Finite Element Analysis of Delamination in laminated composite plates

Delamination is a mode of failure for composite materials. In laminated materials, repeated

cyclic stresses, impact, and so on can cause layers to separate, forming a mica-like structure of
separate layers, with significant loss of mechanical toughness.
Delamination also occurs in reinforced concrete structures subject to reinforcement corrosion, in
which case the oxidized metal of the reinforcement is greater in volume than the original metal.
The oxidized metal therefore requires greater space than the original reinforcing bars, which
causes a wedge-like stress on the concrete. This force eventually overcomes the relatively weak
tensile strength of concrete, resulting in a separation (or delamination) of the concrete above and
below the reinforcing bars.
The cause of fiber pull-out (another form of failure mechanism) and delamination is weak
bonding. Thus, delaminating is a subtle kind of failure as it develops inside of the material,
without being obvious on the surface, much like metal fatigue.
Delamination failure may be detected in the material by its sound; solid composite has bright
sound, while delaminated part sounds dull, reinforced concrete sounds solid, whereas
delaminated concrete will have a light drum-like sound when exposed to a dragged chain pulled
across its surface. Bridge decks in cold climate countries which use de-icing salts and chemicals
are commonly subject to delamination and as such are typically scheduled for annual inspection
by chain-dragging as well as subsequent patch repairs of the surface. Other nondestructive
testing methods are used, including embedding optical fibers coupled with optical time domain
reflectometer testing of their state, testing with ultrasound, radiographic imagining, and infrared
imaging.
As there is increasing use of composite materials in aircraft construction (e.g. the Boeing 787
and the Airbus A350), delamination is an air safety concern, especially in the tail sections of the
airplanes.
Delamination in laminated composites is one type of failure that has long been the centre of
materials research. The existence of delamination in a structure can significantly reduce the
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stiffness and strength of the structure. The failure is known due to separation at an interphase
region, caused by manufacturing defects, object impacts, or high stress concentrations
from geometrical discontinuity. Its occurrence can result in significant loss in the structural
stiffness, especially under compressive load, and is dangerous because it often occurs inside the
components, thus difficult to detect from the surface until catastrophic failure is imminent.
Along with the increasing use of advanced composites in structural applications, delamination
problems have been of considerable interest and concerns recently.
Finite element analysis (FEA) is often employed for predicting failure in laminated composites.
Stress-based methods, fracture mechanics methods and cohesive element methods are widely
used so far. Both delamination initiation and delamination growth can be predicted by zerothickness volumetric interface elements. Although the delaminations have been investigated
both numerically and experimentally and possible analytical models have been developed, the
systematical analysis based on the Contact based debonding method is needed seldom
investigated in delaminated composite laminates.
The objective of the present work is to systematically investigate the factors of delamination
behavior by Finite element method and validating with the analytical studies. Parametric study
is carried out for a range of height of the beam and load-displacement response is studied.
Keywords Finite Element Method, Delamination, Contact debonding method, laminated
composites
1. INTRODUCTION
Composites are extensively used in automobile, aerospace, and civil engineering structures due
to their high strength-to-weight ratios. The brittle nature of the fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
composites follows some forms of energy absorption mechanisms such as matrix cracking, fiber
breakage, debonding at the fibermatrix interface and most importantly plies delamination, which
are the major reasons for progressive failure modes and energy absorption in composite
structures.
Delamination is a frequent mode of failure affecting the structural performance of composite
laminates. The interface between laminas offers a low-resistance path for crack growth because
the bonding between the adjacent laminas depends only on matrix properties. Delamination
originatedue to the manufacturing imperfections such as cracks produced by low velocity impact
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or fatigue or stress concentration near geometric/material discontinuity. The analysis of

delamination requires the combination of geometrically nonlinear structural analysis with
fracture mechanics.
3. PROBLEM STATEMENT
The focus of this study is on the finite element modeling for the assessment of static
delamination and to evaluate strain energy release rates in laminated composite plates. The
specimen is assumed with 4 layers or laminates with the boundary conditions and geometry as
shown in figure, The length of the specimen is 150mm, hight of the specimen is 3mm, width is
25mm and a debonding length of 30mm in delaminated layers. The specimen is fixed at one end
and pressure loading is applied at the other end. Necessary orthotropic material properties are
assumed.

Specimen for modeling

Material properties of :
Youngs modulus in X-direction (E1 ) =

Composite material
Composite materials (also called composition materials or shortened to composites) are
materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or
chemical properties, that when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from
the individual components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the
finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons: common examples
include materials which are stronger, lighter or less expensive when compared to traditional
materials.
Typical engineered composite materials include:

Composite building materials such as cements, concrete

Reinforced plastics such as fiber-reinforced polymer

Metal Composites

Ceramic Composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)

Composite materials are generally used for buildings, bridges and structures such as boat hulls,
swimming pool panels, race car bodies, shower stalls, bathtubs, storage tanks, imitation granite
and cultured marble sinks and counter tops. The most advanced examples perform routinely on
spacecraft in demanding environments.
History
The earliest man-made composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks
for building construction. Ancient brick-making was documented by Egyptian tomb
paintings.
Wattle and daub is one of the oldest man-made composite materials, at over 6000 years old. [1]
Concrete is also a composite material, and is used more than any other man-made material in the
world. As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic metres of concrete are made each yearmore than
one cubic metre for every person on Earth.[2]
7

Woody plants, both true wood from trees and such plants as palms and bamboo, yield
natural composites that were used prehistorically by mankind and are still used widely in
construction and scaffolding.

Plywood 3400 BC by the Ancient Mesopotamians; gluing wood at different angles gives
better properties than natural wood

Cartonnage layers of linen or papyrus soaked in plaster dates to the First Intermediate
Period of Egypt c. 21812055 BC and was used for death masks

Cob (material) Mud Bricks, or Mud Walls, (using mud (clay) with straw or gravel as a
binder) have been used for thousands of years.

Concrete was described by Vitruvius, writing around 25 BC in his Ten Books on

Architecture, distinguished types of aggregate appropriate for the preparation of lime
mortars. For structural mortars, he recommended pozzolana, which were volcanic sands
from the sandlike beds of Pozzuoli brownish-yellow-gray in colour near Naples and
reddish-brown at Rome. Vitruvius specifies a ratio of 1 part lime to 3 parts pozzolana for
cements used in buildings and a 1:2 ratio of lime to pulvis Puteolanus for underwater
work, essentially the same ratio mixed today for concrete used at sea. [3] Natural cementstones, after burning, produced cements used in concretes from post-Roman times into
the 20th century, with some properties superior to manufactured Portland cement.

Papier-mch, a composite of paper and glue, has been used for hundreds of years

The first artificial fibre reinforced plastic was bakelite which dates to 1907, although
natural polymers such as shellac predate it

Examples
Materials

Concrete is a mixture of cement and aggregate, giving a robust, strong material that is very
widely used.

Plywood is used widely in construction

Composite sandwich structure panel used for testing at NASA

Concrete is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically consists of loose
stones (aggregate) held with a matrix of cement. Concrete is a very robust material, much more
robust than cement, and will not compress or shatter even under quite a large compressive force.
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However, concrete cannot survive tensile loading (i.e., if stretched it will quickly break apart).
Therefore to give concrete the ability to resist being stretched, steel bars, which can resist high
stretching forces, are often added to concrete to form reinforced concrete.
Fibre-reinforced polymers or FRPs include carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer or CFRP, and glassreinforced plastic or GRP. If classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short
fibre thermoplastics, long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. There are
numerous thermoset composites, but advanced systems usually incorporate aramid fibre and
carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix.
Shape memory polymer composites are high-performance composites, formulated using fibre or
fabric reinforcement and shape memory polymer resin as the matrix. Since a shape memory
polymer resin is used as the matrix, these composites have the ability to be easily manipulated
into various configurations when they are heated above their activation temperatures and will
exhibit high strength and stiffness at lower temperatures. They can also be reheated and reshaped
repeatedly without losing their material properties. These composites are ideal for applications
such as lightweight, rigid, deployable structures; rapid manufacturing; and dynamic
reinforcement.
Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in metal matrix composites
(MMC) or ceramic matrix composites (CMC), which includes bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced
with collagen fibres), cermet (ceramic and metal) and concrete. Ceramic matrix composites are
built primarily for fracture toughness, not for strength.
Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites include asphalt concrete, mastic asphalt, mastic
roller hybrid, dental composite, syntactic foam and mother of pearl. Chobham armour is a special
type of composite armour used in military applications.
Additionally, thermoplastic composite materials can be formulated with specific metal powders
resulting in materials with a density range from 2 g/cm to 11 g/cm (same density as lead). The
most common name for this type of material is "high gravity compound" (HGC), although "lead
replacement" is also used. These materials can be used in place of traditional materials such as
aluminium, stainless steel, brass, bronze, copper, lead, and even tungsten in weighting, balancing
10

(for example, modifying the centre of gravity of a tennis racquet), vibration damping, and
radiation shielding applications. High density composites are an economically viable option
when certain materials are deemed hazardous and are banned (such as lead) or when secondary
operations costs (such as machining, finishing, or coating) are a factor.
A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite material that is fabricated by
attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core. The core material is normally
low strength material, but its higher thickness provides the sandwich composite with high
bending stiffness with overall low density.
Wood is a naturally occurring composite comprising cellulose fibres in a lignin and
hemicellulose matrix. Engineered wood includes a wide variety of different products such as
wood fibre board, plywood, oriented strand board, wood plastic composite (recycled wood fibre
in polyethylene matrix), Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix), Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper
or textiles, Arborite, Formica (plastic) and Micarta. Other engineered laminate composites, such
as Mallite, use a central core of end grain balsa wood, bonded to surface skins of light alloy or
GRP. These generate low-weight, high rigidity materials.
Products
Fiber-reinforced composite materials have gained popularity (despite their generally high cost) in
high-performance products that need to be lightweight, yet strong enough to take harsh loading
conditions such as aerospace components (tails, wings, fuselages, propellers), boat and scull
hulls, bicycle frames, swimming pool panels and racing car bodies. Other uses include fishing
rods, storage tanks, swimming pool panels, and baseball bats. The new Boeing 787 structure
including the wings and fuselage is composed largely of composites. Composite materials are
also becoming more common in the realm of orthopedic surgery.
Carbon composite is a key material in today's launch vehicles and heat shields for the re-entry
phase of spacecraft. It is widely used in solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes of
spacecraft. It is also used in payload adapters, inter-stage structures and heat shields of launch
vehicles. Furthermore disk brake systems of airplanes and racing cars are using carbon/carbon
11

material, and the composite material with carbon fibers and silicon carbide matrix has been
introduced in luxury vehicles and sports cars.
In 2006, a fiber-reinforced composite pool panel was introduced for in-ground swimming pools,
residential as well as commercial, as a non-corrosive alternative to galvanized steel.
In 2007, an all-composite military Humvee was introduced by TPI Composites Inc and Armor
Holdings Inc, the first all-composite military vehicle. By using composites the vehicle is lighter,
allowing higher payloads. In 2008, carbon fiber and DuPont Kevlar (five times stronger than
steel) were combined with enhanced thermoset resins to make military transit cases by ECS
Composites creating 30-percent lighter cases with high strength.
Pipes and fittings for various purpose like transportation of potable water, fire-fighting,
irrigation, seawater, desalinated water, chemical and industrial waste, and sewage are now
manufactured in glass reinforced plastics.

12

Overview

graphite composite part.

Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials. There are
two main categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion of
each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by
maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and
physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties
unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the wide variety of matrix and
strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an optimum
combination.
Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape. The matrix material can be introduced
to the reinforcement before or after the reinforcement material is placed into the mould cavity or
onto the mould surface. The matrix material experiences a melding event, after which the part
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shape is essentially set. Depending upon the nature of the matrix material, this melding event can
occur in various ways such as chemical polymerization or solidification from the melted state.
A variety of moulding methods can be used according to the end-item design requirements. The
principal factors impacting the methodology are the natures of the chosen matrix and
reinforcement materials. Another important factor is the gross quantity of material to be
produced. Large quantities can be used to justify high capital expenditures for rapid and
automated manufacturing technology. Small production quantities are accommodated with lower
capital expenditures but higher labour and tooling costs at a correspondingly slower rate.
Many commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material often called a resin
solution. There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw
ingredients. There are several broad categories, each with numerous variations. The most
common are known as polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic, polyimide, polyamide,
polypropylene, PEEK, and others. The reinforcement materials are often fibres but also
commonly ground minerals. The various methods described below have been developed to
reduce the resin content of the final product, or the fibre content is increased. As a rule of thumb,
lay up results in a product containing 60% resin and 40% fibre, whereas vacuum infusion gives a
final product with 40% resin and 60% fiber content. The strength of the product is greatly
dependent on this ratio.
Martin Hubbe and Lucian A Lucia consider Wood to be a natural composite of cellulose fibres in
a matrix of lignin.[4][5]
Constituents
Matrices
Resins
Typically, most common polymer-based composite materials, including fiberglass, carbon fiber,
and Kevlar, include at least two parts, the substrate and the resin.

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Polyester resin tends to have yellowish tint, and is suitable for most backyard projects. Its
weaknesses are that it is UV sensitive and can tend to degrade over time, and thus generally is
also coated to help preserve it. It is often used in the making of surfboards and for marine
applications. Its hardener is a peroxide, often MEKP (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide). When the
peroxide is mixed with the resin, it decomposes to generate free radicals, which initiate the
curing reaction. Hardeners in these systems are commonly called catalysts, but since they do not
re-appear unchanged at the end of the reaction, they do not fit the strictest chemical definition of
a catalyst.
Vinylester resin tends to have a purplish to bluish to greenish tint. This resin has lower viscosity
than polyester resin, and is more transparent. This resin is often billed as being fuel resistant, but
will melt in contact with gasoline. This resin tends to be more resistant over time to degradation
than polyester resin, and is more flexible. It uses the same hardeners as polyester resin (at a
similar mix ratio) and the cost is approximately the same.
Epoxy resin is almost totally transparent when cured. In the aerospace industry, epoxy is used as
a structural matrix material or as a structural glue.
Shape memory polymer (SMP) resins have varying visual characteristics depending on their
formulation. These resins may be epoxy-based, which can be used for auto body and outdoor
equipment repairs; cyanate-ester-based, which are used in space applications; and acrylate-based,
which can be used in very cold temperature applications, such as for sensors that indicate
whether perishable goods have warmed above a certain maximum temperature. These resins are
unique in that their shape can be repeatedly changed by heating above their glass transition
temperature (Tg). When heated, they become flexible and elastic, allowing for easy
configuration. Once they are cooled, they will maintain their new shape. The resins will return to
their original shapes when they are reheated above their Tg. The advantage of shape memory
polymer resins is that they can be shaped and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material
properties. These resins can be used in fabricating shape memory composites.
Other matrices

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Common matrices include mud (wattle and daub), cement (concrete), polymers (fiber reinforced
plastics), metals and ceramics. Road surfaces are often made from asphalt concrete which uses
bitumen as a matrix. Unusual matrices such as ice are sometime proposed as in pykecrete.
Reinforcements
Fiber

Differences in the way the fibers are laid out give different strengths and ease of manufacture
Reinforcement usually adds rigidity and greatly impedes crack propagation. Thin fibers can have
very high strength, and provided they are mechanically well attached to the matrix they can
greatly improve the composite's overall properties.
Fiber-reinforced composite materials can be divided into two main categories normally referred
to as short fiber-reinforced materials and continuous fiber-reinforced materials. Continuous
reinforced materials will often constitute a layered or laminated structure. The woven and
continuous fibre styles are typically available in a variety of forms, being pre-impregnated with
the given matrix (resin), dry, uni-directional tapes of various widths, plain weave, harness satins,
braided, and stitched.

16

The short and long fibers are typically employed in compression moulding and sheet moulding
operations. These come in the form of flakes, chips, and random mate (which can also be made
from a continuous fibre laid in random fashion until the desired thickness of the ply / laminate is
achieved).
Common fibers used for reinforcement include glass fibers, carbon fibers, cellulose (wood/paper
fiber and straw) and high strength polymers for example aramid.
Other Reinforcement
Concrete uses aggregate, and reinforced concrete additionally uses steel bars (rebar) to tension
the concrete. Steel mesh or wires are also used in some glass and plastic products.
Cores
Many composite layup designs also include a co-curing or post-curing of the prepreg with
various other media, such as honeycomb or foam. This is commonly called a sandwich structure.
This is a more common layup for the manufacture of radomes, doors, cowlings, or non-structural
parts.
Open- and closed-cell-structured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyurethane, polyethylene or
polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic foams, and honeycombs are commonly used core
materials. Open- and closed-cell metal foam can also be used as core materials.
Fabrication methods
Fabrication of composite materials is accomplished by a wide variety of techniques, including:

17

Advanced fiber placement (Automated fiber placement)

Tailored fiber placement

Fiberglass spray lay-up process

Filament winding

Lanxide process

Tufting

Z-pinning

Composite fabrication usually involves wetting, mixing or saturating the reinforcement with the
matrix, and then causing the matrix to bind together (with heat or a chemical reaction) into a
rigid structure. The operation is usually[citation needed] done in an open or closed forming mold, but
the order and ways of introducing the ingredients varies considerably.
Mold overview
Within a mold, the reinforcing and matrix materials are combined, compacted, and cured
(processed) to undergo a melding event. After the melding event, the part shape is essentially set,
although it can deform under certain process conditions. For a thermoset polymeric matrix
material, the melding event is a curing reaction that is initiated by the application of additional
heat or chemical reactivity such as an organic peroxide. For a thermoplastic polymeric matrix
material, the melding event is a solidification from the melted state. For a metal matrix material
such as titanium foil, the melding event is a fusing at high pressure and a temperature near the
melting point.
For many moulding methods, it is convenient to refer to one mould piece as a "lower" mould and
another mould piece as an "upper" mould. Lower and upper refer to the different faces of the
moulded panel, not the mould's configuration in space. In this convention, there is always a
lower mould, and sometimes an upper mould. Part construction begins by applying materials to
the lower mould. Lower mould and upper mould are more generalized descriptors than more
common and specific terms such as male side, female side, a-side, b-side, tool side, bowl, hat,
mandrel, etc. Continuous manufacturing uses a different nomenclature.
The moulded product is often referred to as a panel. For certain geometries and material
combinations, it can be referred to as a casting. For certain continuous processes, it can be
referred to as a profile.
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Vacuum bag moulding

Vacuum bag moulding uses a flexible film to enclose the part and seal it from outside air. A
vacuum is then drawn on the vacuum bag and atmospheric pressure compresses the part during
the cure. Vacuum bag material is available in a tube shape or a sheet of material. When a tube
shaped bag is used, the entire part can be enclosed within the bag. When using sheet bagging
materials, the edges of the vacuum bag are sealed against the edges of the mould surface to
enclose the part against an air-tight mould. When bagged in this way, the lower mold is a rigid
structure and the upper surface of the part is formed by the flexible membrane vacuum bag. The
flexible membrane can be a reusable silicone material or an extruded polymer film. After sealing
the part inside the vacuum bag, a vacuum is drawn on the part (and held) during cure. This
process can be performed at either ambient or elevated temperature with ambient atmospheric
pressure acting upon the vacuum bag. A vacuum pump is typically used to draw a vacuum. An
economical method of drawing a vacuum is with a venturi vacuum and air compressor.
A vacuum bag is a bag made of strong rubber-coated fabric or a polymer film used to compress
the part during cure or hardening. In some applications the bag encloses the entire material, or in
other applications a mold is used to form one face of the laminate with the bag being a single
layer to seal to the outer edge of the mold face. When using a tube shaped bag, the ends of the
bag are sealed and the air is drawn out of the bag through a nipple using a vacuum pump. As a
result, uniform pressure approaching one atmosphere is applied to the surfaces of the object
inside the bag, holding parts together while the adhesive cures. The entire bag may be placed in a
temperature-controlled oven, oil bath or water bath and gently heated to accelerate curing.
Vacuum bagging is widely used in the composites industry as well. Carbon fiber fabric and
fiberglass, along with resins and epoxies are common materials laminated together with a
vacuum bag operation.
Woodworking applications
In commercial woodworking facilities, vacuum bags are used to laminate curved and irregular
shaped workpieces.
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Typically, polyurethane or vinyl materials are used to make the bag. A tube shaped bag is open at
both ends. The piece, or pieces to be glued are placed into the bag and the ends sealed. One
method of sealing the open ends of the bag is by placing a clamp on each end of the bag. A
plastic rod is laid across the end of the bag, the bag is then folded over the rod. A plastic sleeve
with an opening in it, is then snapped over the rod. This procedure forms a seal at both ends of
the bag, when the vacuum is ready to be drawn.
A "platen" is sometimes used inside the bag for the piece being glued to lie on. The platen has a
series of small slots cut into it, to allow the air under it to be evacuated. The platen must have
rounded edges and corners to prevent the vacuum from tearing the bag.
When a curved part is to be glued in a vacuum bag, it is important that the pieces being glued be
placed over a solidly built form, or have an air bladder placed under the form. This air bladder
has access to "free air" outside the bag. It is used to create an equal pressure under the form,
preventing it from being crushed.[6]
Pressure bag molding
This process is related to vacuum bag molding in exactly the same way as it sounds. A solid
female mold is used along with a flexible male mold. The reinforcement is placed inside the
female mold with just enough resin to allow the fabric to stick in place (wet lay up). A measured
amount of resin is then liberally brushed indiscriminately into the mold and the mold is then
clamped to a machine that contains the male flexible mold. The flexible male membrane is then
inflated with heated compressed air or possibly steam. The female mold can also be heated.
Excess resin is forced out along with trapped air. This process is extensively used in the
production of composite helmets due to the lower cost of unskilled labor. Cycle times for a
helmet bag moulding machine vary from 20 to 45 minutes, but the finished shells require no
further curing if the molds are heated.
Autoclave moulding
A process using a two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel. On the lower side is
a rigid mould and on the upper side is a flexible membrane made from silicone or an extruded
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polymer film such as nylon. Reinforcement materials can be placed manually or robotically.
They include continuous fibre forms fashioned into textile constructions. Most often, they are
pre-impregnated with the resin in the form of prepreg fabrics or unidirectional tapes. In some
instances, a resin film is placed upon the lower mould and dry reinforcement is placed above.
The upper mould is installed and vacuum is applied to the mould cavity. The assembly is placed
into an autoclave. This process is generally performed at both elevated pressure and elevated
temperature. The use of elevated pressure facilitates a high fibre volume fraction and low void
content for maximum structural efficiency.
Resin transfer moulding (RTM)
RTM is a process using a rigid two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel. The
mould is typically constructed from aluminum or steel, but composite molds are sometimes used.
The two sides fit together to produce a mould cavity. The distinguishing feature of resin transfer
moulding is that the reinforcement materials are placed into this cavity and the mould set is
closed prior to the introduction of matrix material. Resin transfer moulding includes numerous
varieties which differ in the mechanics of how the resin is introduced to the reinforcement in the
mould cavity. These variations include everything from the RTM methods used in out of
autoclave composite manufacturing for high-tech aerospace components to vacuum infusion (for
resin infusion see also boat building) to vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM). This
process can be performed at either ambient or elevated temperature.
Other fabrication methods
Other types of fabrication include press moulding, transfer moulding, pultrusion moulding,
filament winding, casting, centrifugal casting, continuous casting and slip forming. There are
also forming capabilities including CNC filament winding, vacuum infusion, wet lay-up,
compression moulding, and thermoplastic moulding, to name a few. The use of curing ovens and
paint booths is also needed for some projects.
Finishing methods

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The finishing of the composite parts is also critical in the final design. Many of these finishes
will include rain-erosion coatings or polyurethane coatings.
Tooling
The mold and mold inserts are referred to as "tooling." The mold/tooling can be constructed from
a variety of materials. Tooling materials include invar, steel, aluminium, reinforced silicone
rubber, nickel, and carbon fiber. Selection of the tooling material is typically based on, but not
limited to, the coefficient of thermal expansion, expected number of cycles, end item tolerance,
desired or required surface condition, method of cure, glass transition temperature of the material
being moulded, moulding method, matrix, cost and a variety of other considerations.
Physical properties
The physical properties of composite materials are generally not isotropic (independent of
direction of applied force) in nature, but rather are typically anisotropic (different depending on
the direction of the applied force or load). For instance, the stiffness of a composite panel will
often depend upon the orientation of the applied forces and/or moments. Panel stiffness is also
dependent on the design of the panel. For instance, the fibre reinforcement and matrix used, the
method of panel build, thermoset versus thermoplastic, type of weave, and orientation of fibre
axis to the primary force.
In contrast, isotropic materials (for example, aluminium or steel), in standard wrought forms,
typically have the same stiffness regardless of the directional orientation of the applied forces
and/or moments.
The relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures for an isotropic material can be
described with the following material properties: Young's Modulus, the shear Modulus and the
Poisson's ratio, in relatively simple mathematical relationships. For the anisotropic material, it
requires the mathematics of a second order tensor and up to 21 material property constants. For
the special case of orthogonal isotropy, there are three different material property constants for
each of Young's Modulus, Shear Modulus and Poisson's ratioa total of 9 constants to describe
the relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures.
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Techniques that take advantage of the anisotropic properties of the materials include mortise and
tenon joints (in natural composites such as wood) and Pi Joints in synthetic composites.
Failure
Shock, impact, or repeated cyclic stresses can cause the laminate to separate at the interface
between two layers, a condition known as delamination. Individual fibres can separate from the
matrix e.g. fibre pull-out.
Composites can fail on the microscopic or macroscopic scale. Compression failures can occur at
both the macro scale or at each individual reinforcing fiber in compression buckling. Tension
failures can be net section failures of the part or degradation of the composite at a microscopic
scale where one or more of the layers in the composite fail in tension of the matrix or failure of
the bond between the matrix and fibers.
Some composites are brittle and have little reserve strength beyond the initial onset of failure
while others may have large deformations and have reserve energy absorbing capacity past the
onset of damage. The variations in fibers and matrices that are available and the mixtures that
can be made with blends leave a very broad range of properties that can be designed into a
composite structure. The best known failure of a brittle ceramic matrix composite occurred when
the carbon-carbon composite tile on the leading edge of the wing of the Space Shuttle Columbia
fractured when impacted during take-off. It led to catastrophic break-up of the vehicle when it reentered the Earth's atmosphere on 1 February 2003.
Compared to metals, composites have relatively poor bearing strength.
Testing
To aid in predicting and preventing failures, composites are tested before and after construction.
Pre-construction testing may use finite element analysis (FEA) for ply-by-ply analysis of curved
surfaces and predicting wrinkling, crimping and dimpling of composites. [7] Materials may be
tested during manufacturing and after construction through several nondestructive methods

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including ultrasonics, thermography, shearography and X-ray radiography,[8] and laser bond
inspection for NDT of relative bond strength integrity in a localized area.
Composite laminates
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A small sample of Aerospace grade Carbon-fibre/Epoxy laminate.

In materials science, Composite laminates are assemblies of layers of fibrous composite
materials which can be joined to provide required engineering properties, including in-plane
stiffness, bending stiffness, strength, and coefficient of thermal expansion.
The individual layers consist of high-modulus, high-strength fibers in a polymeric, metallic, or
ceramic matrix material. Typical fibers used include graphite, glass, boron, and silicon carbide,
and some matrix materials are epoxies, polyimides, aluminium, titanium, and alumina.
Layers of different materials may be used, resulting in a hybrid laminate. The individual layers
generally are orthotropic (that is, with principal properties in orthogonal directions) or
transversely isotropic (with isotropic properties in the transverse plane) with the laminate then
exhibiting anisotropic (with variable direction of principal properties), orthotropic, or quasiisotropic properties. Quasi-isotropic laminates exhibit isotropic (that is, independent of direction)
inplane response but are not restricted to isotropic out-of-plane (bending) response. Depending
upon the stacking sequence of the individual layers, the laminate may exhibit coupling between
inplane and out-of-plane response. An example of bending-stretching coupling is the presence of
curvature developing as a result of in-plane loading.

24

Contents

1 Classical laminate analysis

2 See also

3 References

4 External links

Classical laminate analysis

Composite laminates may be regarded as a type of plate or thin-shell structure, and as such their
stiffness properties may be found by integration of in-plane stress in the direction normal to the
laminates surface. The broad majority of ply or lamina materials obey Hooke's law and hence all
of their stresses and strains may be related by a system of linear equations. Laminates are
assumed to deform by developing three strains of the mid-plane/surface and three changes in
curvature
0=[0x0y0xy]T and =[xyxy]T
where x and y define the co-ordinate system at the laminate level. Individual plies have local coordinate axes which are aligned with the materials characteristic directions; such as the principal
directions of its elasticity tensor. Uni-directional ply's for example always have their first axis
aligned with the direction of the reinforcement. A laminate is a stack of individual plies having a
set of ply orientations
[1,2,N]
which have a strong influence on both the stiffness and strength of the laminate as a whole.
Rotating an anisotropic material results in a variation of its elasticity tensor. If in its local coordinates a ply is assumed to behave according to the stress-strain law
[]=Q[]
then under a rotation transformation (see transformation matrix) it has the modified elasticity
terms
25

Q11=Q11cos4+2(Q12+2Q66)sin2cos2+Q22sin4
Q22=Q11sin4+2(Q12+2Q66)sin2cos2+Q22cos4
Q12=(Q11+Q224Q66)sin2cos2+Q12(sin4+cos4)
Q66=(Q11+Q222Q122Q33)sin2cos2+Q66(sin4+cos4)
Q16=(Q11Q122Q66)cos3sin(Q22Q122Q66)cossin3
Q26=(Q11Q122Q66)cossin3(Q22Q122Q66)cos3sin
Hence
[]=Q[]
An important assumption in the theory of classical laminate analysis is that the strains resulting
from curvature vary linearly in the thickness direction, and that the total in-plane strains are a
sum of those derived from membrane loads and bending loads. Hence
=0+z
Furthermore, a three-dimensional stress field is replaced by six stress resultants; three membrane
forces (forces per unit length) and bending moments per unit length. It is assumed that if these
three quantities are known at any location (x,y) then the stresses may be computed from them.
Once part of a laminate the transformed elasticity is treated as a piecewise function of the
thickness direction, hence the integration operation may be treated as the sum of a finite series,
giving[1]
[NM]=[ABBD][0]
where
A=j=1NQ(zjzj1)
B=12j=1NQ(z2jz2j1)
26

D=13j=1NQ(z3jz3j1)

Fibre-reinforced plastic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fibre-reinforced polymer) is a composite material made of
a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually glass, carbon, basalt or aramid,
although other fibres such as paper or wood or asbestos have been sometimes used. The polymer
is usually an epoxy, vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic, and phenol formaldehyde
resins are still in use. FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine,
construction industries and ballistic armor.
Contents

1 Process definition

2 History

3 Process description
o

27

3.1 Fibre

3.1.1 The manufacture of fibre fabric

3.1.2 The manufacture of fibre preforms

3.2 Forming processes

3.2.1 Bladder moulding

3.2.2 Compression moulding

3.2.3 Autoclave / vacuum bag

3.2.4 Mandrel wrapping

3.2.6 Chopper gun

3.2.7 Filament winding

3.2.8 Pultrusion

3.2.9 RTM & VARTM

4.1 Failure modes

5 Material requirements
o

5.1 Glass fibre material

5.2 Carbon fibre

5.3 Aramid fiber material

6 Examples of polymers best suited for the process

7 Applications of fibre-reinforced plastic

o

7.1 Carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers

7.2 Glass-fibre-reinforced polymers

8 Structural applications of FRP

9 Design considerations
o

28

3.2.5 Wet layup

4 Advantages and limitations

o

9.1 Disposal and recycling concerns

10 See also

11 References

12 External links

Process definition
A polymer is generally manufactured by Step-growth polymerization or addition polymerization.
When combined with various agents to enhance or in any way alter the material properties of
polymers the result is referred to as a plastic. Composite plastics refer to those types of plastics
that result from bonding two or more homogeneous materials with different material properties
to derive a final product with certain desired material and mechanical properties. Fibrereinforced plastics are a category of composite plastics that specifically use fibre materials to
mechanically enhance the strength and elasticity of plastics. The original plastic material without
fibre reinforcement is known as the matrix. The matrix is a tough but relatively weak plastic that
is reinforced by stronger stiffer reinforcing filaments or fibres. The extent that strength and
elasticity are enhanced in a fibre-reinforced plastic depends on the mechanical properties of both
the fibre and matrix, their volume relative to one another, and the fibre length and orientation
within the matrix.[1] Reinforcement of the matrix occurs by definition when the FRP material
exhibits increased strength or elasticity relative to the strength and elasticity of the matrix alone.
[2]

History
Bakelite was the first fibre-reinforced plastic. Dr. Baekeland had originally set out to find a
replacement for shellac (made from the excretion of lac beetles). Chemists had begun to
recognize that many natural resins and fibres were polymers, and Baekeland investigated the
reactions of phenol and formaldehyde. He first produced a soluble phenol-formaldehyde shellac
called "Novolak" that never became a market success, then turned to developing a binder for
asbestos which, at that time, was moulded with rubber. By controlling the pressure and
temperature applied to phenol and formaldehyde, he found in 1905 he could produce his
dreamed-of hard mouldable material (the world's first synthetic plastic): bakelite. [3][4] He
announced his invention at a meeting of the American Chemical Society on February 5, 1909.[5]
The development of fibre-reinforced plastic for commercial use was being extensively
researched in the 1930s. In the UK, considerable research was undertaken by pioneers such as
Norman de Bruyne. It was particularly of interest to the aviation industry.[6]
29

Mass production of glass strands was discovered in 1932 when a researcher at Owens-Illinois
accidentally directed a jet of compressed air at a stream of molten glass and produced fibres.
Owens joined up with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens
Corning to produce its patented "fibreglas" (one "s"). A suitable resin for combining the
"fibreglas" with a plastic was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern
polyester resins is Cyanamid's of 1942. Peroxide curing systems were used by then. [7]
Ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but
did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia
was reported to have constructed a passenger boat of plastic materials, and the United States a
fuselage and wings of an aircraft. [8] The first car to have a fibre-glass body was the 1946 Stout
Scarab. Only one of this model was built.[9]
The first fibre-reinforced plastic plane fuselage was used on a modified Vultee BT-13A
designated the XBT-16 based at Wright Field in late 1942.[10] In 1943 further experiments were
undertaken building structural aircraft parts from composite materials resulting in the first plane,
a Vultee BT-15, with a GFRP fuselage, designated the XBT-19, being flown in 1944.[11][12][13] A
significant development in the tooling for GFRP components had been made by Republic
Aviation Corporation in 1943.[14]
Carbon fibre production began in the late 1950s and was used, though not widely, in British
industry beginning in the early 1960s, aramid fibres were being produced around this time also,
appearing first under the trade name Nomex by DuPont. Today each of these fibres is used
widely in industry for any applications that require plastics with specific strength or elastic
qualities. Glass fibres are the most common across all industries, although carbon-fibre and
carbon-fibre-aramid composites are widely found in aerospace, automotive and sporting good
applications.[2]
Global polymer production on the scale present today began in the mid 20th century, when low
material and productions costs, new production technologies and new product categories
combined to make polymer production economical. The industry finally matured in the late
1970s when world polymer production surpassed that of Steel, making polymers the ubiquitous
30

material that it is today. Fibre-reinforced plastics have been a significant aspect of this industry
from the beginning. There are three important categories of fibre used in FRP, glass, carbon, and
aramid.
Process description
FRP involves two distinct processes, the first is the process whereby the fibrous material is
manufactured and formed, the second is the process whereby fibrous materials are bonded with
the matrix during moulding.[2]
Fibre
The manufacture of fibre fabric
Reinforcing Fibre is manufactured in both two-dimensional and three-dimensional orientations
1. Two Dimensional Fibre-Reinforced Polymer are characterized by a laminated structure in
which the fibres are only aligned along the plane in x-direction and y-direction of the
material. This means that no fibres are aligned in the through thickness or the z-direction,
this lack of alignment in the through thickness can create a disadvantage in cost and
processing. Costs and labour increase because conventional processing techniques used
to fabricate composites, such as wet hand lay-up, autoclave and resin transfer moulding,
require a high amount of skilled labor to cut, stack and consolidate into a preformed
component.
2. Three-dimensional Fibre-Reinforced Polymer composites are materials with three
dimensional fibre structures that incorporate fibres in the x-direction, y-direction and zdirection. The development of three-dimensional orientations arose from industry's need
to reduce fabrication costs, to increase through-thickness mechanical properties, and to
improve impact damage tolerance; all were problems associated with two dimensional
fibre-reinforced polymers.
The manufacture of fibre preforms

31

Fibre preforms are how the fibres are manufactured before being bonded to the matrix. Fibre
preforms are often manufactured in sheets, continuous mats, or as continuous filaments for spray
applications. The four major ways to manufacture the fibre preform is through the textile
processing techniques of Weaving, knitting, braiding and stitching.
1. Weaving can be done in a conventional manner to produce two-dimensional fibres as well
in a multilayer weaving that can create three-dimensional fibres. However, multilayer
weaving is required to have multiple layers of warp yarns to create fibres in the zdirection creating a few disadvantages in manufacturing,namely the time to set up all the
warp yarns on the loom. Therefore most multilayer weaving is currently used to produce
relatively narrow width products, or high value products where the cost of the preform
production is acceptable. Another one of the main problems facing the use of multilayer
woven fabrics is the difficulty in producing a fabric that contains fibres oriented with
angles other than 0" and 90" to each other respectively.
2. The second major way of manufacturing fibre preforms is Braiding. Braiding is suited to
the manufacture of narrow width flat or tubular fabric and is not as capable as weaving in
the production of large volumes of wide fabrics. Braiding is done over top of mandrels
that vary in cross-sectional shape or dimension along their length. Braiding is limited to
objects about a brick in size. Unlike standard weaving, braiding can produce fabric that
contains fibres at 45 degrees angles to one another. Braiding three-dimensional fibres can
be done using four step, two-step or Multilayer Interlock Braiding.Four step or row and
column braiding utilizes a flat bed containing rows and columns of yarn carriers that form
the shape of the desired preform. Additional carriers are added to the outside of the array,
the precise location and quantity of which depends upon the exact preform shape and
structure required. There are four separate sequences of row and column motion, which
act to interlock the yarns and produce the braided preform. The yarns are mechanically
forced into the structure between each step to consolidate the structure in a similar
process to the use of a reed in weaving. Two-step braiding is unlike the four-step process
because the two-step includes a large number of yarns fixed in the axial direction and a
fewer number of braiding yarns. The process consists of two steps in which the braiding
carriers move completely through the structure between the axial carriers. This relatively
32

simple sequence of motions is capable of forming preforms of essentially any shape,

including circular and hollow shapes. Unlike the four-step process, the two-step process
does not require mechanical compaction the motions involved in the process allows the
braid to be pulled tight by yarn tension alone. The last type of braiding is multi-layer
interlocking braiding that consists of a number of standard circular braiders being joined
together to form a cylindrical braiding frame. This frame has a number of parallel
braiding tracks around the circumference of the cylinder but the mechanism allows the
transfer of yarn carriers between adjacent tracks forming a multilayer braided fabric with
yarns interlocking to adjacent layers. The multilayer interlock braid differs from both the
four step and two-step braids in that the interlocking yarns are primarily in the plane of
the structure and thus do not significantly reduce the in-plane properties of the preform.
The four-step and two-step processes produce a greater degree of interlinking as the
braiding yarns travel through the thickness of the preform, but therefore contribute less to
the in-plane performance of the preform. A disadvantage of the multilayer interlock
equipment is that due to the conventional sinusoidal movement of the yarn carriers to
form the preform, the equipment is not able to have the density of yarn carriers that is
possible with the two step and four step machines.
3. Knitting fibre preforms can be done with the traditional methods of Warp and [Weft]
Knitting, and the fabric produced is often regarded by many as two-dimensional fabric,
but machines with two or more needle beds are capable of producing multilayer fabrics
with yams that traverse between the layers. Developments in electronic controls for
needle selection and knit loop transfer, and in the sophisticated mechanisms that allow
specific areas of the fabric to be held and their movement controlled. This has allowed
the fabric to form itself into the required three-dimensional preform shape with a
minimum of material wastage.
4. Stitching is arguably the simplest of the four main textile manufacturing techniques and
one that can be performed with the smallest investment in specialized machinery.
Basically stitching consists of inserting a needle, carrying the stitch thread, through a
stack of fabric layers to form a 3D structure. The advantages of stitching are that it is
possible to stitch both dry and prepreg fabric, although the tackiness of the prepreg makes
33

the process difficult and generally creates more damage within the prepreg material than
in the dry fabric. Stitching also utilizes the standard two-dimensional fabrics that are
commonly in use within the composite industry therefore there is a sense of familiarity
concerning the material systems. The use of standard fabric also allows a greater degree
of flexibility in the fabric lay-up of the component than is possible with the other textile
processes, which have restrictions on the fibre orientations that can be produced.[15]
Forming processes
A rigid structure is usually used to establish the shape of FRP components. Parts can be laid up
on a flat surface referred to as a "caul plate" or on a cylindrical structure referred to as a
"mandrel". However most fibre-reinforced plastic parts are created with a mold or "tool." Molds
can be concave female molds, male molds, or the mold can completely enclose the part with a
top and bottom mold.
The moulding processes of FRP plastics begins by placing the fibre preform on or in the mold.
The fibre preform can be dry fibre, or fibre that already contains a measured amount of resin
called "prepreg". Dry fibres are "wetted" with resin either by hand or the resin is injected into a
closed mold. The part is then cured, leaving the matrix and fibres in the shape created by the
mold. Heat and/or pressure are sometimes used to cure the resin and improve the quality of the
final part. The different methods of forming are listed below.
Bladder moulding
Individual sheets of prepreg material are laid up and placed in a female-style mould along with a
balloon-like bladder. The mould is closed and placed in a heated press. Finally, the bladder is
pressurized forcing the layers of material against the mould walls.
Compression moulding
When the raw material (plastic block,rubber block, plastic sheet, or granules) contains
reinforcing fibres, a compression molded part qualifies as a fibre-reinforced plastic. More
typically the plastic preform used in compression molding does not contain reinforcing fibres. In
34

compression molding, A "preform" or "charge", of SMC, BMC is placed into mould cavity. The
mould is closed and the material is formed & cured inside by pressure and heat. Compression
moulding offers excellent detailing for geometric shapes ranging from pattern and relief detailing
to complex curves and creative forms, to precision engineering all within a maximum curing
time of 20 minutes.[16]
Autoclave / vacuum bag
Individual sheets of prepreg material are laid-up and placed in an open mold. The material is
covered with release film, bleeder/breather material and a vacuum bag. A vacuum is pulled on
part and the entire mould is placed into an autoclave (heated pressure vessel). The part is cured
with a continuous vacuum to extract entrapped gasses from laminate. This is a very common
process in the aerospace industry because it affords precise control over moulding due to a long,
slow cure cycle that is anywhere from one to several hours.[17] This precise control creates the
exact laminate geometric forms needed to ensure strength and safety in the aerospace industry,
but it is also slow and labour-intensive, meaning costs often confine it to the aerospace industry.
[16]

Mandrel wrapping
Sheets of prepreg material are wrapped around a steel or aluminium mandrel. The prepreg
material is compacted by nylon or polypropylene cello tape. Parts are typically batch cured by
vacuum bagging and hanging in an oven. After cure the cello and mandrel are removed leaving a
hollow carbon tube. This process creates strong and robust hollow carbon tubes.
Wet layup
Wet layup forming combines fibre reinforcement and the matrix as they are placed on the
forming tool.[2] Reinforcing Fibre layers are placed in an open mould and then saturated with a
wet [resin] by pouring it over the fabric and working it into the fabric. The mould is then left so
that the resin will cure, usually at room temperature, though heat is sometimes used to ensure a
proper cure. Sometimes a vacuum bag is used to compress a wet layup. Glass fibres are most

35

commonly used for this process, the results are widely known as fibreglass, and is used to make
common products like skis, canoes, kayaks and surf boards.[16]
Chopper gun
Continuous strands of fibreglass are pushed through a hand-held gun that both chops the strands
and combines them with a catalysed resin such as polyester. The impregnated chopped glass is
shot onto the mould surface in whatever thickness the design and human operator think is
appropriate. This process is good for large production runs at economical cost, but produces
geometric shapes with less strength than other moulding processes and has poor dimensional
tolerance.[16]
Filament winding
Machines pull fibre bundles through a wet bath of resin and wound over a rotating steel mandrel
in specific orientations Parts are cured either room temperature or elevated temperatures.
Mandrel is extracted, leaving a final geometric shape but can be left in some cases.[16]
Pultrusion
Fibre bundles and slit fabrics are pulled through a wet bath of resin and formed into the rough
part shape. Saturated material is extruded from a heated closed die curing while being
continuously pulled through die. Some of the end products of pultrusion are structural shapes, i.e.
I beam, angle, channel and flat sheet. These materials can be used to create all sorts of fibreglass
structures such as ladders, platforms, handrail systems tank, pipe and pump supports.[16]
RTM & VARTM
Also called resin infusion. Fabrics are placed into a mould which wet resin is then injected into.
Resin is typically pressurized and forced into a cavity which is under vacuum in RTM (Resin
Transfer Molding). Resin is entirely pulled into cavity under vacuum in VARTM (VacuumAssisted Resin Transfer Molding). This moulding process allows precise tolerances and detailed
shaping but can sometimes fail to fully saturate the fabric leading to weak spots in the final
shape.[16]
36

Advantages and limitations

FRP allows the alignment of the glass fibres of thermoplastics to suit specific design programs.
Specifying the orientation of reinforcing fibres can increase the strength and resistance to
deformation of the polymer. Glass reinforced polymers are strongest and most resistive to
deforming forces when the polymers fibres are parallel to the force being exerted, and are
weakest when the fibres are perpendicular. Thus this ability is at once both an advantage or a
limitation depending on the context of use. Weak spots of perpendicular fibres can be used for
natural hinges and connections, but can also lead to material failure when production processes
fail to properly orient the fibres parallel to expected forces. When forces are exerted
perpendicular to the orientation of fibres the strength and elasticity of the polymer is less than the
matrix alone. In cast resin components made of glass reinforced polymers such as UP and EP, the
orientation of fibres can be oriented in two-dimensional and three-dimensional weaves. This
means that when forces are possibly perpendicular to one orientation, they are parallel to another
orientation; this eliminates the potential for weak spots in the polymer.
Failure modes
Structural failure can occur in FRP materials when:

Tensile forces stretch the matrix more than the fibres, causing the material to shear at the
interface between matrix and fibres.

Tensile forces near the end of the fibres exceed the tolerances of the matrix, separating
the fibres from the matrix.

Tensile forces can also exceed the tolerances of the fibres causing the fibres themselves to
fracture leading to material failure.[2]

Material requirements
The matrix must also meet certain requirements in order to first be suitable for FRPs and ensure
a successful reinforcement of itself. The matrix must be able to properly saturate, and bond with
the fibres within a suitable curing period. The matrix should preferably bond chemically with the
37

fibre reinforcement for maximum adhesion. The matrix must also completely envelope the fibres
to protect them from cuts and notches that would reduce their strength, and to transfer forces to
the fibres. The fibres must also be kept separate from each other so that if failure occurs it is
localized as much as possible, and if failure occurs the matrix must also debond from the fibre
for similar reasons. Finally the matrix should be of a plastic that remains chemically and
physically stable during and after reinforcement and moulding processes. To be suitable for
reinforcement material fibre additives must increase the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity
of the matrix and meet the following conditions; fibres must exceed critical fibre content; the
strength and rigidity of fibres itself must exceed the strength and rigidity of the matrix alone; and
there must be optimum bonding between fibres and matrix
Glass fibre material
Further information: Glass-reinforced plastic
FRPs use textile glass fibres; textile fibres are different from other forms of glass fibres used for
insulating applications. Textile glass fibres begin as varying combinations of SiO 2, Al2O3, B2O3,
CaO, or MgO in powder form. These mixtures are then heated through direct melting to
temperatures around 1300 degrees Celsius, after which dies are used to extrude filaments of glass
fibre in diameter ranging from 9 to 17 m. These filaments are then wound into larger threads
and spun onto bobbins for transportation and further processing. Glass fibre is by far the most
popular means to reinforce plastic and thus enjoys a wealth of production processes, some of
which are applicable to aramid and carbon fibres as well owing to their shared fibrous qualities.
Roving is a process where filaments are spun into larger diameter threads. These threads are then
commonly used for woven reinforcing glass fabrics and mats, and in spray applications.
Fibre fabrics are web-form fabric reinforcing material that has both warp and weft directions.
Fibre mats are web-form non-woven mats of glass fibres. Mats are manufactured in cut
dimensions with chopped fibres, or in continuous mats using continuous fibres. Chopped fibre
glass is used in processes where lengths of glass threads are cut between 3 and 26 mm, threads
are then used in plastics most commonly intended for moulding processes. Glass fibre short

38

strands are short 0.20.3 mm strands of glass fibres that are used to reinforce thermoplastics
most commonly for injection moulding.
Carbon fibre
Main article: Carbon fibre
Carbon fibres are created when polyacrylonitrile fibres (PAN), Pitch resins, or Rayon are
carbonized (through oxidation and thermal pyrolysis) at high temperatures. Through further
processes of graphitizing or stretching the fibres strength or elasticity can be enhanced
respectively. Carbon fibres are manufactured in diameters analogous to glass fibres with
diameters ranging from 9 to 17 m. These fibres wound into larger threads for transportation and
further production processes.[2] Further production processes include weaving or braiding into
carbon fabrics, cloths and mats analogous to those described for glass that can then be used in
actual reinforcements.[1]
Aramid fiber material
Main article: Aramid
Aramid fibres are most commonly known as Kevlar, Nomex and Technora. Aramids are
generally prepared by the reaction between an amine group and a carboxylic acid halide group
(aramid);[1] commonly this occurs when an aromatic polyamide is spun from a liquid
concentration of sulphuric acid into a crystallized fibre. [2] Fibres are then spun into larger threads
in order to weave into large ropes or woven fabrics (Aramid). [1] Aramid fibres are manufactured
with varying grades to based on varying qualities for strength and rigidity, so that the material
can be somewhat tailored to specific design needs concerns, such as cutting the tough material
during manufacture.[2]
Examples of polymers best suited for the process
[2]

Reinforcing Most

Common

Matrix

Properties Improved

Material

Materials

Glass Fibres

UP, EP, PA, PC, POM, PP,Strength, Elasticity, heat resistance

39

PBT, VE
Wood Fibres

PE, PP, ABS, HDPE, PLA

Carbon and Aramid

Fibres

EP, UP, VE, PA

Flexural strength, Tensile modulus, Tensile

Strength
Elasticity,

Tensile

Strength,

compression

strength, electrical strength.

Inorganic

Semicrystalline

Isotropic shrinkage, abrasion, compression

Particulates

Thermoplastics, UP

strength

Applications of fibre-reinforced plastic

Glass-aramid-hybrid Fabric (for high tension and compression)

Fibre-reinforced plastics are best suited for any design program that demands weight savings,
precision engineering, finite tolerances, and the simplification of parts in both production and
operation. A moulded polymer artefact is cheaper, faster, and easier to manufacture than cast
aluminium or steel artefact, and maintains similar and sometimes better tolerances and material
strengths.
Carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers
Main article: Carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer
Rudder of Airbus A310

Advantages over a traditional rudder made from sheet aluminium are:

o

40

25% reduction in weight

95% reduction in components by combining parts and forms into simpler

moulded parts.

Overall reduction in production and operational costs, economy of parts results in

lower production costs and the weight savings create fuel savings that lower the
operational costs of flying the aeroplane.

Glass-fibre-reinforced polymers
Engine intake manifolds are made from glass-fibre-reinforced PA 66.

Advantages this has over cast aluminium manifolds are:

o

Up to a 60% reduction in weight

Improved surface quality and aerodynamics

Reduction in components by combining parts and forms into simpler moulded

shapes.

Automotive gas and clutch pedals made from glass-fibre-reinforced PA 66 (DWP 1213)

Advantages over stamped aluminium are:

o

Pedals can be moulded as single units combining both pedals and mechanical
linkages simplifying the production and operation of the design.

Fibres can be oriented to reinforce against specific stresses, increasing the

durability and safety.

Structural applications of FRP

FRP can be applied to strengthen the beams, columns, and slabs of buildings and bridges. It is
possible to increase the strength of structural members even after they have been severely
damaged due to loading conditions. In the case of damaged reinforced concrete members, this
would first require the repair of the member by removing loose debris and filling in cavities and
cracks with mortar or epoxy resin. Once the member is repaired, strengthening can be achieved
41

through wet, hand lay-up of impregnating the fibre sheets with epoxy resin then applying them to
the cleaned and prepared surfaces of the member.
Two techniques are typically adopted for the strengthening of beams, relating to the strength
enhancement desired: flexural strengthening or shear strengthening. In many cases it may be
necessary to provide both strength enhancements. For the flexural strengthening of a beam, FRP
sheets or plates are applied to the tension face of the member (the bottom face for a simply
supported member with applied top loading or gravity loading). Principal tensile fibres are
oriented in the beam longitudinal axis, similar to its internal flexural steel reinforcement. This
increases the beam strength and its stiffness (load required to cause unit deflection), however
decreases the deflection capacity and ductility.
For the shear strengthening of a beam, the FRP is applied on the web (sides) of a member with
fibres oriented transverse to the beam's longitudinal axis. Resisting of shear forces is achieved in
a similar manner as internal steel stirrups, by bridging shear cracks that form under applied
loading. FRP can be applied in several configurations, depending on the exposed faces of the
member and the degree of strengthening desired, this includes: side bonding, U-wraps (Ujackets), and closed wraps (complete wraps). Side bonding involves applying FRP to the sides of
the beam only. It provides the least amount of shear strengthening due to failures caused by debonding from the concrete surface at the FRP free edges. For U-wraps, the FRP is applied
continuously in a 'U' shape around the sides and bottom (tension) face of the beam. If all faces of
a beam are accessible, the use of closed wraps is desirable as they provide the most strength
enhancement. Closed wrapping involves applying FRP around the entire perimeter of the
member, such that there are no free ends and the typical failure mode is rupture of the fibres. For
all wrap configurations, the FRP can be applied along the length of the member as a continuous
sheet or as discrete strips, having a predefined minimum width and spacing.
Slabs may be strengthened by applying FRP strips at their bottom (tension) face. This will result
in better flexural performance, since the tensile resistance of the slabs is supplemented by the
tensile strength of FRP. In the case of beams and slabs, the effectiveness of FRP strengthening
depends on the performance of the resin chosen for bonding. This is particularly an issue for
shear strengthening using side bonding or U-wraps. Columns are typically wrapped with FRP
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around their perimeter, as with closed or complete wrapping. This not only results in higher shear
resistance, but more crucial for column design, it results in increased compressive strength under
axial loading. The FRP wrap works by restraining the lateral expansion of the column, which can
enhance confinement in a similar manner as spiral reinforcement does for the column core.
Design considerations
FRP is used in designs that require a measure of strength or modulus of elasticity that nonreinforced plastics and other material choices are either ill suited for mechanically or
economically. This means that the primary design consideration for using FRP is to ensure that
the material is used economically and in a manner that takes advantage of its structural
enhancements specifically. This is however not always the case, the orientation of fibres also
creates a material weakness perpendicular to the fibres. Thus the use of fibre reinforcement and
their orientation affects the strength, rigidity, and elasticity of a final form and hence the
operation of the final product itself. Orienting the direction of fibres either, unidirectional, 2dimensionally, or 3-dimensionally during production affects the degree of strength, flexibility,
and elasticity of the final product. Fibres oriented in the direction of forces display greater
resistance to distortion from these forces and vice versa, thus areas of a product that must
withstand forces will be reinforced with fibres in the same direction, and areas that require
flexibility, such as natural hinges, will use fibres in a perpendicular direction to forces. Using
more dimensions avoids this either or scenario and creates objects that seek to avoid any specific
weak points due to the unidirectional orientation of fibres. The properties of strength, flexibility
and elasticity can also be magnified or diminished through the geometric shape and design of the
final product. These include such design consideration such as ensuring proper wall thickness
and creating multifunctional geometric shapes that can be moulding as single pieces, creating
shapes that have more material and structural integrity by reducing joints, connections, and
hardware.[2]
Disposal and recycling concerns
As a subset of plastic FR plastics are liable to a number of the issues and concerns in plastic
waste disposal and recycling. Plastics pose a particular challenge in recycling because they are
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derived from polymers and monomers that often cannot be separated and returned to their virgin
states, for this reason not all plastics can be recycled for re-use, in fact some estimates claim only
20% to 30% of plastics can be recycled at all. Fibre-reinforced plastics and their matrices share
these disposal and environmental concerns. In addition to these concerns, the fact that the fibres
themselves are difficult to remove from the matrix and preserve for re-use means FRP's amplify
these challenges. FRP's are inherently difficult to separate into base materials, that is into fibre
and matrix, and the matrix into separate usable plastics, polymers, and monomers. These are all
concerns for environmentally informed design today. Plastics do often offer savings in energy
and economic savings in comparison to other materials. In addition, with the advent of new more
environmentally friendly matrices such as bioplastics and UV-degradable plastics, FRP will gain
environmental sensitivity.[1]

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