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CHAPTER 860
OPEN CHANNELS
Topic 861 - General
Index 861.1 - Introduction
An open channel is a conveyance in which water
flows with a free surface. Although closed
conduits such as culverts and storm drains are open
channels when flowing partially full, the term is
generally applied to natural and improved
watercourses, gutters, ditches, and channels.
While the hydraulic principles discussed in this
section are valid for all drainage structures, the
primary consideration is given to channels along,
across, approaching and leaving the highway.
In addition to performing its hydraulic function, the
drainage channel should be economical to
construct and maintain. Open channels should be
reasonably safe for vehicles accidentally leaving
the traveled way, pleasing in appearance, convey
collected water without damage to the highway or
adjacent property and minimize the environmental
impacts. These considerations are usually so
interrelated that optimum conditions cannot be met
for one without compromising one or more of the
others. The objective is to achieve a reasonable
balance, but the importance of traffic safety must
not be underrated.

861.2 Hydraulic Considerations

An evaluation of hydraulic considerations for the
channel design alternatives should be made early in
the project development process. The extent of the
hydrologic and hydraulic analysis should be
commensurate with the type of highway,
complexity of the drainage facility, and associated
costs, risks, and impacts.
The hydraulic design of an open channel consists
of developing a channel section to carry the design
discharge under the controlling conditions, adding
freeboard as needed and determining the type of
channel protection required to prevent erosion. In
addition to erosion protection, channel linings can
be used to increase the hydraulic capacity of the

channel by reducing the channel roughness. Both

aspects of channel linings are discussed in Chapter
870.
The hydraulic capacity of a drainage channel is
dependent on the size, shape, slope and roughness
of the channel section. For a given channel, the
hydraulic capacity becomes greater as the grade or
depth of flow increases. The channel capacity
decreases as the channel surface becomes rougher.
A rough channel can sometimes be an advantage
on steep slopes where it is desirable to keep flow
velocities from becoming excessively high.
A good open channel design minimizes the effect
on existing water surface profiles. Open channel
designs which lower the water surface elevation
can result in excessive flow velocities and cause
erosion problems. A planned rise in water surface
elevation can cause:

Objectional flooding of the roadbed and

adjacent properties;

An environmental and maintenance problem

with sedimentation due to reduced flow
velocities.

Additional hydraulic considerations include those

of channel and flood water characteristics such as:
movable beds, heavy bedloads and bulking during
flood discharges.
A detailed discussion of
sediment transport and channel morphology is
contained in the FHWA publication entitled
Highways in the River Environment-Hydraulic and
Environmental Design Considerations.
Reference is made to Volume VI of the AASHTO
Highway Drainage Guidelines for a general
discussion on channel hydraulic considerations.

861.3 Selection of "Design Flood"

As with other drainage facilities, the first step in
the hydraulic design of an open channels is to
establish the range of peak flows which the channel
section must carry. The recommended design
criteria for cross drainage type installations is
discussed in Index 821.3. The desirable design
storm and water spread criteria for roadway
drainage type installations are presented in Table
831.3. Empirical and statistical methods for

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estimating design discharges are discussed in

Chapter 810, "Hydrology".

861.4 Safety Considerations

An important aspect of highway drainage design is
that of traffic safety.
The shape of a roadside channel section should
minimize vehicular impact and provide a
traversable section for errant vehicles leaving the
traveled way. The ideal channel section, from a
safety standpoint, will have flattened side slopes
and a curved transition to the channel bottom.

861.5 Maintenance Consideration

Design of open channels and roadside ditches
should recognize that periodic maintenance
inspection and repair is required. Provisions
should be incorporated into the design for access to
a channel by maintenance personnel and
equipment.
When assessing the need for
permanent or temporary access easements,
entrance ramps and gates through the right of way
fences, consideration should be given to the size
and type of maintenance equipment required.
Damaged channels can be expensive to repair and
interfere with the safe and orderly movement of
traffic. Minor erosion damage within the right of
way should be repaired immediately after it occurs
and action taken to prevent the recurrence.
Conditions which require extensive repair or
frequently recurring maintenance may require a
complete redesign rather than repetitive or
extensive reconstruction.
The advice of the
District Hydraulics Engineer should be sought
when evaluating the need for major restoration.
The growth of weeds, brush, and trees in a
drainage channel can effectively reduce its
hydraulic efficiency. The result being that a
portion of the design flow may overflow the
channel banks causing flooding and possible
erosion.
Accumulation of sediment and debris may destroy
vegetative linings leading to additional erosion
damage.
Channel work on some projects may be completed
several months before total project completion.

During this interim period, the contractor must

provide interim protection measures and possibly
advance the planned erosion control program to
assure that minor erosion will not develop into
major damage.

861.6 Economics
Economical drainage design is achieved by
selecting the design alternative which best satisfies
the established design criteria at the lowest cost.
The economic evaluation of design alternatives
should be commensurate with the complexity and
importance of the facility. Analysis of the channel
location, shape, size, and materials involved may
reveal possibilities for reducing construction costs,
flood damage potential, maintenance problems and
environmental impacts.

861.7 Coordination with Other Agencies

There are many Federal, State and local agencies
and private entities engaged in water related
planning, construction and regulation activities
whose interests can affect the design of highway
drainage channels. Such agencies may request the
channel design satisfy additional and perhaps
governing design criteria. Early coordination with
these agencies may help avoid delays in the project
development process. Early coordination may also
reveal opportunities for cooperative projects which
may benefit both Caltrans and the water resources
agency.
For information on cooperative
agreements refer to Index 803.2.

861.8 Environment
Many of the same principles involved in sound
highway construction and maintenance of open
channels parallel environmental considerations.
Erosion, sedimentation, water quality, and
aesthetics should be of prime concern to the
highway design engineer. Refer to Index 110.2 for
discussion on control of water pollution.
Proposed channel improvements may involve
wildlife habitat and refuge areas. Where fish
resources are a concern, the necessity to protect
and preserve the ecosystem may affect decisions
regarding low flow channel design, flow velocities,
channel grades, channel stabilization techniques,

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and construction methods. Conservation and fish

and wildlife agencies may be able to provide
valuable information relating to channel planning
and design. Early coordination with these agencies
is also recommended.

861.9 References
Information on design of highway drainage
channels is included in FHWA's Hydraulic Design
Series No. 4, "Introduction to Highway
Hydraulics" and Hydraulic Design Series No. 3,
"Design Charts for Open Channel Flow".
For a general textbook discussion of open channel
hydraulics, reference is made to "Open-Channel
Hydraulics" by Ven Te Chow. In addition, many
helpful design aids are included in "Handbook of
Hydraulics", by Brater and King.

Topic 862 - Channel Location

862.1 General
Assuming adequate functional design, the next
most important design consideration is channel
location. Locations that avoid poorly drained
areas, unstable soil conditions, and frequently
flooded areas can greatly reduce drainage related
problems. Refer to Index 110.4 for discussion on
wetlands protection.
Often drainage and open channel considerations
are not considered the primary decision factors in
the roadway location; however they are factors
which will often directly or indirectly affect many
other considerations.
Often minor alignment
adjustments can avoid serious drainage problems.
If a channel can be located far enough away from
the highway, the concerns of traffic safety and
aesthetics can be somewhat mitigated. The cost of
additional right of way may be offset somewhat by
the reduced cost of erosion control, traffic
protection, and landscaping.

862.2 Alignment and Grade

Ordinarily, the highway drainage channel must be
located where it will best serve its intended
purpose, using the grade and alignment obtainable
at the site. Insofar as practicable, abrupt changes

in alignment and grade should be avoided. A sharp

change in alignment presents a point of attack for
flowing water, and abrupt changes in grade can
result in possible scour when the grade is
steepened or deposition of transported material
when the grade is flattened.
Ideally, a drainage channel should have flow
velocities that neither erode nor cause deposition in
the channel. This optimum velocity is dependent
on the size and slope of channel, the quantity of
flowing water, the material used to line the
channel, the nature of the bedding soil and the
sediment being transported by the flow. Refer to
Table 862.2 for recommended permissible flow
velocities in unlined channels.
The point of discharge into a natural watercourse
requires special attention. Water entering a natural
watercourse from a highway drainage channel
should not cause eddies with attendant scour of the
natural watercourse. In erodible embankment
soils, if the flow line of the drainage channel is
appreciably higher than that of the watercourse at
the point of discharge, then the use of a spillway
may be advisable to prevent erosion of the channel.

Topic 863 - Channel Section

863.1 Natural Channels
Natural channels are water conveying sections such
as streams, rivers, creeks and swales which have
been formed by natural forces. Good drainage
design involving natural channels will maintain the
existing flow characteristics such as size and shape
of channel, flow velocities, and flow distributions.
It should be recognized by the design engineer that
streams have inherent dynamic qualities by which
changes continually occur in stream position and
shape. These changes may be slow or rapid, but all
streams are subjected to the forces that cause these
changes to occur. For example, in alluvial streams,
i.e., streams whose beds and banks are composed
of materials deposited in water, it is the rule rather
than the exception that banks erode, sediments are
deposited, and islands and side channels form and
disappear with time. A general understanding of
fluvial geomorphology and river mechanics can
help evaluate and resolve problems associated with

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Table 862.2
Recommended Permissible Velocities
for Unlined Channels
Type of Material in Excavation Section

Permissible Velocity (m/s)

Intermittent Flow

Sustained Flow

Fine Sand (Noncolloidal)

0.8

0.8

Sandy Loam (Noncolloidal)

0.8

0.8

Silt Loam (Noncolloidal)

0.9

0.9

Fine Loam

1.1

1.1

Volcanic Ash

1.2

1.1

Fine Gravel

1.2

1.1

Stiff Clay (Colloidal)

1.5

1.2

Loam to Gravel

2.0

1.5

Silt to Gravel

2.1

1.7

Gravel

2.3

1.8

Coarse Gravel

2.4

2.0

Gravel to Cobbles (Under 150 mm)

2.7

2.1

Gravel and Cobbles (Over 200 mm)

3.0

2.4

Graded Material (Noncolloidal)

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alluvial streams. Reference is made to the FHWA

publication entitled Highways in the River
Environment - Hydraulic and Environmental
Design Considerations.

863.2 Triangular V-Ditch

The shape of a channel section is generally
determined by considering the intended purpose,
terrain, flow velocity and quantity of flow to be
conveyed.
The triangular channel or V-ditch is intended
primarily for low flow conditions such as in
median and roadside ditches. V-shaped ditches are
susceptible to erosion and will require lining when
flow velocities exceed the permissible flow
velocities in Table 862.2.

863.3 Trapezoidal
The most common channel shape for large flows is
the trapezoidal section.
Trapezoidal channels are easily constructed by
machinery and are often the most economical.
When a wide trapezoidal section is proposed, both
traffic safety and aesthetics can be improved by
rounding all angles of the channel cross section
with vertical curves. The approximate length of
these vertical curves can be determined by the
formula:
L = 12/X
where

L
X

= length of vertical curve in meters

= horizontal component of side
slopes expressed as x,y
coordinates with y = 1

For narrow channels, L, is limited to the bottom

width.
For large flows, consideration should be given to
using a minimum bottom width of 4 m for
construction and maintenance purposes, but depths
of flow less than 0.3 m are not recommended.

863.4 Rectangular
Rectangular channels are often used to convey
large flows in areas with limited right of way. At
some locations, guardrail or other types of positive

traffic barrier may be necessary between the

traveled way and the channel.
Though rectangular channels are relatively
expensive to construct, since the walls must be
designed as earth retaining structures, the
construction costs can be somewhat offset by the
reduced costs associated with right of way,
materials, and channel excavation.

Topic 864 - Hydraulic Design of

Channels
864.1 General
Open channel hydraulic design is of particular
importance to highway design because of the
interrelationship of channels to most highway
drainage facilities.
The hydraulic principles of open channel flow are
based on steady state uniform flow conditions, as
defined in Index 864.2. Though these conditions
are rarely achieved in the field, generally the
variation in channel properties is sufficiently small
that the use of uniform flow theory will yield
sufficiently accurate results.

864.2 Flow Classifications

(1) Steady vs. Unsteady Flow. The flow in an
open channel can be classified as steady or
unsteady. The flow is said to be steady if the
depth of flow at a section, for a given
discharge, is constant with respect to time.
The flow is considered unsteady if the depth of
flow varies with respect to time.
(2) Uniform Flow. Steady flow can further be
classified as uniform or nonuniform. The flow
is said to be uniform if the depth of flow and
quantity of water are constant at every section
of the channel under consideration. Uniform
flow can be maintained only when the shape,
size, roughness and slope of the channel are
constant. Under uniform flow conditions, the
depth and mean velocity of flow is said to be
normal. Under these conditions the water
surface and flowlines will be parallel to the
stream bed and a hydrostatic pressure
condition will exist, the pressure at a given
section will vary linearly with depth.

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As previously mentioned, uniform flow

conditions are rarely attained in the field, but
the error in assuming uniform flow in a
channel of fairly constant slope, roughness and
cross section is relatively small when
compared to the uncertainties of estimating the
design discharge.
(3) Non-uniform Flow. There are two types of
steady state non-uniform flow:

Gradually varied flow.

Gradually varied flow is described as a
steady state flow condition where the depth
of water varies gradually over the length of
the channel. Under this condition, the
streamlines of flow are practically parallel
and therefore, the assumption of
hydrostatic pressure distribution is valid
and uniform flow principles can be used to
analyze the flow conditions.

Q = A V = A V = ... = A V
1 1
2 2
n n
Where Q is the discharge, A is the crosssectional flow area, and V is the mean flow
velocity. This equation is not valid for
spatially varied flow, i.e., where flow is
entering or leaving along the length of channel
under consideration.
(2) Bernoulli Equation. Water flowing in an open
channel possesses two kinds of energy: (1)
potential energy and (2) kinetic energy.
Potential energy is due to the position of the
water surface above some datum. Kinetic
energy is due to the energy of the moving
water. The total energy at a given section as
expressed by the Bernoulli equation is equal
to:
2

H=z+d+

V
2g

Rapidly varied flow.

Where:

With the rapidly varied flow condition,

there is a pronounced curvature of the flow
streamlines and the assumption of
hydrostatic pressure distribution is no
longer valid, even for the continuous flow
profile. A number of empirical procedures
have been developed to address the various
phenomena of rapidly varied flow. For
additional discussion on the topic of
rapidly varied flow, refer to "OpenChannel Hydraulics" by Chow.

H = Total head, in meters of water

864.3 Open Channel Flow Equations

The equations of open channel flow are based on
uniform flow conditions. Some of these equations
have been derived using basic conservation laws
(e.g. conservation of energy) whereas others have
been derived using an empirical approach.
(1) Continuity Equation. One of the fundamental
concepts which must be satisfied in all flow
problems is the continuity of flow. The
continuity equation states that the mass of fluid
per unit time passing every section in a stream
of fluid is constant. The continuity equation
may be expressed as follows:

= Distance above some datum, in meters

= Depth of flow, in meters

V2
= Velocity head, in meters
2g
g

= Acceleration of gravity
= 9.81 m/s2

3) Energy Equation. The basic principle used

most often in hydraulic analysis is
conservation of energy or the energy equation.
For uniform flow conditions, the energy
equation states that the energy at one section of
a channel is equal to the energy at any
downstream section plus the intervening
energy losses. The energy equation, expressed
in terms of the Bernoulli equation, is:
2

z 1+ d1 +

V1
2g

=z +d +
2

V22
2g

+ hL

Where:
hL = Intervening head losses, in meters

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(4) Manning's Equation. Several equations have

been empirically derived for computing the
average flow velocity within an open channel.
One such equation is the Manning Equation.
Assuming uniform and turbulent flow
conditions, the mean flow velocity in an open
channel can be computed as:
2/3 1/2

V=

V = Mean velocity, in meters

per second
n = Manning coefficient of
roughness
S = Channel slope, in meters per
meter
R = Hydraulic Radius, in meters
= A/WP
Where A = Cross sectional flow area, in
square meters
WP = Wetted perimeter, in meters

For the non-pressure, full flow condition, the

geometric properties and conveyance of a
channel section can be computed. Then for a
given channel slope the discharge capacity can
be easily determined.

Table 864.3A
Average Values for Manning's
Roughness Coefficient (n)

Where

Commonly accepted values for Manning's

roughness coefficient, n, based on materials
and workmanship required in the Standard
Specifications, are provided in Table 864.3A.
The tabulated values take into account
deterioration of the channel lining surface,
distortion of the grade line due to unequal
settlement, construction joints and normal
surface irregularities. These average values
should be modified to satisfy any foreseeable
abnormal conditions.
Direct solutions for Manning's equation for
many channels of trapezoidal, rectangular, and
circular cross sections can be found in FHWA's
Hydraulic Design Series No. 3, "Design Charts
for Open Channel Flow".
(5) Conveyance Equation. Often it is convenient
to group the properties peculiar to the cross
section into one term called the conveyance
factor, K. The conveyance factor, as expressed
by the Manning's equation, is equal to:

AR 2/3
K=
n

Type of Channel

n value

Unlined Channels:
Clay Loam
Sand
Gravel
Rock

0.023
0.020
0.030
0.040

Lined Channels:
Portland Cement Concrete
Air Blown Mortar (troweled)
Air Blown Mortar (untroweled)
Air Blown Mortar (roughened)
Asphalt Concrete
Sacked Concrete

0.014
0.012
0.016
0.025
0.018
0.025

Pavement and Gutters:

Portland Cement Concrete
Asphalt Concrete

0.015
0.016

Depressed Medians:
Earth (without growth)
Earth (with growth)
Gravel

0.040
0.050
0.055

NOTES:
For additional values of n, see "Introduction to
Highway Hydraulics", Hydraulic Design Series
No. 4, FHWA Table 14.

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(6) Critical Flow. A useful concept in hydraulic

analysis is that of "specific energy". The
specific energy at a given section is defined as
the total energy, or total head, of the flowing
water with respect to the channel bottom. For
a channel of small slope;
2
E=d+ V
2g

Where

E = Specific energy, in meters

d = Depth of flow, in meters

V2
= Velocity head, in meters
2g
When the depth of flow is plotted against the
specific energy, for a given discharge and
channel section, the resulting plot is called a
specific energy diagram (see Figure 864.3C).
The curve shows that for a given specific
energy there are two possible depths, a high
stage and a low stage. These flow depths are
called alternate depths. Starting at the upper
right of the curve with a large depth and small
velocity, the specific energy decreases with a
decrease in depth, reaching a minimum energy
content at a depth of flow known as critical
depth. A further decrease in flow depth results
in a rapid increase in specific energy.
Flow at critical depth is called critical flow.
The flow velocity at critical depth is called
critical velocity. The channel slope which
produces critical depth and critical velocity for
a given discharge is the critical slope.
Uniform flow within approximately 10 percent
of critical depth is unstable and should be
avoided in design, if possible. The reason for
this can be seen by referring to the specific
energy diagram. As the flow approaches
critical depth from either limb of the curve, a
very small change in energy is required for the
depth to abruptly change to the alternate depth
on the opposite limb of the specific energy
curve. If the unstable flow region cannot be
avoided in design, the least favorable type of
flow should be assumed for the design.

When the depth of flow is greater than critical

depth, the velocity of flow is less than critical
velocity for a given discharge and hence, the
flow is subcritical. Conversely, when the
depth of flow is less than critical depth, the
flow is supercritical.
When velocities are supercritical, air
entrainment may occur. This produces a
bulking effect which increases the depth of
flow. For concrete lined channels, the normal
depth of flow with bulking can be computed by
using a Manning's "n" value of 0.018 instead of
the 0.014 value given in Table 864.3A. Air
entrainment also causes a reduction in channel
friction with a resulting increase in flow
velocity. A Manning's "n" value of about
0.008 is recommended for computing the
velocity and specific energy of flow in
concrete-lined channels carrying supercritical
flow

Figure 864.3C
Specific Energy Diagram

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Critical depth is an important hydraulic

parameter because it is always a hydraulic
control. Hydraulic controls are points along
the channel where the water level or depth of
flow is limited to a predetermined level or can
be computed directly from the quantity of flow.
Flow must pass through critical depth in going
from subcritical flow to supercritical flow.
Typical locations of critical depth are at:
(a) Abrupt changes in channel slope when a
flat (subcritical) slope is sharply increased
to a steep (supercritical) slope,
(b) A channel constriction such as a culvert
entrance under some conditions,
(c) The unsubmerged outlet of a culvert on
subcritical slope, discharging into a wide
channel or with a free fall at the outlet, and

Critical depth for a given channel is dependent

on the channel geometry and discharge only,
and is independent of channel slope and
roughness.
When flow occurs at critical depth the
following relationship must be satisfied
3
2
A /T = Q /g
A = Cross sectional area, in square
meters
T = Top width of water surface, in
meters
3
Q = Discharge, in m /s
g = Acceleration of gravity,
9.81 m/s2

Critical depth formulas, based on the above

equation, for various channel cross-sections
include:

Trapezoidal sections. The tables in King's

"Handbook of Hydraulics" provide easy
solutions for critical depth for channels of
varying side slopes and bottom widths.

Circular sections. The tables in King's

"Handbook of Hydraulics" can be used for
obtaining easy solutions for critical depth.

(7) Froude Number. The Froude number is a

useful parameter which uniquely describes
open flow.
The Froude number is a
dimensionless value:
Fr = V/(gD)

1/2

Where D = A/T = Hydraulic depth, in

meters
Fr < 1.0 ==> Subcritical flow
Fr = 1.0 ==> Critical flow

(d) The crest of an overflow dam or weir.

Where

Rectangular sections,
2 1/3
d = (q /g)
c
3

Where q = Flow per unit width, in m /s

Fr > 1.0 ==> Supercritical flow

864.4 Water Surface Profiles

(1) General.
For the gradually varied flow
condition, the depth of flow must be
established through a water surface profile
analysis. The basic principles in water surface
profile analysis are where:
(a) Water surface approaches the uniform
depth line asymptotically,
(b) Water surface approaches the critical depth
line at a finite angle,
(c) Subcritical flow is controlled from a
downstream location, and
(d) Supercritical flow is controlled from an
upstream location.
There are 13 possible water surface profiles
depending on the particular flow conditions. A
complete discussion of water surface profile
analysis is contained in most open channel
hydraulics textbooks.

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(2) Methods of Analysis.

Two methods of
performing a water surface profile analysis are:

The Direct Step method

The Standard Step method

Special features of the steady flow component

include: multiple plan analyses; multiple
profile computations; scour computations; and
multiple bridge and/or culvert opening
analysis.

Both methods make use of the energy equation

to compute the water surface profile. The
direct step method can be used to analyze
straight prismatic channel sections only. The
standard step method is applicable to nonprismatic and non-straight channel alignments.
For a complete discussion of both refer to
Open-Channel Hydraulics, by Chow.

Where one-dimensional models fail, such as at

significantly
skewed
bridge
crossings,
confluences, tidal environments, guide bank
design, superelevated flow, complex floodplain
analysis, sediment transport, and dynamic flow
analysis, the FESWMS-2DH/SMS twodimensional model that was developed by
FHWA may be used.

(3) Computer Programs. The analysis of water

surface profile problems is best performed by
computer.
The recommended personal
computer program is the US Army Corps of
Engineers HEC-RAS River Analysis System.
The Program was specifically developed for
analysis of highway bridge and culvert
backwater. HEC-RAS is designed to perform
one-dimensional hydraulic calculations for a
full network of natural and constructed
channels. HEC-RAS is capable of importing
HEC-2 and GIS/CADD data. The basic
computational procedure is based on the
solution of the energy equation. Energy losses
are evaluated by friction (Mannings equation)
and
contraction/expansion
(coefficient
multiplied by the change in velocity head). The
momentum equation is utilized in situations
where the water surface profile is rapidly
varied. These situations include mixed flow
regime calculations (i.e. hydraulic jumps),
hydraulics of bridges, and evaluating profiles
at river confluences (stream junctions).

FESWMS-2DH is an acronym for Finite

Element Surface Water Modeling System Two
Dimensional Flow in a Horizontal Plane. SMS
is an acronym for Surface-water Modeling
System. SMS is a pre- and post- processor for
use with hydraulic models. It does not perform
modeling, but an interface has been
specifically developed for FESWMS-2DH.

The effects of various obstructions such as

bridges, culverts, weirs, and structures in the
flood plain may be considered in the
computations. The steady flow system is
designed for application in flood plain
management and flood insurance studies to
evaluate floodway encroachments. Also,
capabilities are available for assessing the
change in water surface profiles due to channel
improvements, and levees.

FESWMS-2DH is a two-dimensional depth

averaged model that employs the finite element
method to solve two-dimensional (in a
horizontal plane) momentum and continuity
equations.
FESWMS-2DH has also been specifically
designed to model highway crossings and
structures such as bridges, culverts, drop
structures and weirs.
Both steady state and dynamic (time varying)
modeling may be performed.
One other water surface profile computer
program available is FHWA's Water Surface
Computational Program (WSPRO) within the
HYDRAIN.

864.5 Stage-Discharge Relationships

The stage-discharge relationship is an important
consideration in the analysis and design of an open
channel. The depth of flow for various discharges
can be plotted to create a "rating curve" which
provides a visual display of the relationship.
Depending on the site conditions, accuracy
required, and risks involved, a single section
analysis may be sufficient to adequately describe

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the channel stage discharge relationship. The basic

assumptions to a single section analysis are
uniform cross section, slope, and Manning's "n"
values.

Where uniform flow conditions do not adequately

describe the actual flow conditions or where
additional accuracy is desired, the computation of
complete water surface profiles for each discharge
value may be necessary.

Topic 865 - Channel Changes

865.1 General
A channel change is any realignment or change in
the hydraulic characteristics of an existing channel.
The main reasons for channel changes are to:

Permit better drainage

Permit better culvert alignment
Eliminate the need for bridges and culverts
where a stream recrosses a highway
Improve flow conditions
Protect the highway from flood damage
Reduce right of way requirements

The effects of a channel change can vary greatly

depending on the site conditions. For example
certain streams may have a great tolerance to
changes, whereas with others, small changes may
have significant impacts.
When potentially
detrimental effects can be foreseen, plans should
be developed to mitigate the effects to within
tolerable limits.

865.2 Design Considerations

Channel changes should be designed with extreme
caution. Careful study of the stream characteristics
upstream and downstream as well as within the
channel change area is required to achieve a safe
and effective design.
Channel changes usually decrease the surface
roughness and increase the channel slope. As a
result the following may occur:

Higher velocities which result in damage due

to scour
Sedimentation
and
meandering
at
downstream end of channel change
A flattened downstream gradient which
progresses upstream undercutting the
channel banks or highway fill
Flattened downstream gradient or channel
restrictions
may
create
undesirable
backwater conditions.

Modification to a natural channel may reduce the

available cover for fish and other wildlife in and
around the water and eliminate the natural food
supplies available in the old channel. The design
of new channels involving rivers or streams
supporting fish or wildlife must be coordinated
with the Department of Fish and Game in
accordance with current practices.
On intermittent streams the problems are generally
erosion or silting. For a discussion of temporary
measures to be made a part of the contract, see
Index 110.2.
A channel change perched above the bottom of an
old flood stage stream bed may cause the stream to
return to its old channel during a subsequent flood.
This is most likely to occur in arid or semi-arid
locations.

Topic 866 - Freeboard

Considerations
866.1 General
Freeboard is the extra height of lining above the
design depth where overflow is predicted to cause
damage. Freeboard allowances will vary with each
situation.
When the possibility of damage is slight or nonexistent, or where the type of facility is minor,
freeboard need not be provided.

866.2 Height of Freeboard

(1) Straight Alignment.
In channels where
overflow may cause substantial damage, a
guide for freeboard height, for channels on a
straight alignment, is provided in Table 866.2

860-12

HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL

May 1, 2001

Table 866.2
Guide to Freeboard Height
Shape of
Channel

Subcritical
Flow

Supercritical
Flow

Rectangular
Trapezoidal

0.1 He
0.2 He

0.20 d
0.25 d

The heights required by this superelevation of

the water surface can be computed by the
following Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
formulas:

Where He = Energy head, in meters

d = Depth of flow, in meters for a
straight alignment

(2) Critical Flow. An unstable zone of flow

occurs where the flow is near critical state.
This is characterized by random waves. An
allowance for waves should be added to the
normal depth when the slope of the channel is
between 0.7 S and 1.3 S .
c
c
2
H = 0.25 d (1 - 11.1 (S/S - 1) )
w
c
c
where H = height of wave, in meters
w
d = critical depth, in meters
c
S = slope of channel, in meter per
meters
S = critical slope, in meter per meters
c
(3) Superelevation.
The height of freeboard
discussed above does not provide for
superelevation of the water surface on curved
alignments.
Flow around a curve will result in a rise of the
water surface on the outside of the curve and
extra lining is necessary to guard against
overtopping.
Supercritical flow around a curve will cause
the water to rise alternately on the outside and
inside of the curves due to cross waves. This
cross wave pattern may persist for a
considerable distance downstream.
Extra
height of lining must be provided on both sides
of the channel.

Rectangular Channels.

Subcritical flow

3V2 b
E = 4gr

Supercritical flow

2b
E = 1.2V
gr

r-b
2
= cos-1 (
cos B ) - B
r+b
2

Trapezoidal Channels.
S ubcritical flow

E=

V 2 (b + 2K d)
2(gr - 2K V 2 )
V 2(b + 2K d)

S upercritical flow

E=

gr - 2K V 2

Where E = Maximum height of water surface

in meters above depth "d".
V = Average velocity for the flow cross
section in m/s at entrance to curve.
b = Width of rectangular channel or
bottom width of trapezoidal
channel in meters.
g = Acceleration of gravity
= 9.81 m/s2.
r = Radius of channel centerline in
meters.
K = Cotangent of bank slope.
d = Depth of flow in meters for
straight alignment at entrance to
curve.
= Central angle of curve from B.C.
to point of beginning of zone of
maximum depth in degrees.
B = Wave angle in degrees, defined as:

sin B =

(gd)1/2
V