DEBUG (##33284)

Scroll down to SAVE
Press OK
Highlight SERVICE SCREEN
Press OK

If you want to make a test call,

dial the digits and press OK
while in idle mode

February, 2005

D
CBV: 3957
ABU: 3954 ABT: 031
ARF: 0000 CCL: 01
SID: 04157
NID: 00001
CH: 0100 RSSI: 093
DPN: 084 TX:-46
BFRM:0000000968
TFRM:0000135712
FER:% 000.71
LT: 036:06:36
LG: -086:45:36
EC: -16 -63 -63
PN: 084 084 084
FNGLK: Y Y N
WLSH: 01 01 01
ACT: 084 484 096
-01 -01 200
CND: 220 332 200
200 332 NGH: 076
080 340 068 196
O56 320 220 316
344 488 196 200
392 124 128 084
224 008 084

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 157

Denso Maintenance Display

Charging Battery Voltage
Average Battery Voltage
System ID
Network ID
RF Channel Frequency
Digital PN Offset
Number of Bad Frames
Number of Good Frames
Base Station coordinates
Current status of Rake Fingers
Active Pilot Set
Candidate Pilot Set

February, 2005

D
CBV: 3957
ABV: 3954 ABT: 031
ARF: 0000 CCL: 01
SID: 04157
NID: 00001
CH: 0100 RSSI: 093
DPN: 084 TX:-46
BFRM:0000000968
TFRM:0000135712
FER:% 000.71
LT: 036:06:36
LG: -086:45:36
EC: -16 -63 -63
PN: 084 084 084
FNGLK: Y Y N
WLSH: 01 01 01
ACT: 084 484 096
-01 -01 200
CND: 220 332 200
200 332 NGH: 076
080 340 068 196
O56 320 220 316
344 488 196 200
392 124 128 084
224 008 084
RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Average Battery Temperature

Received Signal Strength

Estimated Transmitter
Power Output
Frame Erasure Rate, Percent

Neighbor Pilot Set

7 - 158

Early Sanyo Dual-Band Phones

Press This:

Menu

press menu 7, 0
enter in DEBUGM (332846)
screens are similar to QCP phones

D
0

318 2 94
X A
7F

3 3 2 8 4 6
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 159

Sanyo SPC-4500 Maintenance Display

February, 2005

Choose the following:

DISPLAY
OK
0
OK
Enter Code: 0 0 0 0 0 0
Debug Menu
SCREEN
OK

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 160

Sanyo SPC-4900 Maintenance Display

Call Proc. State

##
040793
select MENU/OK button
scroll to save Phone #
select

February, 2005

PN offset

Receive
Power
Io

Channel
Frequency

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 161

Entering Maintenance Mode: Motorola StarTac

Contact your service provider to obtain your phones Master
Subscriber entity Lock (MSL). Then enter the following:
FCN 000000 000000 0 RCL You'll be prompted for your
MSL, enter it and press STO.
New prompts will appear, Press STO in response to
each prompt until no more appear. Dont delay continue quickly and enter:
FCN 0 0 * * T E S T M O D E STO
The display will briefly show US then just '.
Press 55#.
Step 1 will appear with its current setting displayed.
Press * to accept and move on to the next step. Repeat
for steps 2-8.
Step 9 (Option byte 2) is the only step requiring manual
changes. Enter 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (The leftmost bit now set to
'1' is what enables test mode.)
Now press STO to accept the entry and exit back to the '
prompt.
Power off and back on.
You should now be in test mode!
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February, 2005

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Last Call Indicator

NI No Indication yet
MR Mobile Release
BR Base Sta. Release
TC Traffic Channel Lost
L2 Layer 2 Ack Fail
NC No Channel Assn Msg

N5 N5M failure
BS BS Ack failure
WO L3 WFO State Timeout
MP Max Probe Failure
PC Paging Channel loss
RR Reorder or Release on PCH
?? Unknown Condition

Battery
Local Time Condition
RX Power
Strongest Active
#
#
Channel
PN
Ec/Io Actives Neighbors Number
Strongest Neighbor
# Cand- Call Proc Last Call
Exit Reason
PN
Ec/Io idates
State
Rx Power Tx Power Last Call FER% # Drops
dbm
dbm (Io)
Current
# Calls

Service Option

SID

NID

Call Processing States ORG Call Origination

CP CP Exit
RST CP Restart
RTC Restricted
8V 8K voice original 13S 13K SMS
PLT Pilot Acquisition
IL 8K loopback
8MO 8K Markov Old SYN Sync Acquisition
TIM Timing Change
8EV 8K EVRC
DAT Data
Background Sch
8S 8K SMS
8M 8K Markov New BKS
IDL
13L 13K loopback
13M 13K Markov New OVD Idle
Overhead
13V
13K
Voice
PAG
Paging
February, 2005
RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott
Baxter

Current Service Option

SMS
ORD
REG
TCI
WFO
WFA
CON
REL
NON

Short Message Svc

Order Response
Registration
Tfc Ch Initialization
Waiting for Order
Waiting for Answer
Conversation state
Release
7 - 164
No State

Motorola V120C Series

MENU 073887*
Enter 000000 for security code.
Scroll down to Test Mode.
Enter subscriber entity lock code
if required by your phone

Same maintenance display as

shown for Startac

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Motorola V60C
MENU 073887*
Enter 000000 for security
code.
Scroll down to Test Mode.
Enter subscriber entity lock
code if required by your phone
Same maintenance display as
shown for Startac

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Audiovox 8100, 9155

Press ##27732726 [End]
Select the Debug screen.
PN, channel#, SID, NID, mode (13K, EVRC, etc)
Ec/Io, RX Level, TX Level.
You cannot make a call while in any of the
maintenance screens.

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NeoPoint Phones
Although NeoPoint went out of business in
June, 2001, there are still some NeoPoint
handsets in general use
Press the M (menu) key
Select Preferences (using the up-arrow key)
Enter 040793
Choose Debug Screen [Select]
Now youre in maintenance mode!

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GoldStar TouchPoint
To enter maintenance mode, just key in:
# # D E B U G SAVE

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Nokia 6185 Maintenance Display

Enter *3001#12345# MENU
Scroll down to Field test
Press Select
Scroll up to Enabled
Press OK
Power the phone off and on
You should now be in Field test mode

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Older Nokia Models Maintenance Display

Enter *3001#12345# MENU
Scroll down to Field test
Press Select
Scroll up to Enabled
Press OK
Power the phone off and on
You should now be in Field test mode and the following screens will be
available:

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Maintenance Display Screens of Nokia Handsets

The following screens appear in field test mode on Nokia HD881 series of Handsets:
CSST
XXXXX
RSSI
CCCC
RX
TX

Screen 1: General
CS State
Idle: PN Offset
TFC: #Actv, FER
RSSI dBm
Paging Channel #
RX power, dbm
TX power, dbm

Screen 2: Paging CH Info

CSST
CS State
PGCH
Paging Channel #
CURSO
Current Service Option
FER
Frame Error Rate
Screen 4: NAM Info
OwnNumber
Mobile MIN
ESN
Mobile Station ESN
Preferred Sys
P
1=AMPS, 2=CDMA
A
February, 2005

Operator Selected
(1=A, 2=B, 3=both

Screen 5: NAM Info

PPCA
Primary Channel A
SPCA
Secondary Channel A
PPCB
Primary Channel B
SPCB
Secondary Channel B
L
Local Use
A
Access Overload Class
Screen 6: BS & Access. Info.
SID
Current SID
NID
Current NID
DBUS
DBUS (Handsfree?)
Screen 7: BS Protocol Rev. Level
BASE#
BASE_ID (sys par msg)
P_REV
P_REV (sync msg)
MIN_P_REV MIN_P_REV (sync msg.
Screen 8: Time Information
CSST
CS State
MMDDYY
Date from System Time
HHMMSS
System Time

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Nokia Maintenance Display Screens (continued)

Screen 9: Acquisition Information
TA
TADD
TD
TDROP
TC
TCOMP
TT
TTDROP
WW1
Active Window
WW2
Neighbor Window
WW3
Remaining Window
Screen 10: Active Set (#1-3)
PPN
Pilot PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
K
Keep? 1
PPN
Pilot PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
K
Keep? 1
PPN
Pilot PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
K
Keep? 1

February, 2005

Screen 11: Active Set (#4-6)

PPN
Pilot PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
K
Keep? 1
PPN
Pilot PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
K
Keep? 1
PPN
Pilot PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
K
Keep? 1

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

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Nokia Maintenance Display Screens (continued)

Screen 12: Neighbor Set (#1-5)
PPN
NBR 1 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 2 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 3 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 4 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 5 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units

Screen 14: Neighbor Set (#11-15)

PPN
NBR 11 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 12 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 13 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 14 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 15 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units

Screen 13: Neighbor Set (#6-10)

PPN
NBR 6 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 7 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 8 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 9 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 10 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units

Screen 15: Neighbor Set (#16-20)

PPN
NBR 16 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 17 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 18 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 19 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
NBR 20 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units

February, 2005

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Nokia Maintenance Display Screens (continued)

Screen 16: Candidate Set (#1-5)
PPN
CAND 1 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
CAND 2 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
CAND 3 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
CAND 4 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
PPN
CAND 5 PN Offset
EC
Ec/Io in 1/2 db units
Screen 17-22: Task Stack Ck Info
TASKN
Task Name
FREE
Worst-Cs Stack Free Sp
Screen 23: Stack Status Info.
Task Stack
Overflow ind. by shift
Sys Stack
2=sys stack overflow
Screen 24: Codec Registers

February, 2005

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Novatel Merlin C201 Card

Enter # # D E B U G to enter maintenance mode.
To exit, just click OK box in the Debug window.

February, 2005

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Audiovox Thera Maintenance Mode Screens

How to enter
Debug Mode:
[ctrl] [D] [enter]
Advanced Usr Pwd:
##DEBUG [enter]
Protocol Statistics

February, 2005

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The Future is Here! CDMA2000

Whats
Whats New
New in
in CDMA2000?
CDMA2000?

February, 2005

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Whats New in CDMA2000?

CDMA2000 is the next-generation family of CDMA standards
CDMA2000 Phase I: 1xRTT
Independent I and Q modulation almost doubles capacity, compared to
old IS-95 modulation with I and Q duplication
New types of channels are provided
fundamental channels like IS-95 traffic channels, but better coded so
they require less air-interface capacity; circuit-switched
new supplemental channels can carry fast data (153K, 230K, even
307Kbps); assigned for packet bursts, not continuously
also optional new administrative channels for smoother operations
a sector can carry a dynamic mix of both new channel types, as well
as old IS-95 traffic channels simultaneously!
CDMA2000 Phase II: 1xEV DO, 1xEV DV, and 3xRTT
3xRTT: Faster data on a bundle of 3 1x carriers; probably wont be used
1xEV DO: 1x Evolution, Data Only (IS-856) Qualcomm & Lucent
Fast data up to 2.4 Mbps on a dedicated 1.2 MHz. CDMA Carrier
1xEV DV: 1x Evolution, Data and Voice 1Xtreme Motorola & Nokia
Fast data up to 5 Mbps on a 1.2 MHz. carrier still supporting a mix of
fast data and voice traffic
February, 2005

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The CDMA Migration Path to 3G

CDMAone
Generation
Technology
Spectrum
Signal
Bandwidth,
#Users

1G

2G

AMPS
RL

FL

2G

IS-95A/
IS-95B
J-Std008
RL

FL

RL

FL

2.5G? 3G

3G

3G

IS-2000: IS-2000: 1xEV-DO 1xEV-DO 1xEV-DV

Rev. 0 Rev. A
1xRTT
3xRTT
1xTreme
IS-856
IS-856
RL

FL

RL

FL

1250 kHz. F: 3x 1250k

30 kHz. 1250 kHz. 1250 kHz.
R: 3687k
50-80 voice 120-210 per
1
20-35
25-40
3 carriers
and data

None,
Data
Capabilities 2.4K by
modem
Features:
Incremental
Progress

CDMA2000 / IS-2000

First
System,
Capacity
&
Handoffs

February, 2005

14.4K

First
CDMA,
Capacity,
Quality

64K

Improve
d Access
Smarter
Handoffs

153K
307K
230K
Enhanced
Access
Channel
Structure

RL

FL

1250 kHz.
59 active
users

2.4 Mb/s
1.0 Mb/s 153DL
Kb/s
UL

Faster
data rates
on shared
3-carrier
bundle

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

High data
rates on
data-only
CDMA
carrier

RL

FL

RL

FL

1250 kHz. 1250 kHz.

59 active Many packet
users
users
3.1 Mb/s
DL
1.8 Mb/s
UL

5 Mb/s

Higher
data rates
on dataonly
CDMA
carrier

High data
rates on
Data-Voice
shared
CDMA
carrier

7 - 180

Modulation Techniques of 1xEV Technologies

1xEV, 1x Evolution, is a family of alternative
fast-data schemes that can be implemented on a
1x CDMA carrier.
1xEV DO means 1x Evolution, Data Only,
originally proposed by Qualcomm as High Data
Rates (HDR).
Up to 2.4576 Mbps forward, 153.6 kbps
reverse
A 1xEV DO carrier holds only packet data,
and does not support circuit-switched voice
Commercially available in 2003
1xEV DV means 1x Evolution, Data and Voice.
Max throughput of 5 Mbps forward, 307.2k
reverse
Backward compatible with IS-95/1xRTT
voice calls on the same carrier as the data
Not yet commercially available; work
continues
All versions of 1xEV use advanced modulation
techniques to achieve high throughputs.

February, 2005

QPSK
CDMA IS-95,
IS-2000 1xRTT,
and lower rates
of 1xEV-DO, DV

16QAM
1xEV-DO
at highest
rates

64QAM
1xEV-DV
at highest
rates

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 181

Channel Structure of 1xEV-DO vs. 1xRTT

CHANNEL STRUCTURE
IS-95 and 1xRTT
many simultaneous users, each
with steady forward and reverse
traffic channels
transmissions arranged,
requested, confirmed by layer-3
messages with some delay
1xEV-DO -- Very Different:
Forward Link goes to one user at a
time like TDMA!
users are rapidly time-multiplexed,
each receives fair share of
available sector time
instant preference given to user
with ideal receiving conditions, to
maximize average throughput
transmissions arranged and
requested via steady MAC-layer
walsh streams very immediate!
February, 2005

IS-95 AND 1xRTT

Many users simultaneous forward
and reverse traffic channels
PILOT
SYNC
PAGING
F-FCH1
F-FCH2
F-FCH3

W0
W32
W1
W17
W25
W41

F-SCH

W3

BTS

F-FCH4 W53

ATs

1xEV-DO

(Access Terminals)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

AP

(Access Point)

1xEV-DO Forward Link

AP

7 - 182

Power Management of 1xEV-DO vs. 1xRTT

IS-95: VARIABLE POWER
TO MAINTAIN USER FER
Maximum Sector Transmit Power
8
7

power

4
3
2

User 1
PAGING
SYNC
PILOT

time

1xEV-DO: MAX POWER ALWAYS,

DATA RATE OPTIMIZED

power

POWER MANAGEMENT
IS-95 and 1xRTT:
sectors adjust each users
channel power to maintain a
preset target FER
1xEV-DO IS-856:
sectors always operate at
maximum power
sector output is timemultiplexed, with only one
user served at any instant
The transmission data rate is
set to the maximum speed
the user can receive at that
moment

time

February, 2005

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CDMA Network for Circuit-Switched Voice Calls

(C)BSC/Access Manager
Switch

PSTN

t1

t1

SEL

t1

CE
BTS

The first commercial IS-95 CDMA systems provided only circuitswitched voice calls

February, 2005

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CDMA 1xRTT Voice and Data Network

Internet
VPNs
PDSN
Home Agent

PDSN
Foreign Agent
Backbone
Network
Authentication
Authorization
Accounting

AAA

(C)BSC/Access Manager
Switch

PSTN

t1

t1

SEL

t1

CE
BTS

CDMA2000 1xRTT networks added two new capabilities:

channel elements able to generate and carry independent streams of
symbols on the I and Q channels of the QPSK RF signal
this roughly doubles capacity compared to IS-95
a separate IP network implementing packet connections from the mobile
through to the outside internet
including Packet Data Serving Nodes (PDSNs) and a dedicated direct
data connection (the Packet-Radio Interface) to the heart of the BSC
The overall connection speed was still limited by the 1xRTT air interface
February, 2005

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1xEV-DO Overlaid On Existing 1xRTT Network

Internet
VPNs
PDSN
Home Agent

PDSN
Foreign Agent
Backbone
Network
Authentication
Authorization
Accounting

AAA

DO
Radio
Network
Controller
(C)BSC/Access Manager

Switch

CE

PSTN

t1

DO-OMC

t1

SEL

t1

CE
BTS

1xEV-DO requires faster resource management than 1x BSCs can give

this is provided by the new Data Only Radio Network Controller (DO-RNC)
A new controller and packet controller software are needed in the BTS to
manage the radio resources for EV sessions
in some cases dedicated channel elements and even dedicated backhaul is
used for the EV-DO traffic
The new DO-OMC administers the DO-RNC and BTS PCF addition
Existing PDSNs and backbone network are used with minor upgrading
The following sections show Lucent, Motorola, and Nortels specific solutions
February, 2005

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3G
3G Information
Information Resources
Resources
Bibliography
Bibliography -- Articles
Articles -- Web
Web Links
Links

February, 2005

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Bibliography, 3G Air Interface Technologies

3G Wireless Demystified by Lawrence Harte, Richard Levine, and Roman Kitka
488pp. Paperback, 2001 McGraw Hill, ISSBN 0-07-136301-7 $50. For both non-technical and
technical readers. An excellent starting point for understanding all the major technologies and
the whole 3G movement. Comfortable plain-language explanations of all the 2G and 3G air
interfaces, yet including very succinct, complete, and rigorously correct technical details. You
will still want to read books at a deeper technical level in your chosen technology, and may
sometimes turn to the applicable standards for finer details, but this book will give you what you
wont find elsewhere -- how everything relates in the big picture, and probably everything you
care to know about technologies other than your own.
"Wireless Network Evolution 2G to 3G" by Vijay K. Garg. 764pp. 2002 Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 013-028077-1. $80. Excellent technical tutorial and reference. The most complete and
comprehensive technical detail seen in a single text on all these technologies: IS-95 2G CDMA,
CDMA2000 3G CDMA, UMTS/WCDMA, Bluetooth, WLAN standards (802.11a, b, WILAN).
Includes good foundation information on CDMA air interface traffic capacity, CDMA system
design and optimization, and wireless IP operations. Excellent level of operational detail for IS95 systems operating today as well as thorough explanations of 2.5G and 3G enhancements.
"3G Wireless Networks" by Clint Smith and Daniel Collins. 622pp. Paperback. 2002 McGraw-Hill,
ISBN 0-07-136381-5. $60. An excellent overview of all 3G technologies coupled with good
detail of network architectures, channel structures, and general operational details. Good
treatment of both CDMA2000 and UMTS/WCDMA systems.
WCDMA: Towards IP Mobility and Mobile Internet by Tero Ojanpera and Ramjee Prasad. 476pp.
2001 Artech House, ISSBN 1-58053-180-6. $100. The most complete and definitive work on
UMTS (excellent CDMA2000, too!). CDMA principles, Mobile Internet, RF Environment &
Design, Air Interface, WCDMA FDD standard, WCDMA TDD, CDMA2000, Performance,
Heirarchical Cell Structures, Implementation, Network Planning, Basic IP Principles, Network
Architectures, Standardization, Future Directions. This is a MUST HAVE for a one-book library!
February, 2005

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More Bibliography,
3G Air Interface Technologies
The UMTS Network and Radio Access Technology by Dr. Jonathan P. Castro, 354
pp. 2001 John Wiley, ISBN 0 471 81375 3, $120. An excellent, well-organized, and
understandable exploration of UMTS. Includes radio interface, channel
explanations, link budgets, network architecture, service types, ip network
considerations, a masterful tour de force through the entire subject area. Very
readable, too!
WCDMA for UMTS by Harri Holma and Antti Toskala, 322 pp. 2000 Wiley, ISBN 0
471 72051 8, $60. Very good overall treatment of UMTS. Excellent introduction to
3G and summary of standardization activities, every level of UMTS/UTRA. Good
overview of CDMA-2000, too!
The GSM Network - GPRS Evolution: One Step Towards UMTS 2nd Edition by
Joachim Tisal, 227pp. paperback, 2001 Wiley, ISBN 0 471 49816 5, $60. Readable
but not overwhelming introduction to GSM in all its aspects (140pp), DECT (11pp),
GPRS (6pp), UMTS (7pp), WAP (25pp), EDGE (10pp).

February, 2005

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Bibliography, The IP Aspect of 3G

Mobile IP: Design, Principles and Practices by Charles E. Perkins, 275 pp., 200, 1998 AddisonWesley, ISBN 0-201-63469-4. $60. Comprehensive view of Mobile IP including home and
foreign agents, advertisement, discovery, registration, datagrams, tunneling, encapsulation,
route optimization, handoffs, firewalls, IPv6, DHCP. Tour-de-force of mobile IP techniques.
Mobile IP Technology for M-Business by Mark Norris, 291 pp., 2001 Artech House, ISSBN 158053-301-9. $67. GPRS overview and background, Mobile IP, Addressing, Routing, Mbusiness, future prospects, IPv4, IPv6, Bluetooth & IrDA summaries.
TCP/IP Explained by Phillip Miller, 1997 Digital Press, ISBN 1-55558-166-8, 518pp. $50. In-depth
understanding of the Internet protocol suite, network access and link layers, addressing,
subnetting, name/address resolution, routing, error reporting/recovery, network management. IF
youre not already strong in TCP/IP, youll need this to fully master Mobile IP.
Cisco Networking Academy Program: First-Year Companion Guide edited by Vito Amato, 1999
Cisco Press, ISBN 1-57870-126-0, 438pp. Textbook supporting a year-long course on
networking technologies for aspiring LAN/WAN (and 3G) technicians and engineers. It covers
every popular networking technology (including all its elements and devices) in deep and
practical detail. Excellent real-world understanding of TCP/IP, as well as the nuts-and-bolts of
everything from physical components to protocols to actual devices such as routers, switches,
etc. You might even want to take the evening courses at a local community college near you.
Cisco Networking Academy Program: Engineering Journal and Workbook, Volume I edited by
Vito Amato, 1999 Cisco Press, ISBN 1-57870-126-x, 291pp. The workbook for the First Year
Companion Guide above. If you want some external structure in your self-study, this workbook
will hold your hand as you climb every step of the ladder, and will lead you step by step through
the sister textbook, ensuring you absorb everything you need to know.

February, 2005

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Bibliography - General CDMA

IS-95 CDMA and CDMA2000: Cellular/PCS Systems Implementation by Vijay K. Garg. 422 pp.
2000 Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-087112-5, $90. IS-95 and CDMA2000 Access technologies,
DSSS, IS-95 air interface, channels, call processing, power control, signaling, soft handoff,
netw. planning, capacity, data. CDMA2000 layers, channels, coding, comparison w/ WCDMA.
CDMA Systems Engineering Handbook by Jhong Sam Lee and Leonard E. Miller, 1998 Artech
House, ISBN 0-89006-990-5. Excellent treatment of CDMA basics and deeper theory, cell and
system design principles, system performance optimization, capacity issues. Recommended.
CDMA RF System Engineering by Samuel C. Yang, 1998 Artech House, ISBN 0-89006-991-3.
Good general treatment of CDMA capacity considerations from mathematical viewpoint.
CDMA Internetworking: Deploying the Open A-Interface by Low and Schneider. 616 pp. 2000
Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-088922-9, $75. A tour-de-force exposition of the networking between
the CDMA BSC, BTS, and mobile, including messaging and protocols of IS-634. Chapters on
SS7, Call Processing, Mobility Management, Supplementary Services, Authentication,
Resource Management (both radio and terrestrial), 3G A-Interface details. One-of-a-kind work!
"CDMA: Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication" by Andrew J. Viterbi. 245 p. AddisonWesley 1995. ISBN 0-201-63374-4, $65. Very deep CDMA Theory. Prestige collectors item.

February, 2005

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Bibliography - General Wireless

Mobile and Personal Communication Services and Systems by Raj Pandya, 334 pp.
2000 IEEE Press, $60. IEEE order #PC5395, ISBN 0-7803-4708-0. Good technical
overview of AMPS, TACS< NMT, NTT, GSM, IS-136, PDC, IS-95, CT2, DECT,
PACS, PHS, mobile data, wireless LANs, mobile IP, WATM, IMT2000 initiatives by
region, global mobile satellite systems, UPT, numbers and identities, performance
benchmarks.
Wireless Telecom FAQs by Clint Smith, 2001 McGraw Hill, ISBN 0-07-134102-1.
Succint, lucid explanations of telecom terms in both wireless and landline
technologies. Includes cellular architecture, AMPS, GSM, TDMA, iDEN, CDMA.
Very thorough coverage; an excellent reference for new technical people or anyone
wishing for clear explanations of wireless terms.
"Mobile Communications Engineering" 2nd. Edition by William C. Y. Lee. 689 pp.
McGraw Hill 1998 $65. ISBN 0-07-037103-2 Lees latest/greatest reference work
on all of wireless; well done.

February, 2005

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Web Links and Downloadable Resources

Scott Baxter: http://www.howcdmaworks.com
Latest versions of all courses are downloadable.
Category - Username - Password
Intro - (none required) - (none required)
RF/CDMA/Performance - shannon - hertz
3G - generation - third
Grayson - telecom - allen
Agilent - nitro - viper
Dr. Ernest Simos Space2000: http://www.cdmaonline.com/ and http://www.3Gonline.com/
CDG: http://www.cdg.org (check out the digivents multimedia viewable sessions)
The IS-95 and IS-2000 CDMA trade marketing webside, CDMA cheerleaders.
GSM: http://www.gsmworld.com
The GSM Association website. Worldwide GSM marketing cheerleaders but also includes some
excellent GSM and GPRS technical overview whitepapers and documents; latest user figures.
UWCC: http://www.uwcc.com
The IS-136 TDMA trade marketing website, TDMA cheerleaders.
RCR News: http://www.rcrnews.com
Wireless Industry trade publication - regulatory, technical, business, marketing news.
Subscribers can access text archives of past articles; very handy in researching events.
Wireless Week: http://www.wirelessweek.com
Wireless Industry trade publication - regulatory, technical, business, marketing news.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 193

More Web Links

3GPP: http://www.3gpp.org/
The operators harmonization group concerned mainly with ETSI-related standards
3GPP2: http://www.3gpp2.org/
The operators harmonization group concerned mainly with IS-95-derived CDMA standards
ITU: http://www.itu.int/imt/
ETSI: http://www.etsi.fr/
UMTS forum: http://www.umts-forum.org/
GSM MoU: http://www.gsmworld.com/
TIA: http://www.tiaonline.org/
T1: http://www.t1.org/
ARIB: http://www.arib.or.jp/arib/english/index.html
TTC: http://www.ttc.or.jp/
TTA: http://www.tta.or.kr/
ETRI: http://www.etri.re.kr/
RAST: http://www.rast.etsi.fi/
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

7 - 194

Course
Course RF100
RF100 Supplement
Supplement

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 1

Supplemental Topics

Link Budgets
Hard Handoff Strategies
Reradiators
Some Operational Measurements and Capacity Considerations
3G Systems

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 2

Section A

Link
Link Budgets
Budgets

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 3

Link Budget Example:

Usage Model and Service Assumptions
Interactive Initial System Design Example

This section
outlines the number
of subscribers and
amount of traffic by
year
This section shows
the variability of
outdoor and indoor
signals, and the
building penetration
loss

February, 2005

v1.2

fill in GREEN fields

YELLOW fields calculate automatically
Step 1. Basic Business Plan Details
Year
Population
Penetration, %
#Customers
BH Erl/Cust
Total BH erl

Launch

3,886,000

3,949,350

4,012,700

4,076,050

4,139,400

4,202,750

0.05%
1,781
0.1
178.1

1.85%
72,933
0.05
3,646.7

3.72%
149,453
0.045
6,725.4

5.64%
229,941
0.05
11,497.0

7.60%
314,451
0.05
15,722.6

9.57%
402,360
0.05
20,118.0

2. Enter building penetration loss and standard deviations from measurements.

Composite Probability Of Service & Required Fade Margin

Environment
Building
Building
Outdoor Composite
Type
Median
Std. Dev, Std. Dev, Standard Desired Reliability at
("morphology") Loss, dB
dB
dB.
Cell Edge, %
Deviation
Dense Urban
20
8
8
75.0%
11.31
Urban
15
8
8
75.0%
11.31
Suburban
15
8
8
75.0%
11.31
Rural
10
8
8
75.0%
11.31
Highway
8
6
8
75.0%
10.00

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Fade
Margin,
dB.
7.63
7.63
7.63
7.63
6.74

Supplement - 4

Reverse Link Budget Example

3. Construct Link Budgets

Reverse Link Budget

Term or Factor
MS TX Power (dbm) (+)
MS antenna gain and body loss (+/-)
MS EIRP (dBm) (+)
Fade Margin, (dB) (-)
Soft Handoff Gain (dB) (+)
Receiver Interf. Margin (dB) (-)
Building Penetration Loss (dB) (-)
BTS RX antenna gain (dBi) (+)
BTS cable loss (dB) (-)
kTB (dBm/14.4 KHz.)
BTS noise figure (dB)
Eb/Nt (dB)
BTS RX sensitivity (dBm) (-)

Survivable Uplink Path Loss (dB) (+)

Dense
Urb.

Given

Urban

Suburban

Rural

Highway

Formula

23
0
23.00
-7.63
4
-3
-20.00
17
-3

23.00
-7.63
4
-3
-15.00
17
-3

23.00
-7.63
4
-3
-15.00
17
-3

23.00
-7.63
4
-3
-10.00
17
-3

23.00
-6.74
4
-3
-8.00
17
-3

-120.0

-120.0

-120.0

-120.0

-120.0

-132.4
6.5
5.9

130.4

135.4

135.4

140.4

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
H+I+J

A+B+C+D+E
+F+G(H+I+J)
143.3

The Reverse Link Budget describes how the energy from the
phone is distributed to the base station, including the major
components of loss and gain within the system

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 5

Forward Link Budget Example

Forward Link Budget
Term or Factor
BTS TX power (dBm) (+)
BTS TX power (watts)
% Power for traffic channels
Number of Traffic Channels in use
BTS cable loss (dB) (-)
BTS TX antenna gain (dBi) (+)
BTS EIRP/traffic channel (dBm) (+,-)
Fade margin (dB) (-)
Receiver interference margin (db) (-)
Building Penetration Loss (dB) (-)
MS antenna gain & body loss (dB) (+,-)
kTB (dBm/14.4 KHz.)
Subscriber RX noise figure (dB)
Eb/Nt (dB)
Subscriber RX sensitivity (dBm) (-)

Given

Which link is dominant?

What advantage, dB?

Urban
45
31.62
74.0%
19
-3
17
44.9
-7.63
-3
-15.0
0

Suburban
45
31.62
74.0%
19
-3
17
44.9
-7.63
-3
-15.0
0

Rural

-115.9

-115.9

-115.9

-115.9

-115.9

130.2

135.2

135.2

140.2

143.1

Urban
Reverse
0.2

Suburban
Reverse
0.2

Rural
Reverse
0.2

Highway
Reverse
0.2

45
31.62
74.0%
19
-3
17
44.9
-7.63
-3
-10.0
0

Highway
Formula
45
31.62
74.0%
19
-3
17
A
44.9
B
-6.74
-3
C
D
-8.0
0
E

-132.4
10.5
6

Survivable Downlink Path Loss, dB (+)

Forward/Reverse Link Balance

Dense
Urb.
45
31.62
74.0%
19
-3
17
44.9
-7.63
-3
-20.0
0

Dense
Urban
Reverse
0.2

F
A+B+C+D
+E-F

This section shows the forward link power distribution, and

compares the relative balance of the forward and reverse links

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 6

Link Budgets: What is the Radius of a Cell?

4. Explore propagation model to figure coverage radius of cell.
Frequency, MHz.
Subscriber Antenna Height, M

Base Station Antenna Height, M

Environmental Correction, dB
Coverage Radius, kM
Coverage Radius, Miles

870
1.5
Dense
Urban
20

Urban
Suburban
20
30

Rural

Dense
Urban

Urban

Rural
Highway
-17
-17

-2

1.30
0.81

-5

2.17
1.35

Suburban
-10

6.87
4.27

50

20.86
12.96

Highway
50

25.40
15.78

This section uses the Okumura-Hata/Cost-231 model to describe

the frequency, antenna heights, and environmental factors, and
their relationship on the cells coverage distance

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 7

Link Budgets: Putting It All Together

Step 4
estimates
the number
of cells
required to
serve each
distinct
environment
within the
system
Steps 5, 6,
and 7
estimate the
RF coverage
from each
cell, and the
number of
cells
required
February, 2005

5. Calculate number of cells required for coverage, ignoring traffic considerations.

Covered Area of this type, kM^2

One cell's coverage in this zone, kM^2
# Cells required to cover zone

Dense
Urban
55
5.35
10.3

Urban
Suburban
450
1700
14.73
148.46
30.6
11.5

Total
Rural
Highway
# Cells
3400
1400 Required
1367.34
2026.72 for System
2.5
0.7
55.5

6. What is the traffic capacity (in erlangs) of your chosen BTS configuration, year-by-year?
Year
Erlangs which one BTS can carry

Launch
18.3

2
18.3

3
90

4
90

5
450

450

7, 8. What is the total busy-hour erlang traffic on your system? How many BTS are required?
Year
Total System Busy-Hour Erlangs
Capacity of One BTS, erlangs
# BTS required to handle all the traffic

Launch
178.1
18.3
9.7

1
3,646.7
18.3
199.3

2
6,725.4
90
74.7

3
11,497.0
90
127.7

4
15,722.6
450
34.9

5
20,118.0
450
44.7

9. Examine your market, #BTS required for coverage and capacity; estimate total
number of BTS required.
Year
#BTS req'd just to achieve coverage
#BTS required just to carry traffic

Launch
55.5
9.7

Estimated total #BTS required

56.3

55.5
199.3

55.5
74.7

55.5
127.7

55.5
34.9

55.5
44.7

206.8

206.8

206.8

206.8

206.8

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 8

Section B

Hard
Hard Handoff
Handoff Strategies
Strategies

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 9

Co-Channel CDMA Intersystem Handoff Issues

Cochannel Hard Handoff Border Interference Problems
Fort Worth

Dallas

BSC1 SW1

Frequency 1

Interference
SW2 BSC2

Consider two adjacent CDMA systems:

Same frequency
Not yet equipped for intersystem soft handoff, so only hard handoff is
possible between them; dragged handoffs become a big problem
Handoff Performance Results:
Mobiles CAN see pilots from adjoining system, so mobile-directed
handoff is possible
However, the handoff will be hard and mobiles can use only one
system or the other, not both
dragging mobiles cause severe interference in border cells
capacity, access failures, dropped calls, all will be poor in border area
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 10

Use Intersystem Soft Handoff:

Avoid Border Area Interference Problems
Fort Worth

Dallas

BSC1 SW1

Frequency 1

no problems
SW2 BSC2

Intersystem Soft Handoff

ATM link
Consider two adjacent CDMA systems:
Same frequency
ATM connection between BSCs allows soft handoff
Handoff Performance Results:
Mobiles CAN see pilots from adjoining system, so mobile-directed
handoff is possible
Intersystem soft handoff is possible, so simultaneous power control is
possible for mobiles in border area
Border RF environment is the same as internal RF environment, no
special problems
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 11

Avoid Interference, Use Different Frequencies?

Hard Handoff Logistical Problems
F2 Mobiles
cant see F1 pilots!

BSC1 SW1

Fort Worth
Frequency 2
Frequency 1
SW2 BSC2

Dallas
F1 Mobiles
cant see F2 pilots!

Consider two adjacent CDMA systems:

Suppose intersystem soft handoff is not available
Systems are deliberately on different frequencies. This definitely
avoids interference in the border area, but causes other complications
Handoff Logistical Problems:
Mobiles on one system cant see the pilots of adjoining cells on the
other system! So, the mobiles will never request trans-border handoff
Some method must be employed to force unsuspecting mobiles into
transborder handoffs
Common solutions: 1) implement intersystem soft handoff, 2) Pilot
beacon cells, 3) auxiliary trigger mechanisms (Ec/Io, RTD, etc.)
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 12

One Solution to the Multi-Frequency Problem

2-Frequency Trigger Method: Beacon Cells
F2 Mobiles
can see F2 beacon

BSC1 SW1

Fort Worth
Frequency 2
Frequency 1
SW2 BSC2

F1 Mobiles
can see F1 beacon

Dallas

The Beacon Solution

A pilot beacon cell is a mannequin -- a signal which can be seen by
arriving mobiles from the other system on their own frequency,
inducing them to request handoff as soon as it is appropriate
When mobiles request soft handoff with the beacon, the old system
steps in and instructs the mobiles to do intersystem hard handoff to
the real cell which the mobiles are approaching on the other system
Special Logistical Concerns with Beacons
Of course, its possible for mobiles of one system to wake up looking
at the pilot of a beacon cell in the border area, rather than a real cell.
Therefore, a beacon cell must transmit not only its pilot, but also a
sync channel and a paging channel with global service redirection
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 13

Another Solution for Multi-Frequency Handoffs

Bridge Cells, RTD Trigger in Boundary Sectors
Fort Worth
Frequency 2
Frequency 1

Dallas

BSC1 SW1

Boundary Sector
Boundary Sector

SW2 BSC2

All along the intersystem border, a one-cell-thick transition zone is

created. The bridge cells in this zone are equipped with dual equipment,
one set operating on each system.
The outlooking sector of each bridge cell is tagged in the site
database as a boundary sector. Whenever a mobile is served
exclusively by a boundary sector, the system continuously monitors
that mobiles round trip delay (RTD).
When the mobiles RTD passes upward through a datafilled threshold,
the system steps in and orders a hard handoff to the matching sector
of the bridge cell on the other system
this ensures the handoffs happen in clean environments with high
probability of success
disadvantage: more BTS hardware needed than otherwise
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 14

Another Solution for Multi-Frequency Handoffs

Arbitrary Ec/Io Trigger Mechanisms
Fort Worth
Frequency 2
Frequency 1

Dallas

BSC1 SW1

Boundary Sector
Boundary Sector

SW2 BSC2

Outlooking sectors of border cells are tagged as boundary sectors in the

system database
Whenever a mobile is served exclusively by a boundary sector, the
system frequently interrogates the mobile with pilot measurement
request messages
When the mobiles reports the boundary sectors Ec/Io is below a
preset threshold, the system immediately commands a hard handoff
to a previously defined sector on the other system. Everyone hopes
(prays?) that sector is able to hear the mobile for a successful
handoff.
The Ec/Io trigger threshold is sometimes a fixed value (usually 11
db above the T_Drop in the serving sector, although some
networks later software allows an arbitrary trigger level to be set
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 15

CDMA/AMPS Overlay Systems: Handdown

CDMA Overlay

AMPS Existing System

CDMA mobiles approaching the edge of CDMA coverage must

hand down to AMPS
however, CDMA mobiles cannot see AMPS signals during
CDMA calls, and therefore will not request handoff
Methods for triggering CDMA-to-AMPS Handdown: the same ones
we considered for CDMA-CDMA intersystem handoff
beacon cells
bridge cells with RTD trigger
arbitrary Ec/Io thresholds on boundary sectors
Once a CDMA phone hands down to analog, it cannot be handed
back up during the same call (due to long CDMA acquisition time)
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 16

CDMA/AMPS Overlays: CDMA Acquisition

CDMA Overlay

AMPS Existing System

System acquisition is primarily controlled by the mobile

dual-mode mobiles look for CDMA first, then AMPS if needed
Distant mobiles may find unreliable CDMA signals beyond the
edge of CDMA coverage, originate calls likely to drop
most systems transmit Global Service Redirection Messages
on all out-looking sectors to immediately force any distant
mobiles to reacquire on AMPS
hence no CDMA originations on outermost CDMA sectors!
However, still possible to soft-handoff into outer sectors
Many operators request handset manufacturers to add feature of
periodic rechecking by idle handsets seeking to acquire CDMA
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 17

Section C

Reradiators
Reradiators

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 18

Wireless Reradiators
Reradiators (also called boosters,
repeaters, cell enhancers) are amplifying
devices intended to add coverage to a cell site
Reradiators are transparent to the host
Wireless system
A reradiator amplifies RF signals in both
directions, uplink and downlink
The system does not control reradiators and
has no knowledge of anything they do to the
signals they amplify, on either uplink or
downlink
Careful attention is required when using
reradiators to solve coverage problems
to achieve the desired coverage
improvement
to avoid creating interference
to ensure the active search window is large
enough to accommodate both donor signal
and reradiator signal as seen by mobiles
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Cell

RR

Reradiators are a
crutch with
definite application
restrictions. Many
operators prefer not
to use re-radiators at
all. However,
reradiators are a
cost-effective
solution for some
problems.
Supplement - 19

Wireless Reradiators
Two types of Reradiators commonly are
applied to solve two types of situations:
filling in holes within the
coverage area of a cell site -- valleys
and other obstructed locations,
convention centers, etc.
Low-Power broadband
reradiators are used for this
purpose (AMPS, TDMA, GSM,
CDMA)
expanding the service area of a
cell to large areas beyond its natural
coverage area
High-Power, channelized
frequency-translating reradiators
are used for this purpose
Only used in AMPS, TDMA; not
currently feasible for CDMA
February, 2005

Cell

RR

RR
Cell

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 20

Wireless Reradiators
Propagation Path Loss Considerations
To solve a coverage problem using a reradiator, path loss and link
budget must be considered
how much reradiator gain is required?
how much reradiator output power is required?
what type of antennas would be best?
how much antenna isolation is needed?
how big will the reradiator footprint be?
how far can the reradiator be from the cell?
will the reradiator interfere with the cell in other areas?
What is the propagation delay through the reradiator, in chips?
Will search windows need to be adjusted for compensation?
Path Loss
Cell

Gain

RR
Gain

(free space
ERP usually applies) Line Loss
RR
Gain

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Path Loss (free space??)

Signal Level
in target area
Supplement - 21

Wireless Reradiators
Search Window Considerations
A reradiator introduces additional PN delay
typically 5 to 30 chips
the energy seen by the mobile and by the base station is
spread out over a wider range of delays
Reference PN
DONT FORGET THE WINDOWS!
Search Windows must be widened by
Donor Energy
approximately 2 x reradiator delay to
ensure capture of both donor and rerad
energy by mobile and base station.
Srch_Win_A, Srch_Win_R, Srch_Win_N
Base station Acquisition & Demodulation
search windows
Donor
Cell

Reradiator Energy

Direct Signal from

Donor Cell
RR
Delay = ? chips

February, 2005

Reradiator
Signal

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 22

Passive Wireless Reradiators

Typical Link Budget

In a few special cases, it is possible to
reradiate useful Wireless coverage without
any amplifiers involved!
Link budget is marginal
donor cell must be nearby
high-gain antenna required toward
donor cell
distance from RR to user must be
small
100 feet feasible w/omni
antenna
500 feet w/directional antenna
Donor
Cell

February, 2005

Passive Reradiator
Link Budget Example
Donor cell EIRP +52
Path Loss Donor<>RR -102
RR Donor Ant. Gain +22
Signal Level into Line
-28
RR Line Loss
-6
RR Serving Ant. Gain +12
Path Loss RR<>User
-69
Signal Level @ User
-91

dBm
dB
dBi
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dBm

Path Loss
(2.1 miles,
ERP free space)
Line Loss
-6 db

Basement Auditorium, etc.

Path Loss
(250 ft., free space)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 23

Broadband Low-Power Wireless Reradiators

Used mainly for filling
small holes in coverage
area of a cell
Input and output on same
frequency
usable gain: must be
less than isolation
between antennas, or
oscillation occurs
this gain restriction
seriously limits
available coverage
Typically achievable
isolations: 70-95 dB
Good point: every
channel in donor cell is
re-radiated
February, 2005

Broadband
Reradiator
Cell
Unavoidable
Coupling
C
o
m
b
i
n
e
r

BPF:
Uplink

C
o
m
b
i
n
e
r

BPF:
Downlink

Wireless Spectrum

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Frequency

Supplement - 24

Broadband Low-Power Wireless Reradiators

Typical Link Budget

Broadband low-power reradiators can
deliver useful signal levels over
footprints up to roughly 1 mile using
nearby donor cells
Link budget is usually very tight
paths cant be seriously obstructed
antenna isolation must be at least
10 db more than desired RR gain
cant overdrive reradiator 3rd.
order IM
Donor
Cell
ERP

Path Loss
(6 miles,
free space)

Gain

dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dBm
dB
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dBm

RR
Gain

Line Loss
RR
Gain

February, 2005

Broadband Reradiator
Link Budget Example
Donor cell EIRP +52
Path Loss Donor<>RR -111
RR Donor Ant. Gain +12
RR Line Loss
-3
Signal Level into RR
-50
RR Gain +50
RR Power Output
+0
RR Line Loss
-3
RR Serving Ant. Gain +12
Path Loss RR<>User -89.4
Signal Level @ User -80.4

Path Loss
(1/2 mile,
free space)

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Signal Level
in target area
Supplement - 25

Other Reradiator Issues

Amplification of Undesired Signals
The reradiator is a broadband device capable of amplifying
other signals near the intended CDMA carrier, both on uplink
and downlink. Will these signals capture unwanted traffic,
cause unwanted interference, or overdrive CDMA handsets or
the base station?
Linearity
CDMA reradiators must be carefully adjusted to ensure they
are not overdriven. Overdriving would produce clipping or
other nonlinearities, resulting in code interference
Traffic Capacity
Re-radiators may introduce enough new traffic to create
overloads in the donor cell
Alarms
Separate arrangements must be made for integrating alarms
and surveillance reports from reradiators into the system
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 26

Section D

Operational
Operational Measurements
Measurements
Some
Some Capacity
Capacity Consideration
Consideration

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 27

Percent

Total Blocked Call Percentage Example

Total Block Call Percentage
8.0%
7.5%
7.0%
6.5%
6.0%

Blkd

5.5%
5.0%
4.5%
4.0%
3.5%
3.0%
2.5%
2.0%
1.5%
1.0%

Date

This is an example of a cumulative system-wide total blocked call

percentage chart maintained by one PCS customer

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 28

Percent

Dropped Call Percentage Tracking Example

Total Drop Call Percentage

5.0%
4.5%

%Drops

4.0%
3.5%
3.0%
2.5%
2.0%
1.5%
1.0%
0.5%
0.0%

Date

Dropped call percentage tracking by a PCS customer.

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 29

Total System Daily MOU Example

MOU

Daily Total System MOU

300000

Daily Total System MOU

250000

200000

150000

100000

50000

Date

Total system daily MOU plotted by a PCS customer

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 30

Top Ten Performance Tracking Example

Call Attempts

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
108.1

43.3

108.2

1.3

Sector

102.2

137
130
65
101
83
49
30
24
46
31

7.5
5.1
5.1
4.5
4.3
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.6
1.9

136
130
65
101
83
49
30
24
45
31

7.4
5.1
5.1
4.5
4.3
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.6
1.9

110
145
90
93
66
66
58
112
83
81

6.0
5.7
7.0
4.1
3.4
4.1
5.7
13.1
4.8
5.0

8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
Sector

26.3

84.5
87.2
85.7
89.9
90.7
91.6
90.2
81.6
91.3
91.7

% Blocked Calls

64.1

1549
2234
1098
2017
1743
1486
926
698
1589
1495

%Acc Drop %Drop

Fail Calls Calls

63.2

1833
2561
1282
2244
1922
1623
1027
855
1740
1630

Acc
Fail

1.2

Call %Call Block %Blck

Call Att Succ Succ Calls Calls

2.1

93Z
13X
57Z
2X
1Y
57Y
93X
35Z
30Y
1Z

Call Attempts

63.3

64.3
6.1
63.3
2.1
1.2
63.2
64.1
26.3
108.2
1.3

5.7
4.1
3.4
6.0
4.8
5.0
4.1
4.3
3.6
3.6

6.1

MSC
Site

145
93
66
110
83
81
66
70
54
53

September 5, 1997

% Blocked Calls
Eng
Site

5.1
4.5
4.3
7.4
2.6
1.9
3.0
1.1
1.8
0.3

63.2

130
101
83
136
45
31
49
18
27
4

1.3

5.1
4.5
4.3
7.5
2.6
1.9
3.0
1.1
1.8
0.3

108.2

130
101
83
137
46
31
49
18
27
4

64.3

87.2
89.9
90.7
84.5
91.3
91.7
91.6
92.6
93.1
94.8

1.2

2234
2017
1743
1549
1589
1495
1486
1495
1387
1410

2.1

2561
2244
1922
1833
1740
1630
1623
1615
1490
1488

%Acc Drop %Drop

Fail Calls Calls

6.1

13X
2X
1Y
93Z
30Y
1Z
57Y
4Y
30X
42Z

Acc
Fail

64.3

6.1
2.1
1.2
64.3
108.2
1.3
63.2
102.2
108.1
43.3

Call %Call Block %Blck

Call Att Succ Succ Calls Calls

Calls

MSC
Site

Eng
Site

Many operators use scripts or spreadsheet macros to produce

ranked lists of sites with heavy traffic, performance problems, etc.
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 31

Lucent Reports
H ighlight by CD MA_Acs Chn_Oc (2,1,0, ) Me a n: 28.2 S td D e v: 27.83
S ys/ ECP / Ce ll/ N a me / Ante nna ID / Ant_N a me CD MA_Acs CD MA_Avg
Chn_Oc
Sq_D G

Sort by S ys/E CP / Ce ll/ N a me / Ante nna ID / Ant_N a me

CD MA_Fwd CD MA_Fwd
CD MA
CD MA_P g CD MA_Pk CD MA_Pk CD MA_R e v CD MA_R e v
PCOLdur
P COLcnt Intcpt_Msg Ch_Ocpn Acs_ChOc P g_ChOc
P COLdur
P COLcnt

TOTALS

5,921.00

1,123,466

581.00

339.00

0.00

489,506

91,989

555,984

305.00

6.00

179 2 1 JACKSON 1 Antenna:1

179 2 1 JACKSON 2 Antenna:2
179 2 1 JACKSON 3 Antenna:3
179 2 2 WILDER 1 Antenna:1
179 2 2 WILDER 2 Antenna:2
179 2 2 WILDER 3 Antenna:3
179 2 3 MARKET 1 Antenna:1
179 2 3 MARKET 2 Antenna:2
179 2 3 MARKET 3 Antenna:3

30.00
28.00
10.00
27.00
13.00
13.00
4.00
10.00
55.00

6,187.00
6,157.00
6,088.00
6,168.00
5,016.00
4,818.00
6,200.00
6,073.00
6,580.00

12.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
5.00

4.00
4.00
1.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.00

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

2,771.00
2,763.00
2,754.00
2,795.00
2,756.00
2,766.00
2,760.00
2,731.00
2,809.00

985.00
563.00
281.00
563.00
422.00
281.00
140.00
422.00
845.00

3,264.00
3,140.00
3,197.00
3,125.00
3,120.00
3,155.00
3,100.00
3,195.00
3,391.00

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

H ighlight by % CD MA Est Ca lls (2,1,0, ) Me a n: 96.71 Std D e v: 1.22

Sys/ ECP/ Ce ll/ N a me / La be l

TOTALS
179 2 67 MARSHALL
179 2 10 TIGER
179 2 28 LEATHERWOOD
179 2 30 SHEPHERDS
179 2 121 PENTAGON
179 2 1 COLLEGE
179 2 45 MARYLAND
179 2 16 AVONDALE

% CD MA R e Acquir
CCE
Est Ca lls e d_Ca lls e rla ngs

Sort by % CD MA E st Ca lls
CD MA_CE
U sa ge

P rim_CS
CE _U se

% P rim_CS
CE _U se

S e c_CS
CE_U se

% CD MA % CD MA CD MA
% CD MA T otCD MA CD MAT otl
SoftH O U se SU Fa il Lost_Ca ll Lost Ca lls Fa ilure s
Origins

96.83

2.84

6,580

2,368,959

1,451,816

61.28

917,143

38.72

2.79

1,722.00

1.17

93.55
93.58
94.18
94.36
94.44
94.67
94.73
94.90

3.22
2.61
3.89
2.38
5.26
2.65
2.06
2.99

62.60
128.68
71.45
63.54
36.16
76.37
115.21
98.26

22,535.00
46,323.00
25,722.00
22,873.00
13,016.00
27,494.00
41,476.00
35,372.00

9,300.00
19,788.00
13,689.00
11,113.00
8,448.00
15,965.00
23,219.00
20,059.00

41.27
42.72
53.22
48.59
64.90
58.07
55.98
56.71

13,235.00
26,535.00
12,033.00
11,760.00
4,568.00
11,529.00
18,257.00
15,313.00

58.73
57.28
46.78
51.41
35.10
41.93
44.02
43.29

6.14
5.68
5.44
3.62
3.68
4.64
5.04
4.47

15.00
42.00
20.00
10.00
64.00
15.00
35.00
41.00

1.67
2.18
1.18
0.89
5.98
0.98
1.44
1.78

7,856.00 5,069.00
95.00
208.00
143.00
77.00
108.00
102.00
206.00
178.00

This figure shows various operating statistics available through

AutoPace from Lucent systems
forward power control status
origination failures and dropped calls
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 32

65.00
143.00
89.00
47.00
73.00
67.00
141.00
130.00

BTSC MO Attributes
Each attribute is a periodic counter maintained during the 15-minute automatic logging period.
Attribute Name

Data
Type

Seq. Access,
Number Range

BlockedOriginationsNoTCE

word16

0x0002A
42

P
full

Number of originations blocked because

no idle channel elements were available

BlockedOriginationsNoFwdCap word16

0x0002B
43

P
full

Number of originations blocked due to

lack of BTS forward link excess capacity

BlockedOriginationsNoRevCap word16

0x0002C
44

P
full

Number of originations blocked due to

lack of reverse link capacity

Description

BlockedHandoffsNoTCE

word16

0x0002D
45

P
full

Number of handoffs blocked because no

idle channel elements were available

BlockedHandoffsNoFwdCap

word16

0x0002E
46

P
full

Number of handoffs blocked due to lack

of BTS forward link excess capacity

BlockedHandoffsNoRevCap

word16

0x0002F
47

P
full

Number of handoffs blocked due to lack

of reverse link capaicty

SuccessfulOriginations

word16

0x00030
48

P
full

Number of successful originations

SuccessfulHandoffs

word16

0x00031
49

P
full

Number of successful handoffs

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 33

Nortel FA MO Attributes
Each attribute is a periodic counter maintained during the 15-minute automatic logging period.

FA MO
Sequence
Number
16
17
18
19
1A
1B
1C
1D
1E
1F
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
2A
2B
2C

February, 2005

OM name
TCEUtilMaximum
NumOfTCsConfigured
soft1softer1Alpha
soft1softer1Beta
soft1softer1Gamma
soft1softer2AlphaBeta
soft1softer2BetaGamma
soft1softer2GammaAlpha
soft1softer3
soft2softer1Alpha
soft2softer1Beta
soft2softer1Gamma
soft2softer2AlphaBeta
soft2softer2BetaGamma
soft2softer2GammaAlpha
soft2softer3
soft3softer1Alpha
soft3softer1Beta
soft3softer1Gamma
soft3softer2AlphaBeta
soft3softer2BetaGamma
soft3softer2GammaAlpha
soft3softer3

FA MO
Sequence
Number
2D
2E
2F
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
3A
3B
3C
3D

OM name
soft4softer1Alpha
soft4softer1Beta
soft4softer1Gamma
soft4softer2AlphaBeta
soft4softer2BetaGamma
soft4softer2GammaAlpha
soft4softer3
soft5softer1Alpha
soft5softer1Beta
soft5softer1Gamma
soft5softer2AlphaBeta
soft5softer2BetaGamma
soft5softer2GammaAlpha
soft6softer1Alpha
soft6softer1Beta
soft6softer1Gamma
TimeNotInUse

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 34

Nortel BTSC MO Events

Each event counter is maintained during the 15-minute automatic logging period.
Event Report Name

Type
Event Report

Seq.
Number

0x000?
BTSCPerformanceData PerformanceData
0?

Description
Includes as parameters all attributes with P
access documented in the attribute table for
this MO.

FA MO Events
Each event counter is maintained during the 15-minute automatic logging period.
Event Report Name

FAPerformanceData

February, 2005

Type
Event Report

Seq.
Number

0x000?
PerformanceData
0?

Description
Includes as parameters all attributes with P
access documented in the attribute table for
this MO.

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 35

Nortel BTSC MO Report Example

XYZ 19971120 BTSC MO Report
+----+----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
|BTS |
Start Date/Time |OBlock|OBlock|OBlock|HBlock|HBlock|HBlock| Succ | Succ |
|
|
End Date/Time
|No TCE|No Fwd|No Rev|No TCE|No Fwd|No Rev| Origs|Handof|
+----+----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
|
1|1997/11/20 01:30:00-02:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
3|
5|
|
1|1997/11/20 12:00:00-12:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
46|
314|
|
1|1997/11/20 12:30:00-13:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
76|
470|
|
1|1997/11/20 13:00:00-13:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
45|
414|
|
1|1997/11/20 13:30:00-14:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
55|
375|
|
1|1997/11/20 14:00:00-14:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
50|
525|
|
1|1997/11/20 14:30:00-15:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
72|
433|
|
1|1997/11/20 15:00:00-15:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
66|
412|
|
1|1997/11/20 15:30:00-16:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
53|
323|
|
1|1997/11/20 16:00:00-16:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
63|
342|
|
1|1997/11/20 16:30:00-17:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
51|
331|
|
1|1997/11/20 17:00:00-17:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
39|
323|
|
1|1997/11/20 17:30:00-18:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
51|
310|
|
1|1997/11/20 18:00:00-18:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
45|
237|
|
1|1997/11/20 18:30:00-19:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
31|
299|
|
1|1997/11/20 19:00:00-19:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
37|
282|
|
1|1997/11/20 19:30:00-20:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
19|
143|
|
1|1997/11/20 20:00:00-20:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
18|
96|
|
1|1997/11/20 20:30:00-21:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
33|
192|
|
1|1997/11/20 21:00:00-21:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
25|
226|
|
1|1997/11/20 21:30:00-22:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
15|
235|
|
1|1997/11/20 22:00:00-22:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
15|
216|
|
1|1997/11/20 22:30:00-23:00:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
9|
162|
|
1|1997/11/20 23:00:00-23:30:00|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
3|
40|
|
|Totals for BTS 1
|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0|
0| 1235| 8895|

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 36

Nortel FAMO Report Example

XYZ 19971120 FA MO Report
+----+----------------------------+---------+---------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-----+---+
|BTS |
Start Date/Time |
MOU
|
MOU
| CE/ | MOU | MOU | MOU |%Soft|Max|
|
|
End Date/Time
|
CE
| Traffic | User| Alpha | Beta | Gamma | HO |TCE|
+----+----------------------------+---------+---------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-----+---+
|
1|1997/11/20 07:00:00-07:30:00|
41.99|
33.35| 1.26| 11.77|
4.62| 16.96|20.58| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 07:00:00-07:30:00|
73.06|
46.22| 1.58| 17.72| 14.10| 14.39|36.75| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 08:00:00-08:30:00|
109.87|
66.05| 1.66| 24.78| 20.21| 21.06|39.88| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 10:00:00-10:30:00|
153.79|
89.81| 1.71| 41.85| 32.19| 15.77|41.60| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 10:30:00-11:00:00|
181.09|
102.19| 1.77| 43.60| 28.22| 30.38|43.57| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 11:00:00-11:30:00|
152.59|
84.73| 1.80| 37.61| 18.51| 28.61|44.47| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 11:30:00-12:00:00|
143.70|
89.16| 1.61| 39.66| 24.78| 24.72|37.95| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 12:00:00-12:30:00|
156.58|
89.52| 1.75| 25.51| 21.91| 42.10|42.83| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 12:30:00-13:00:00|
165.54|
89.97| 1.84| 44.41| 22.89| 22.67|45.65| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 13:00:00-13:30:00|
170.36|
99.19| 1.72| 52.81| 24.58| 21.79|41.78| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 13:30:00-14:00:00|
145.34|
93.71| 1.55| 41.88| 24.05| 27.77|35.53| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 14:00:00-14:30:00|
189.61|
121.49| 1.56| 52.43| 30.99| 38.06|35.93| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 14:30:00-15:00:00|
153.65|
108.08| 1.42| 47.58| 37.52| 22.99|29.65| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 15:00:00-15:30:00|
165.08|
106.66| 1.55| 49.00| 29.69| 27.97|35.39| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 15:30:00-16:00:00|
159.27|
94.72| 1.68| 42.04| 28.43| 24.25|40.53| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 16:00:00-16:30:00|
172.52|
114.62| 1.51| 56.57| 28.50| 29.55|33.56| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 16:30:00-17:00:00|
156.83|
105.46| 1.49| 53.29| 30.38| 21.80|32.76| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 17:00:00-17:30:00|
129.13|
82.52| 1.56| 31.50| 24.28| 26.73|36.10| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 17:30:00-18:00:00|
134.80|
81.76| 1.65| 35.80| 30.20| 15.77|39.35| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 18:00:00-18:30:00|
96.91|
60.49| 1.60| 27.80| 15.38| 17.31|37.58| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 18:30:00-19:00:00|
124.25|
73.62| 1.69| 22.37| 30.93| 20.33|40.75| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 19:00:00-19:30:00|
75.50|
41.14| 1.83| 18.03| 14.88|
8.24|45.50| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 19:30:00-20:00:00|
40.58|
23.56| 1.72| 12.50|
5.72|
5.33|41.95| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 20:00:00-20:30:00|
51.14|
29.81| 1.72| 13.26| 10.37|
6.19|41.71| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 20:30:00-21:00:00|
102.45|
55.26| 1.85| 16.36| 18.49| 20.41|46.07| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 21:00:00-21:30:00|
108.48|
74.86| 1.45| 28.32| 17.26| 29.27|30.99| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 21:30:00-22:00:00|
109.92|
68.50| 1.60| 26.53| 19.22| 22.75|37.68| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 22:00:00-22:30:00|
86.58|
59.36| 1.46| 26.09| 15.11| 18.15|31.45| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 22:30:00-23:00:00|
94.96|
63.48| 1.50| 27.73| 20.85| 14.90|33.15| 15|
|
1|1997/11/20 23:00:00-23:30:00|
28.07|
20.76| 1.35|
9.06|
8.14|
3.55|26.04| 15|
|
|Totals for BTS 1
| 3690.90| 2280.64| 1.62| 980.80| 655.61| 644.22|38.21| 15|

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 37

Section E

Basics
Basics of
of Interference,
Interference,
Noise
Noise and
and CDMA
CDMA Capacity
Capacity

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 38

The Noise Floor

Even when no interference, a received signal
must compete with the always-present noise
in the receiver itself
Ambient heat causes electrons everywhere
to move around, producing thermal noise in
every electronic circuit
The noise power is proportional to absolute
temperature and the receiving bandwidth;
see equation at right
What this means for a CDMA receiver:
There is an unavoidable noise of -113.1
dbm in the bandwidth of a CDMA signal,
1.2288 MHz.
See the spreadsheet Noise.xls below

THERMAL NOISE

Nt = kTB
where:
Nt = thermal noise power
K = Boltzmanns Constant
= 1.3806 x 10-23
T = Temperature (Kelvin)
= 290K room temperature
B = bandwidth
This noise is sometimes
called Johnson Noise,
White Noise, and
Background Noise

Thermal Noise Floor, Bandwidth, and Receiver Sensitivity

T, deg K
290
290
290

BW, Hz Noise, dbm RX NF RX Sens.

Remarks
1
-174.0
0.0
-174.0 Theoretical Baseline
1,228,800
-113.1
5.0
-108.1 Typical CDMA Uplink at BTS receiver
1,228,800
-113.1
8.0
-105.1 Typical CDMA Downlink at Mobile Receiver

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 39

Reverse Link Noise Floor Rise Due To Traffic

The first user on a sector must satisfy:
Users signal + CDMA processing gain
must equal BTS thermal noise + BTS
noise figure + desired Eb/No
The second user on a sector must satisfy
all the above PLUS first users energy
and the first user must also slightly
increase to match, maintaining its quality
Each additional user faces more interfering
power from existing users, etc., etc.
For given starting conditions, there is a
number of users that drives the situation out
of control users must transmit more power
than a CDMA mobile can produce
This number of users is the Pole Point;
this is the Pole Capacity of the sector
V = Voice Activity Factor
W = Spreading Bandwidth
No= P.S.D. of Thermal Noise
Pt = Mobile Tx
R = Vocoder Rate
February, 2005

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Loading and the Noise Floor

Noise Floor Rise Due To Loading
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0
-20

BTS RX dB

Operating Limit: 50% Pole

100% Pole Point #Users
Processing Gain
#Sectors
Sectorization Gain
Voice Activity Factor
Adjacent Cell Interference
Target Eb/No, ratio
Radio Configuration
Vocoder
Chip Rate
Data Rate
Required Eb/No, db

3-Sector BTS 6-Sector BTS

Pole Capacity Pole Capacity
Per Sector
Per Sector
20.9
18.5
41.8
37.0
128.00
128.00
3
6
2.55
4.50
0.40
0.40
0.60
0.60
4.17
4.17
RC1
RC1
EVRC
EVRC
1,228,800
1,228,800
9,600
9,600
6.20
6.20

-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
Number of Users

For two standard cell configurations, the spreadsheet shows the

calculated pole point capacity and the intended operating limit at 50% of
pole capacity
The graph shows the calculated receive power at a BTS for zero to 42
users under typical conditions
notice a 10 db rise occurs with just 12 users
a 15 db rise occurs with just 15 users
this cells capacity needs optimization!
Explore the Noise Floor Rise spreadsheet to see the effects of target
Eb/No, BTS noise figure, and other parameters on the results
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 41

45

Whats So Important About Noise Floor?

In theory, the capacity of a sector isnt affected by the noise floor
as long as theyre strong enough, the desired number of
mobiles can use the sector simultaneously
But the range of the sector is directly determined by the noise floor
when the noise floor is elevated by interference, the usable
range of the cell shrinks proportionally
users at the cell edge may be unable to access, unable to keep
a call from dropping, unable to achieve high data rates, unable
to keep acceptable FER
The noise floor at the BTS receiver is the point in the CDMA
system most vulnerable to external interference

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 42

Recognizing Interference: Do I have it?!!

Clues that you might have an interference problem:
Bad Stats: increased blocking, TCCFs, access failures, drops
worse than expected even in heavy traffic areas
clusters of several sectors with over 10% blocking
customer complaints of severe impairments, usually localized
increased noise floor in BTS statistics both peak and average
depressed data throughput compared to healthy sectors
Field Observations
Visible non-CDMA signals on a spectrum analyzer
pockets in good-coverage areas where Ec/Io is poor due to
interference

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 43

Interference? Track It Down!

OK, so youve got some solid evidence that interference is going
on. How can you identify the source of the interference, and do
something about it?
For Reverse Link Interference:
Identify the affected sectors to recognize affected area
Field Investigation Normally Will Be Required
look into BTS multicoupler outputs to identify interferer
spectrum analyzer and yagi antenna
direction toward interferer from surrounding high sites
remember to use BP filter if needed to suppress strong
fundamental so you can see true interference only
triangulate to locate interferer
locate the source

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 44

Identifying and Handling Interference Sources

Source will usually be a communications-related or power-related
device; at building entry, ask if anyone is doing communications
activities in that building
Use company procedures for dealing with the interferer owner to
obtain short-term resolution
Long-term resolution
is signal unauthorized or unintended?
repair equipment if defective
does suppression meet required specs? add filter if needed

February, 2005

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Supplement - 45

Major Sources of Interference

Reverse Link
INTERNAL: maximum traffic loading is maximum acceptable
interference, just from friendly fire
Rogue Mobiles a mobile needing handoff into the victim site but
unable to get it and transmitting high levels as it approaches
In-channel Narrowband Interferers
military, land mobile, law enforcement, industrial
In-channel Unstable, parasitic, transmitters
In-band strong mobile signals of other operators on adjacent blocks
Broadband: welding shops, arcing signs and bulbs, utility transformers
and power lines with arcing insulators, dirty LANs
Oscillating or noisy in-building amplifiers, repeaters, and television
master antenna systems with booster amplifiers
sources can be very small, but near the BTS
Forward Link
symptom: localized interference, usually on one carrier (not all)
sources usually stronger than in reverse link case, easier to find
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 46

Triangulation
Triangulation is the process of
locating a transmitting source by
measuring radial distance or
direction of the received signal
from several different points
Triangulation can be used to
pinpoint the geographic position
of a user or interferer
The drawing shows the basic
principle of triangulation.
The emitters location is
found by measuring the
relative direction of the
signal from three different
locations.
The area where the radials
overlap becomes search area
for the emitters exact
location.
1

February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 47

Triangulation Rounds Two and Up

The first round of
triangulation will identify the
vicinity of the emitter.
However, the search area
may still be impractically
large.
Another round of
triangulation from closer
points surrounding the
search area may be required.
When completed you should
have 3 new intersecting lines
which reveal the approximate
location of the interferer
within a triangle of
uncertainty.
This method can also be
used to find interferers inside
a large building.
1

February, 2005

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Supplement - 48

Site Configuration Principles

A widely-accepted general principle is to do whatever is required to
achieve 40 db or better isolation between all antennas.
Antenna Isolation
Vertical separation highly effective
vs other operators but not desirable
among our own antennas due to F/R
imbalance
Horizontal Isolation
Estimating Isolation
assume free space loss and
published antenna patterns for
worst-case maximum coupling
scenario
Each operator should set minimum
separation guidelines for general
construction, based on intermod
considerations of their own and their
neighbors frequency bands and signal
characteristics
February, 2005

Isolation

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Observed Isolations between PCS Antennas

Typical observed isolations between commonly-used PCS antennas at

various horizontal and vertical separations
thanks to Don Button and EMS Wireless
February, 2005

RF100 v2.0 (c) 2005 Scott Baxter

Supplement - 50

Section F

Intermodulation
Intermodulation

February, 2005

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Modulation and Mixing vs. Intermodulation

When two signals are intentionally combined in a nonlinear device we call the effect modulation
Amplitude modulator, or quad phase modulator
Mixer, down or up converter in superheterodyne
When two (or more) signals are unintentionally combined
in a non-linear device, we call the effect intermodulation (a
pejorative term)
An analogy: Botanists use soil to grow plants. But on your living
room carpet, soil is just dirt.

IM signals increase system noise, or cause distinctive

recognizable interference signals

February, 2005

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Intermod Basics
Definition: Intermodulation (IM) is
Non-linear device
Input
Output
the unintended mixing of legitimate
RF signals, producing undesired
signals (intermodulation products) on
f
f
unrelated frequencies possibly
f1 f2
3f1-2f2 f1 f2 3f2-2f1
already being used for other services
2f2-f1
2f1-f2
IM can devastate reception on
certain frequencies at base
stations and other communication
facilities
Power transfer characteristics
Intermodulation occurs because
of typical amplifier or other device
signals are passing through a
nonlinear device, allowing each signal
Predicted
Third order
to alter the waveshape of the others
power
intercept
the frequencies of the intermod
point
products are sums and
differences of multiples of the
Output
original signal frequencies, and
power
Third order
can be calculated exactly
(dBm)
intermodulation
the strength of the intermod
products
products depends on the degree
Noise floor
of nonlinearity of the circuits
involved, and can be predicted
with good accuracy using
Input power (dBm)
measured intercept levels
February, 2005

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Supplement - 53