CHAPTER 2

2.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES

The properties of a material determine its performance in

service. The materials for any application are selected on
the basis of their properties in the service environment.

2.1

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
2.1.1

2.2

2.3

The

Stress and Strain

properties

of

material

are

also

important

considerations in certain manufacturing processes, in

which the material is deformed under a force to produce

THE TENSILE TEST

the final shape of a component; e.g. forming, machining.

2.2.1

Elastic Deformation

2.2.2

Plastic Deformation

2.2.3

Yield Strength

2.2.4

Ultimate Tensile Strength

different from those needed to facilitate its manufacture

2.2.5

True Stress-True Strain Curve

e.g. high strength and stiffness are usually desirable in

2.2.6

Ductility

most engineering components, while low strength and

2.2.7

(Tensile) Toughness

good ductility are preferred for processing purposes.

The properties required of a product in service may be very

HARDNESS AND HARDNESS TESTS

The mechanical properties of a material reflect how the

material responds to an applied force or load.
Important

mechanical

properties

include

stiffness,

strength, ductility, toughness and hardness, as well as

those related to fatigue, creep and wear.

2-1

2-2

 Mechanical properties are dependent on the ambient

temperature and the rate at which the force is applied.

When a force (either tensile or compressive), F, is applied

in the direction perpendicular to a cross section of area, A0,
the engineering stress, !, is defined as:

The mechanical properties of materials are determined

through

laboratory

tests

using

standardized

!=

testing

techniques.

normal force
= F (N/m2 = Pascal, Pa)
A0
original cross- sectional area

2.1.1

Strain is the deformation (change in shape) produced by a

Stress and Strain

stress. For a normal stress, the engineering strain, ", is

Stress may be thought of as the intensity of a force

defined as:

experienced by a material. The force may be applied in

" = change in length = "l

tension, compression or shear (Fig. 2.1-1).

original length

l0

= length after force is applied - original length

!

=
!

original length

l - l0
(m/m)
l0

For a shear force, F, applied parallel to surfaces of area A,

the shear stress, #, is defined as:

# = shear force = F (Pa)

surface area

Fig. 2.1-1 Schematic illustration of the deformation produced by forces in

(a) tension, (b) compression, and (c) shear.

2-3

2-4

2.2 THE TENSILE TEST

The specimen is gripped by its ends in the test machine (Fig.

2.2-2),

The tensile test is commonly used to determine several

which elongates the specimen at a constant rate,

usually until fracture occurs. [Note: testing is destructive.]

important mechanical properties of metals and polymers.

[Note: different tests are used for ceramics.]

It measures how a material

responds to a static or slowly applied force.

Test specimens may either be cylindrical or flat

The machine automatically and continuously measures the

instantaneous applied force (with a load cell) and the

(Fig. 2.2-1).

The choice of specimen geometry and size depends on the

shape of the end product that is to be made from the
material tested: the cylindrical specimen is preferred when
the final product has a thick cross-section, while the flat

resulting elongation (using an extensometer).

The output of the tensile test is recorded as load versus
elongation

(Fig.

2.2-3a),

which is then normalized to

engineering stress versus engineering strain (Fig. 2.2-3b).

specimen is chosen for a thin cross-section.

The specimen geometry is specified by established
standards, e.g. ASTM E8M, ISO 6892:1992.

Fig. 2.2-2 Schematic illustration of the tensile test.

Fig. 2.2-1 Specimen geometries used in the tensile test: (a) cylindrical, and (b) flat.
The gauge length is the portion from which measurements would be taken.
2-5

2-6

 E corresponds to the slope of the linear segment of the

stress-strain curve (Fig. 2.2-4).

!
Fig. 2.2-4 The portion of the
stress-strain curve corresponding
to elastic deformation.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2.2-3 (a) Load versus elongation diagram, and (b) stress versus strain diagram
obtained by normalizing the curve in (a).

E may be thought of as stiffness (whether rigid or floppy),

2.2.1

or a materials resistance to elastic deformation. A stiff

Elastic Deformation

material has a high modulus, and its deformation (strain)

During the initial part of the tensile test, the material

under an elastic load is small (Figs. 2.2-5).

returns to its original length when the load is removed; its

deformation is non-permanent and reversible; i.e. elastic.
When deformation is elastic, most metals exhibit a linear
relationship between stress and strain

(Fig. 2.2-4).

This is

known as Hookes law:

! = E"

where E is the modulus of elasticity

or Youngs modulus (Pa)
Fig. 2.2-5 The effect of modulus of elasticity on elastic deflection:
ESteel > EAluminium > EPolystyrene. (All beams have the same length and cross-section).
2-7

2-8

2.2.2

Plastic Deformation

At some point during the tensile test, the stress-strain

behaviour becomes non-linear and no longer obeys
Hookes law. The specimen does not return to its original
length the load is removed, although there is recovery of
the small elastic component (sometimes called springback)
(Fig. 2.2-7);

its deformation is now permanent and non-

reversible; i.e. plastic.

Plastic deformation follows upon elastic deformation when
the applied stress exceeds the critical value of the elastic
limit.

Fig. 2.2-6 Typical elastic moduli of various engineering materials.

A high E is generally preferred, especially where adjacent

components in an assembly are in relative motion,
requiring correct alignment and fit of the parts.

Fig. 2.2-7 Stress-strain

curve showing permanent
plastic deformation upon
removal of load.

In metals and ceramics, E depends on the nature of the

bonding of atoms within the material

(Sec. 3.8.3).

Stiffness

may only be altered by physically combining 2 or more

materials of different stiffness together as a composite.
2-9

2-10

2.2.3

Yield Strength

The yield strength, !y, is thus specified as the stress level at

The point at which plastic deformation begins is known as

yielding, which is close to the initial departure of the
stress-strain curve from linearity.

which a noticeable yet safe amount of plastic deformation

has occurred, which is usually a strain of 0.2% (0.002).
This stress is known then as the 0.2% offset yield
strength or the 0.2% proof stress.

In most materials, the transition from elastic to plastic

deformation is gradual, making it difficult to determine the
yield point precisely.

This is found by locating 0.2% strain (on the x-axis) and

constructing a line parallel to the elastic (linear) portion of
the stress-strain curve. Intersection of this line with the
stress-strain curve gives the 0.2% offset yield strength

(Fig.

2.2-8).

The yield strength of a material is an important

consideration in component design. The primary design
concern is to keep any deformation elastic, such that the
component recovers its original shape when the load is
removed. Thus, the maximum applied stress allowable
must be below the yield strength.
In designing for strength, a safety factor must also be
incorporated, to account for variations in material
properties, due to inhomogeneity and internal flaws.
The strength of a material generally refers to the yield
Fig. 2.2-8 Determining the 0.2% offset yield strength.

strength.
2-11

2-12

Fig. 2.2-9 Typical yield strengths of various engineering materials.

Yield strength in all classes of materials depends on the

characteristics of atomic bonding; but, unlike the modulus
of elasticity, it is also sensitive to internal microstructure.
The strength of metals, in particular, may be altered over a
wide range by variations in composition and structure

(Sec.

6.3).

2-13

2-14

2.2.4

Ultimate Tensile Strength

The ultimate tensile strength (UTS), or simply, tensile

strength (TS), is the maximum stress on the stress-strain
curve

(Fig. 2.2-10);

it represents the highest stress a material is

able to withstand before necking.

All deformation up to the UTS is uniform throughout the
gauge length of the tensile specimen. At the UTS, a small
constriction or neck begins to form at some point (due to
some internal microscopic flaw), and all subsequent
deformation is confined to this small region (non-uniform
deformation), leading to final fracture at the neck (Fig. 2.2-11).
Fig. 2.2-11 The development of plastic strain during tensile testing.

For design purposes, the yield strength rather than the UTS
is used, because by the time the UTS has been reached,
the excessive plastic deformation would have rendered the
component useless.
However, the UTS can be a measure of the quality of a
material. The presence of pores (tiny internal holes) or
harmful inclusions (foreign particles) may result in lower
UTS than normal (Sec. 7.1).
Fig. 2.2-10 The correlation of the stress-train behaviour with the deformation
of the tensile specimen at various points during the tensile test.
The UTS is the maximum stress on the stress-strain curve.
2-15

2-16

2.2.5

True Stress-True Strain Curve

True stress, !t, is defined as the force, F, divided by the

instantaneous minimum cross-sectional area, Ai,

The calculation of engineering stress and engineering strain

!t =

is based on the original (and hence, constant) dimensions

normal force
= F
Ai
instantaneous minimum cross- sectional area

of the tensile specimen, and does not take into account the
!

continuous change in dimensions as the test progresses.

!
True strain, "t, is related to the differential
change in

length, dl, divided by the instantaneous length, l:

d"t = dl
l

"t =

"

l
l

dl = ln "$ l %'
$l '
l
# 0&
!

!
The true stress-strain
curve and engineering stress-strain

curve are very close up to yielding. The difference between

the two curves becomes much greater only after necking
begins.
Fig. 2.2-12 Comparison between engineering stress-strain
and true stress-strain curves.

The true stress-strain curve implies that the strength of the

material actually rises with increasing plastic deformation.

During the tensile test, the cross-sectional area of the

In metals, this is known as strain hardening (Sec. 6.3.5).

tensile specimen constantly decreases; thus, the actual or

true stress at any instant is higher than that depicted by
the engineering stress-engineering strain curve (Fig. 2.2-12).

In design, the engineering stress-strain curve is sufficient

since it underestimates the true strength of the material. In
manufacturing (forming and shaping), however, the true
stress-true strain curve is more relevant because it portrays
the real stress required to deform and shape a material.

2-17

2-18

2.2.6

Ductility

The percent elongation is the percentage of plastic strain

after fracture:

Ductility is a measure of the amount of plastic deformation

that has been sustained at fracture.

#
&
%EL = %% final gauge length " original gauge length(( x 100%

original gauge length

Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation or

percent reduction in area.

#l
%f
%
$

'

"l0 &(
x 100%
l0 ('

The
! percent reduction in area is defined as:
#
&
%RA = %% orig. x -sect. area " x -sect. area at fracture site (( x 100%

original cross -sectional area

#A

= %%
$

'

" Af &
( x 100%
A0 ('

Both
lf and Af are measured after fracture, by fitting the two
!
broken ends of the tensile specimen back together. This
reflects the amount of plastic deformation only, by taking
into account the elastic recovery (springback) that occurs
after the removal of stress.
The values of ductility from the two different definitions are
not, in general, equal. While %EL is easier to determine,
%RA is a more fundamental measure of ductility. %RA is
based on the minimum diameter at the fracture site and so
is a measure of the highest strain along the gauge length.
%EL is an average over an arbitrarily chosen gauge length;
its value varies with different gauge lengths (hence the

Fig. 2.2-13 Tensile specimens at start and end of test.

need for standardized tensile test specimens).

2-19

2-20

 Brittle materials are typically those that exhibit strains of

less than 5% at fracture.

The ductility of a material is sensitive to the ambient

temperature. Materials that are ductile at room temperature may become brittle at low temperatures (Sec. 7.1.4).
Ductility is generally of minor concern in component
design, but it becomes an important consideration in the
manufacture of components through forming processes,
such as rolling, drawing and extrusion, in which large-scale
deformation takes place. A ductile material may undergo
large changes in shape before it fractures.
Like the UTS, ductility can also give some indication of
defects in a material. Porosity, inclusions, or improper
processing (e.g. overheating), may lower ductility.
2-21

2-22

2.2.7

(Tensile) Toughness

One measure of toughness is the ability of a material to

absorb energy up to fracture.
In the tensile test and other loading situations in which the
strain rate (i.e. rate of elongation) is low, toughness is the
area under the engineering stress-strain curve up to the
point of fracture

(Fig. 2.2-14),

which gives the work done per

unit volume in causing the material to fracture.

[See Sec. 7.1 for

other measures of toughness.]

Fig. 2.2-15 The toughness of a material depends on

a combination of strength and ductility.

Fig. 2.2-14 The stress-strain behaviour of brittle and ductile materials; ductile materials
are generally tougher than brittle materials because the more energy is absorbed per
unit volume up to fracture (area under the stress-strain curve is greater).

A tough material must display both strength and ductility

(Fig. 2.2-15).

A tough material will exhibit much plastic deformation

before fracture, allowing preventive measures to be taken.
2-23

Fig. 2.2-16 Summary of the mechanical properties obtained from the tensile test.
2-24

2.3 HARDNESS AND HARDNESS TESTS

Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a material to
surface indentation (a dent or a scratch).
Hardness testing involves pressing a hard indenter with a
definite shape and definite load against a material. The
material undergoes local plastic deformation under the
indenter, leaving a depression

(Fig. 2.3-1).

Hardness is related

to the size or depth of the depression. The larger or deeper

the depression, the softer the material.

Fig. 2.3-2 Relationships between hardness and tensile strength.

Hardness testing is also the easiest way to determine the

strength of brittle materials such as ceramics.
Hardness becomes an important consideration when the

Fig. 2.3-1 Schematic illustration of the hardness test.

surface of a component rubs against another surface in

Since hardness depends on the ease with which a material
deforms plastically, a relationship between hardness and
strength can be determined empirically

(Fig. 2.3-2).

Hardness

testing is much simpler than the tensile test and is used

extensively in industry as a relatively inexpensive and nondestructive method of quality control.

service, leading to wear. Generally, a harder surface would

experience less wear.
The 4 most common tests are the Brinell and Rockwell
hardness tests, and the Vickers and Knoop microhardness
tests. The hardness number for each of these tests depends
on the shape of the indentation and applied load (Fig. 2.3-3).

2-25

2-26

 There is no absolute scale for hardness; each hardness test

method has its own scale. For the same material, different
values are given by different techniques. There are no
simple theoretical relationships between the various scales;

Fig. 2.3-3 Hardness testing methods.

conversion data are determined experimentally (Fig. 2.3-4).

2-27

Fig. 2.3-4 Comparison of various hardness scales.

2-28