Relation to the Laplace Transform

• The z transform is to DT signals and systems

The z Transform what the Laplace transform is to CT signals
and systems
Chapter 11

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Definition Definition
" " "
The z transform can be viewed as a generalization of
the X( S ) = # x[n]e
n=!"
!Sn
= # x[n]e (
n=!"
! $ + j% ) n
= # (x[n]e )e
n=!"
!n$ ! j%n

DTFT or as natural result of exciting a discrete-time

LTI system with its eigenfunction. The DTFT is Viewed this way the factor, e !n" , would be a
defined by 1 (
“convergence” e !"t
x[ n ] = X( j")e j"n d" $& % X( j" ) = ) x[ n ]e' j"n
2! #2!
F
factor in that same way that the factor, , was for the
n='(
Laplace transform.
n
If a strict analogy with the Laplace transform were The other approach to defining theAz z transform is to excite
made Ω would replace ω, Σ would replace σ, S would a DT system with its eigenfunction, . The response
replace s, a summation would replace the integral and would be # #

the z transform would"be defined by y[ n ] = x[n ] ! h[n ] = Az ! h[n ] = $ h[ m]Az

n (n"m )
Az n $ h[ m]z "m
=!
" "
X( S ) = # x[ n ]e!Sn = # x[ n ]e! ( $ + j% ) n = # ( x[n ]e!n$ )e! j%n
m ="# x[ n ] m="#
"$ $#$$
%
z transform of h [ n]
n=!" n=!" n=!"

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Definition Convergence
The DTFT’s of some common functions do not, in the strict
sense, converge. The DTFT of the unit sequence would be
# #

$ u[n]e = $ e " j!n

The universally accepted definition of the z transform of a DT
X( j!) = " j!n
function, x, is n="# n=0

" which does not converge. But the z transform of the unit
X( z) = # x[n]z
n=!"
!n
sequence does exist. It is
" "

and x and X form a “z-transform pair”,

X( z) = # u[n]z !n
= # z !n
n=!" n=0

and the z transform exists for values of z whose magnitudes are

x[ n ]!#" X( z)
Z
greater than one. This defines a region of convergence (ROC)
for the z transform of the unit sequence, the exterior of the unit
circle in the z plane.

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1
 Convergence Transfer Functions
"
The series, # z , is a geometric series. The general formula
!n

n=0 If x is the excitation, h is the impulse response and y is

for the summation of a finite geometric series is the
system response of a discrete-time LTI system, then
, r =1 Y( z) = X( z) H( z )
N !1 $1
&
"r n
= %1 ! r N
n=0 &' 1! r , r # 1
and H is called the transfer function of the system. This
is directly analogous to previous transfer functions,
This formula also applies to the infinite series above if the Y( j! ) = X( j! ) H( j! )
magnitude of z is greater than one. In that case the z
transform of the unit sequence is Y( j!) = X( j! ) H( j!)
z 1 Y( s) = X( s) H( s )
X( z) = = , z >1
z ! 1 1 ! z !1

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Region of Convergence Region of Convergence

Taking a path analogous to that used the development of the
Laplace transform, the z transform of the causal DT signal By similar reasoning, the z transform and region of
convergence A! "n u[ "n ] , ! > 0
is A! n u[n ] , ! > 0 of the anti-causal signal, are

%! '
# # # n
X( z) = A $ ! n u[n ]z "n = A$ ! n z "n = A $
n="# n=0
& (
n=0 z

and the series convertges if |z| > |α|. This A Az !1 1

defines the region of convergence as the X( z) = = !1 , z<
1 ! "z z ! " "
exterior of a circle in the z plane centered
at the origin, of radius, |α|. The z transform
is
z
X( z) = A , z >"
z!"

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The Unilateral z Transform Properties

If two causal DT signals form these transform pairs,

g[n ] !#Z
" G( z) and h[n ] !#Z
" H( z)
Just as it was convenient to define a unilateral Laplace transform
it is convenent for analogous reasons to define a unilateral z then the following properties hold for the z transform.
transform
" Linearity
X( z) = # x[ n]z !n ! g[ n ] + " h[ n] #%Z $ ! G( z) + " H( z)
n=0

which will simply be referred to as the z transform from this Time Shifting
point on.
Delay: g[ n ! n0 ] "$Z # z !n0 G( z) , n0 % 0
n 0 $1
& )
Advance: g[ n + n0 ] !#Z " z n0 ( G( z) $ % g[m ]z $ m + , n0 > 0
' m =0 *
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2
 Properties Properties
Change of Scale Differencing
% z'
! n g[ n ]"$Z # G
&!( g[n ] ! g[n ! 1] "$#(1 ! z !1 ) G( z)
Z

Initial Value Theorem

Accumulation
g[0 ] = lim G( z) n
z 1
! g[m ]"$# z % 1 G(z) = 1 % z
z!"
G( z)
Z
%1
z-Domain Differentiation m=0

d
!n g[ n ]"$Z # z G( z) Final Value Theorem
dz
lim g[ n ] = lim( z # 1) G( z)
n!" z!1
Convolution in Discrete Time (if the limit exists)
g[n ] ! h[ n] "$Z
# H( z) G( z )

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The Inverse z Transform Synthetic Division

Suppose it is desired to find the inverse z transform of
There is an inversion integral for the z transform, z2
z3 !
1 H( z ) = 2
x[ n ] = X( z)z n"1dz
j2! #C
15 17 1
z 3 ! z2 + z ! 3
1+ z !1 +
67 !2
z +!
12 36 18
)
4 144
15 2 17 1 3 z2
z3 ! z + z! z !
but doing it requires integration in the complex plane Synthetically dividing 12 36 18 2
and the numerator by the 15 17 1
z 3 ! z2 + z !
it is rarely used in engineering practice. denominator yields the 12 36 18
3 2 17 1
infinite series z ! z+
4 36 18
There are two other common methods,
3 67 !2 3 2 45
z ! z+
51 3 !1
! z
1 + z !1 + z +! 4 48 144 72
Synthetic Division 4 144
67
z!
Partial-Fraction Expansion This will always work but the answer 144
is not in closed form. " "
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Partial-Fraction Expansion Partial-Fraction Expansion

z" z ! $
1
Algebraically, partial fraction expansion for finding H( z ) # 2%
=
inverse z transforms is identical to the same method z " z ! 2 $ " z ! 1$ " z ! 1 $
applied to inverse Laplace transforms. For example, # 3% # 3% # 4%
" 1$ Dividing both sides by z makes the fraction proper in z and
z2 z !
# 2% partial fraction expansion proceeds normally.
H( z ) =
" z ! 2 $ " z ! 1$ " z ! 1 $ 4 9
# 3% # 3% # 4% H( z ) 2
= 5 + ! 5
z 2 1 1
This fraction is improper in z. We could synthetically z! z! z!
divide the numerator by the denominator once, yielding a 3 3 4
Then 4 9
remainder that is proper in z as with the Laplace transform z z
2z
but there is an alternate method that may be preferred in H( z ) = 5 + ! 5
2 1 1
some situations. z! z! z!
3 3 4
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3
 Solving Difference Equations Solving Difference Equations
The unilateral z transform is well suited to solving difference Applying initial conditions and solving,
equations with initial conditions. For example,
" 16 2 %
n
3 1 " 1$ Y( z) = z$$ 3 +
4
+ 3 ''
y[ n + 2 ] ! y[ n + 1] + y[n ] = , for n & 0
2 2 # 4% $z!
1
z!
1 z !1
'
# 4 2 &
y[ 0 ] = 10 and y[1] = 4
and
z transforming both sides, %16 ! 1 # n ! 1# 2 (
n
y[ n ] = ' +4 + * u[n ]
& 3 " 4$ " 2$ 3)
z2 [ Y( z ) ! y[0 ] ! z !1 y[1] ] ! z[ Y( z ) ! y[0 ] ] + Y( z) =
3 1 z
2 2 1
z!
the initial conditions are called for systematically. 4 This solution satisfies the difference equation and the initial
conditions.

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z Transform - Laplace Transform z Transform - Laplace Transform

Relationships Relationships
Let a DT system have the impulse response, h[n], and let a CT
Let a signal, x(t), be sampled to form #
system have the impulse response, h ! ( t ) = $ h[n]! (t " nT ) .
s
x[ n ] = x( nTs ) n="#

If x[n] is applied to the

and impulse sampled to form DT system and x ! ( t ) is
applied to the CT system,
x ! ( t ) = x( t ) fs comb( fs t ) their responses will be
equivalent in the sense
These two signals are equivalent in the sense that their that the impulse strengths
impulse strengths are the same at corresponding points. are the same.

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z Transform - Laplace Transform z Transform - Laplace Transform

Relationships Relationships
The transfer function of the DT system is The relationship, z = esTs, maps points in the s plane into points
"
in the z plane and vice versa.
H( z ) = # h[n]z !n

n=!"

and the transfer function of the CT system is

#
H! ( s ) = $ h[n]e "nTs s

n="#

The equivalence between them is seen in the transformation,

H! ( s ) = H( z) z"e sTs Different countours in the s plane map into the same contour
in the z plane.

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4
 z Transform - Laplace Transform The Bilateral z Transform
Relationships The bilateral z transform can be used to analyze non-causal
signals and/or systems. It is defined by
" " !1
X( z) = # x[n]z !n
= # x[n ]z !n + # x[n]z !n

n=!" n=0 n=!"

This can be manipulated into

X( z) = Xc ( z) ! x[0 ] + Xac ( z)
where " "
Xc ( z) = # x[ n]z !n and X ac ( z ) = # x[!n ]zn
n=0 n=0

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The Bilateral z Transform

The bilateral z transform can be found using the unilateral
z transform by these four steps.

1. Find the unilateral z transform Xc ( z) and its ROC.

! 1#
2. Find the unilateral z transform, X ac , of the
" z$
discrete-

time inverse of the anti-causal part of x[n].

1
z!
z
3. Make the change of variable, , in the result of
step 2 and in its ROC.

4. Add the results of steps 1 and 3 and subtract x[0] to

form X(z).
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