AMATH 460: Mathematical Methods

for Quantitative Finance

8. Numerical Methods
Kjell Konis
Acting Assistant Professor, Applied Mathematics
University of Washington
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Outline
1

Implied Volatility

Bisection Method

Newtons Method

Newtons Method for n Dimensional Nonlinear Problems

Lagranges Method + Newtons Method

Another Lagranges Method Example

Maximum Expected Returns Optimization

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Outline
1

Implied Volatility

Bisection Method

Newtons Method

Newtons Method for n Dimensional Nonlinear Problems

Lagranges Method + Newtons Method

Another Lagranges Method Example

Maximum Expected Returns Optimization

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Implied Volatility
The Black-Scholes formula for the price of a European call option
C = Se q(T t) (d1 ) Ke r (T t) (d2 )
where
d1 =

log

 
S
K

+ r q + 2

T t

(T t)

d2 = d1 T t

The maturity T and strike price K are given

When option is traded, spot price S and option price C are known
Assume risk-free rate r is constant and q known
Only value that is not known is the volatility
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Implied Volatility
The implied volatility problem is to find so that the Black-Scholes
price and the market price are equal
If S, K , q, r , T , and t are known, consider
f () = Se q(T t) (d1 ) Ke r (T t) (d2 ) C
Finding the implied volatility boils down to solving the nonlinear
problem
f () = 0
Problem can be solved numerically
For example, plot f () and see where it is equal to zero

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Implied Volatility
R function to compute Black-Scholes call price
bsc <- function(S, T, t, K, r, s, q) {
d1 <- (log(S/K)+(r-q+0.5*s2)*(T-t))/(s*sqrt(T-t))
d2 <- d1-s*sqrt(T-t)
S*exp(-q*(T-t))*pnorm(d1)-K*exp(-r*(T-t))*pnorm(d2)
}
Since R treats all variables as vectors
> bsc(50, 0.5, 0.0, 45, 0.06, 0.2, 0.02)
[1] 6.508365
> bsc(50, 0.5, 0.0, 45, 0.06, c(0.15, 0.2, 0.25), 0.02)
[1] 6.119266 6.508365 6.986157
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Implied Volatility
Suppose the option sold for $7, find
Plot f () over a range of values and see where it crosses the x axis
> sigmas <- seq(0.05, 0.5, by = 0.01)
> fsig <- bsc(50, 0.5, 0.0, 45, 0.06, sigmas, 0.02) - 7

f()
1

> plot(sigmas, fsig, type = "l")

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

The implied volatility is implied = 0.25

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Implied Volatility

To compute implied , had to evaluate Black-Scholes formula 46 times

Computed answer still not very precise
> bsc(50, 0.5, 0.0, 45, 0.06, 0.25, 0.02) - 7
[1] -0.013843
Goal: compute implied to within a pre-specified tolerance with
minimum number of function evaluations
Methods are called nonlinear solvers

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Outline
1

Implied Volatility

Bisection Method

Newtons Method

Newtons Method for n Dimensional Nonlinear Problems

Lagranges Method + Newtons Method

Another Lagranges Method Example

Maximum Expected Returns Optimization

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Bisection Method

Let f be a continuous function defined on the interval [a, b]

If f (a) and f (b) have different signs, intermediate value theorem says
there is x (a, b) such that f (x ) = 0
Bisection method
1

Compute f (c) where c = 21 (a + b) is the midpoint of [a, b]

If sign f (c) = sign f (a) , let a := c, otherwise let b := c

Goto 1

Repeat steps 13 until |b a| is smaller than a pre-specified tolerance

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Example: Bisection Method

f()
1

f(b)

f(a)
0.1

f(c)

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Let a = 0.1, b = 0.3; f (0.1) < 0 and f (0.3) > 0

Let c = 12 (a + b) = 0.2; f (0.2) < 0
Since sign f (0.2) = sign f (0.1) , let a := 0.2

Each step preserves sign f (a) = sign f (b) , cuts interval in half

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Bisection Method: R Implementation

Implementation of the bisection method for a function of one variable
No error checking
bisection <- function(f, a, b, tol = 0.001) {
while(b-a > tol) {
c <- (a+b)/2
if(sign(f(c)) == sign(f(a)))
a <- c
else
b <- c
}
(a+b)/2
}

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Example: Bisection Method

Write f () as a function of one variable
fsig <- function(sigma)
bsc(50, 0.5, 0.0, 45, 0.06, sigma, 0.02) - 7
Use bisection to solve f () = 0
> bisection(fsig, 0.1, 0.3)
[1] 0.2511719
Check computed solution
> bsc(50, 0.5, 0.0, 45, 0.06, 0.2511719, 0.02)
[1] 6.998077
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Outline
1

Implied Volatility

Bisection Method

Newtons Method

Newtons Method for n Dimensional Nonlinear Problems

Lagranges Method + Newtons Method

Another Lagranges Method Example

Maximum Expected Returns Optimization

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Newtons Method
Commonly used method for solving nonlinear equations
Again, want to find x so that f (x ) = 0
Assumptions
f (x ) is differentiable
Starting point x0
Idea: approximate f (x ) with a first order Taylor polynomial around xk
f (x ) f (xk ) + (x xk )f 0 (xk )
Want to choose xk+1 so that f (xk+1 ) = 0
f (xk ) + (xk+1 xk )f 0 (xk ) = f (xk+1 ) 0
Leads to the recursion
xk+1 = xk
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f (xk )
f 0 (xk )

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Illustration: Newtons Method

f(x0)

f(x1)

f(x2)

x*

x3

x2

x1

x0

Newtons method produces a sequence {xk } that converges to x

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Analysis: Newtons Method

Consider an order 1 Taylor polynomial around xk evaluated at x
0 = f (x ) = f (xk )+(x xk )f 0 (xk )+

(x xk )2 00
f (k )
2

k [x , xk ]

f (xk )
f 00 (k )

+
(x

x
)
=

(x xk )2
k
f 0 (xk )
2f 0 (xk )
x xk+1 =

f 00 (k )
(x xk )2
2f 0 (xk )

f 00 (k ) 2

2f 0 (xk ) k
are bounded on the interval where the solver is active

 00
 f (k ) 
2


|k+1 | M |k |
M = max  0
2f (xk ) 
k+1 =

If f 0 and f 00

Newtons method converges quadratically

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Caveats
Quadratic convergence not guaranteed
Need good starting point + well-behaved function
It gets worse: convergence not guaranteed
In particular, algorithm may cycle
For example: sin(x ) = 0 between 2 and
There is an xk such that
xk+1 = xk

sin(xk )
= xk
cos(xk )

What happens in the next iteration?

xk+2 = xk+1

sin(xk+1 )
sin(xk )
sin(xk )
= xk
= xk +
cos(xk+1 )
cos(xk )
cos(xk )

= xk
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Outline
1

Implied Volatility

Bisection Method

Newtons Method

Newtons Method for n Dimensional Nonlinear Problems

Lagranges Method + Newtons Method

Another Lagranges Method Example

Maximum Expected Returns Optimization

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Newtons Method for n Dimensional Nonlinear Problems

Let F : Rn Rn have continuous partial derivatives
Want to solve n-dimensional nonlinear problem
F (x ) = 0
Recall that the gradient of F is the n n matrix

F1
x1 (x )

F2 (x )
x1
D F (x ) =

..

Fn
x1 (x )

F1
x2 (x )

F2
x2 (x )

..
.

..

Fn
x2 (x )

F1
xn (x )

F2
(x
)

xn

..

Fn
xn (x )

Taylor polynomial for F (x ) around the point xk

F (x ) F (xk ) + D F (xk )(x xk )
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Newtons Method for n Dimensional Nonlinear Problems

To get Newtons method, approximate F (xk+1 ) by 0
0 F (xk ) + D F (xk )(xk+1 xk )
Solving for xk+1 gives the Newtons method recursion


xk+1 = xk D F (xk )

1

F (xk )

Need stopping condition, e.g., for > 0


1


F (xk ) <
D F (xk )

Similar to univariate version, have quadratic convergence for xk

sufficiently close to x
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Algorithm
Need starting point x0
If D F (xk ) is nonsingular, can compute xk+1 using the recursion


xk+1 = xk D F (xk )

1

F (xk )

To avoid computing inverse of D F (xk ) , let



u =

1

D F (xk ) u =



D F (xk )

F (xk )
1

D F (xk ) D F (xk )

F (xk ) = F (xk )

Algoroithm: (starting from x0 , tolerance > 0)

1
Compute F (xk ) and D F (xk )


2
Solve the linear system D F (xk ) u = F (xk )
3
Update xk+1 = xk u
4
If kuk < return xk+1 , otherwise goto 1
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Example
Let g(x , y ) = 1 (x 1)4 (y 1)4
Local maximum at (1, 1) = critical point at (1, 1)
Gradient of g(x , y )


F (x , y ) = D g(x , y )

T

= 4(x 1)3

4(y 1)3

T

Gradient of F (x , y )

2
12(x 1)

D F (x , y ) =

0
12(y

1)2

Use R to compute solution

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Example: R Implementation
First, need functions for F (x , y ) and its gradient
F <- function(x, y)
c(4*(x - 1)3, 4*(y - 1)3)
DF <- function(x, y)
diag(c(12*(x - 1)2, 12*(y - 1)2))
Need starting point:

x <- c(0, 0)

Do 25 Newton iterations
for(i in 1:25)
x <- x - solve(DF(x[1], x[2]), F(x[1], x[2]))
Result
[1] 0.9999604 0.9999604
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Outline
1

Implied Volatility

Bisection Method

Newtons Method

Newtons Method for n Dimensional Nonlinear Problems

Lagranges Method + Newtons Method

Another Lagranges Method Example

Maximum Expected Returns Optimization

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Lagranges Method
Lagranges method for solving constrained optimization problems
Need to find the critical points of the Lagrangian
Easy in certain cases: minimum variance portfolio (solve linear
system)
Difficult when system is nonlinear: maximum expected return
portfolio

Revisit the example from the Lagranges method slides

max/min:
subject to:

Kjell Konis (Copyright 2013)

4x2 2x3
2x1 x2 x3 = 0
x12 + x22 13 = 0

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Newtons Method
Lagrangian
G(x , ) = 4x2 2x3 + 1 (2x1 x2 x3 ) + 2 (x12 + x22 13)
T

Set F (x , ) = D G(x , )


= 0 and solve for x and

set

4 + 22 x1 = 0
set
6 + 22 x2 = 0
set
2 1 = 0
set
2x1 x2 x3 = 0
set
x12 + x22 13 = 0
Nonlinear equation to solve
4 + 22 x1

6 + 22 x2

F (x , 2 ) =

2x1 x2 x3
x12 + x22 13

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22
0
0 2x1
0 2
0 2x2

2
D F (x , 2 ) =

2 1 1
0
2x1 2x2
0
0

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R Implementation of Newtons Method

R function for evaluating the function F
F <- function(x)
c(-4+2*x[4]*x[1],
6+2*x[4]*x[2],
2*x[1]-x[2]-x[3],
x[1]2+x[2]2-13)
R function for evaluating the gradient of F
DF <- function(x)
matrix(c(2*x[4],
0,
0, 2*x[1],
0, 2*x[4], 0, 2*x[2],
2,
-1, -1,
0,
2*x[1], 2*x[2], 0,
0),
4, 4, byrow = TRUE)
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R Implementation of Newtons Method

Starting point
x <- rep(1, 4)
15 Newton iterations
for(i in 1:15)
x <- x - solve(DF(x), F(x))
Code for Newton iterations very simple!

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Trace of Newtons Method

Recall solutions: (2, 3, 7, 2, 1) and (2, 3, 7, 2, 1)
x1
x2
x3
lambda2
0
1.000000 1.000000
1.000000 1.00000000
1
6.250000 1.250000
11.250000 -3.25000000
2
3.923817 1.830917
6.016716 -0.88961538
3
1.628100 5.180972
-1.924771 -0.01078146
4 -247.240485 81.795257 -576.276226 -0.41960973
5 -121.982204 45.928353 -289.892761 -0.22067419
6
-57.679989 31.899766 -147.259743 -0.13272296
7
-22.882945 26.924965 -72.690855 -0.11474286
8
-8.779338 15.966384 -33.525061 -0.15812161
9
-6.263144 7.360141 -19.886430 -0.27312590
10
-2.393401 5.191356
-9.978158 -0.48808187
11
-2.715121 3.147713
-8.577955 -0.77002329
12
-1.941247 3.135378
-7.017871 -0.95609045
13
-2.006288 2.999580
-7.012156 -0.99823214
14
-1.999995 3.000010
-7.000000 -0.99999694
15
-2.000000 3.000000
-7.000000 -1.00000000
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Convergence Rate

600

100

10

15

Iteration

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10

300

400

log( xk x* )

200

xk x*

500

10

15

Iteration

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Observations
From a given starting point, Newtons method converges (if it
converges) to a single value x
Starting at (1, 1, 1, 1), computed solution (2, 3, 7, 1)
For this particular problem, know there are 2 critical points
Try another starting point
x <- -rep(1, 4)
for(i in 1:15)
x <- x - solve(DF(x), F(x))
Solution: (2, 3, 7, 1)
In general, will not know the number of critical points
Need additional information about the problem
Multiple starting points
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Outline
1

Implied Volatility

Bisection Method

Newtons Method

Newtons Method for n Dimensional Nonlinear Problems

Lagranges Method + Newtons Method

Another Lagranges Method Example

Maximum Expected Returns Optimization

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Example: Lagranges Method

Homework 7 asked why is it difficult to find the critical points of the
Lagrangian for the following optimization problem
minimize:
subject to:

3x1 4x2 + x3 2x4

x22 + x32 + x42 = 1
3x12 + x32 + 2x42 = 6

Lagrangian
F (x , ) = 3x1 4x2 + x3 2x4
+ 1 (x22 + x32 + x42 1)
+ 2 (3x12 + x32 + 2x42 6)
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Example: Lagranges Method

Gradient of Lagrangian
3 + 62 x1

4
21 x2

1 + 2 x + 2 x

T

1 3
2 3
G(x , ) = D F (x , ) =

2 + 21 x4 + 42 x4

x22 + x32 + x42 1

3x12 + x32 + 2x42 6
Gradient of G

62
0
0
0
0
6x1
0
21
0
0
2x2 0

0
0
21 + 22
0
2x3 2x3

D G(x , ) =

0
0
0
21 + 42 2x4 2x4

0
2x2
2x3
2x4
0
0
6x1
0
2x3
4x4
0
0

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R Implementation
Function to compute G(x , )
G <- function(x)
c(3 + 6*x[6]*x[1], -4 - 2*x[5]*x[2],
1 + 2*x[5]*x[3] + 2*x[6]*x[3],
-2 + 2*x[5]*x[4] + 4*x[6]*x[4],
-x[2]2 + x[3]2 + x[4]2 - 1,
3*x[1]2 + x[3]2 + 2*x[4]2 - 6)

Function to compute D G(x , )

DG <- function(x) {
grad <- matrix(0, 6, 6)
grad[1,] <- c(6*x[6], 0, 0, 0, 0, 6*x[1])
grad[2,] <- c(0, -2*x[5], 0, 0, -2*x[2], 0)
grad[3,] <- c(0, 0, 2*x[5] + 2*x[6], 0, 2*x[3], 2*x[3])
grad[4,] <- c(0, 0, 0, 2*x[5] + 4*x[6], 2*x[4], 2*x[4])
grad[5,] <- c(0, -2*x[2], 2*x[3], 2*x[4], 0, 0)
grad[6,] <- c(6*x[1], 0, 2*x[3], 4*x[4], 0, 0)
grad
}
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Newtons Method
Starting point
x <- c(1, -1, 1, -1, 1, -1)
Newton iterations
for(i in 1:25)
x <- x - solve(DG(x), G(x))
Numeric solution
> x
[1]
[5]

0.4067205 -2.0091498
0.9954460 -1.2293456

2.1376693 -0.6834125

That is
0.4067205
2.0091498

xc =

2.1376693
0.6834125

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"

0.9954460
c =
1.2293456

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Analysis
Does the point (xc , c ) correspond to a minimum or a maximum?
Value of objective at (xc , c )
f <- function(x) 3*x[1] - 4*x[2] + x[3] - 2*x[4]
> f(x)
[1] 12.76125
Rewrite Lagrangian with fixed multipliers (for feasible x )
f (x ) = F (x , c ) = 3x1 4x2 + x3 2x4
+ 0.9954460 (x22 + x32 + x42 1)
1.2293456 (3x12 + x32 + 2x42 6)
Constrained min/max f (x ) min/max F (x , c )
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Analysis
Already know xc is a critical point of F (x , c )
xc minimum if D 2 F (xc , c ) positive definite
xc maximum if D 2 F (xc , c ) negative definite
Already have D 2 F (xc , c ), upper-left 4 4 block of D G(xc , c )
> round(DG(x), digits = 3)
[,1]
[,2]
[,3]
[,4]
[,5]
[,6]
[1,] -7.376 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2.440
[2,] 0.000 -1.991 0.000 0.000 4.018 0.000
[3,] 0.000 0.000 -0.468 0.000 4.275 4.275
[4,] 0.000 0.000 0.000 -2.926 -1.367 -1.367
[5,] 0.000 4.018 4.275 -1.367 0.000 0.000
[6,] 2.440 0.000 4.275 -2.734 0.000 0.000

Follows that xc corresponds to a maximum

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Outline
1

Implied Volatility

Bisection Method

Newtons Method

Newtons Method for n Dimensional Nonlinear Problems

Lagranges Method + Newtons Method

Another Lagranges Method Example

Maximum Expected Returns Optimization

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Maximum Expected Returns Optimization

Recall:
Portfolio weights: w = (w1 , . . . , wn )
Asset expected returns: = (1 , . . . , n )
Asset returns covariance matrix: (symmetric, positive definite)
Want to maximize expected return subject to constraint on risk
maximize:
subject to:

T w
eTw = 1
w T w = P2

Linear objective, linear and quadratic constraints

Lagrangian
F (w , ) = T w + 1 (e T w 1) + 2 (w T w P2 )
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Maximum Expected Returns Optimization

Gradient of the Lagrangian
D F (w , ) = T + 1 e T + 22 w T


w T w P2

eTw 1

Solve to find critical point

+ 1 e + 22 w

T

eTw 1
G(w , ) = D F (w , ) =
=0
w T w P2

Gradient of G
22 e 2w

0
0
D G(w , ) = e T
2(w )T 0
0

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Example
Vector of expected returns
= (0.08, 0.10, 0.13, 0.15, 0.20)
Asset returns covariance matrix
0.019600 0.007560
0.012880
0.008750 0.009800
0.007560
0.032400
0.004140
0.009000
0.009450

0.052900
0.020125
0.020125
= 0.012880 0.004140

0.008750 0.009000
0.020125
0.062500 0.013125
0.009800
0.009450
0.020125 0.013125
0.122500

Target risk: P2 = 0.252 = 0.0625

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R Implementation
Definition of G(w , )
+ 1 e + 22 w

eTw 1
G(w , ) =

w T w P2

Function to compute G(w , )

G <- function(x, mu, Sigma, sigmaP2)
{
n <- length(mu)
c(mu + rep(x[n+1], n) + 2*x[n+2]*(Sigma %*% x[1:n]),
sum(x[1:n]) - 1,
t(x[1:5]) %*% Sigma %*% x[1:5] - sigmaP2)
}
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R Implementation
Gradient of G
22 e 2w

0
0
D G(w , ) = e T
2(w )T 0
0

Function to compute D G(w , )

DG <- function(x, mu, Sigma, sigmaP2)
{
n <- length(mu)
grad <- matrix(0.0, n+2, n + 2)
grad[1:n, 1:n] <- 2*x[n+2]*Sigma
grad[1:n, n+1] <- 1
grad[1:n, n+2] <- 2*(Sigma %*% x[1:5])
grad[n+1, 1:n] <- 1
grad[n+2, 1:n] <- 2*t(x[1:5]) %*% Sigma
grad
}
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R Implementation
From starting point
> x <- c(rep(0.5, 5), 1, 1)
> x
[1] 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0
Newton iterations
> for(i in 1:25)
x <- x - solve(DG(x, mu, Sigma, 0.252),
G(x, mu, Sigma, 0.252))
Numerical solution
> x
[1] -0.39550317 0.09606231 0.04583865
[5] 0.54372203 -0.09200813 -0.85714641
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Analysis
Recall: upper-left n n block of D G(w , c ) Hessian of F (w , c )
> DG(x, mu, Sigma, sigmaP2)[1:5, 1:5]
[,1]
[,2]
[,3]
[,4]
[,5]
[1,] -0.03360 0.01296 -0.02208 -0.01500 0.0168
[2,] 0.01296 -0.05554 0.00710 0.01543 -0.0162
[3,] -0.02208 0.00710 -0.09069 -0.03450 -0.0345
[4,] -0.01500 0.01543 -0.03450 -0.10714 0.0225
[5,] 0.01680 -0.01620 -0.03450 0.02250 -0.2100
Can check second order condition by computing eigenvalues
> eigen(DG(x, mu, Sigma, sigmaP2)[1:5, 1:5])$values
[1] -0.02024 -0.05059 -0.05806 -0.14445 -0.22364
Computed w is a constrained maximum
> t(x[1:5]) %*% mu
[1] 0.1991514
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