Fundamentals of Compressible

Fluid Mechanics

Genick BarMeir, Ph. D.




Ave S. E.
1107
Minneapolis, MN 55414-2411
email:barmeir@gmail.com

Copyright 2006, 2005, and 2004 by Genick Bar-Meir

See the file copying.fdl or copyright.tex for copying conditions.

Version (0.4.3.0rc1

September 15, 2006)

We are like dwarfs sitting on the shoulders of giants

from The Metalogicon by John in 1159

0.1 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. VERBATIM COPYING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. COPYING IN QUANTITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. MODIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS . . . . .
8. TRANSLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. TERMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE . . . . . . . . .
ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents . .
0.2 Potto Project License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1 Version 0.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2 Version 0.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.3 Version 0.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.4 Version 0.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1 The new version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.0.1 Speed of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.0.2 Stagnation effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.0.3 Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.0.4 Isothermal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.0.5 Fanno Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.0.6 Rayleigh Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.0.7 Evacuation and filling semi rigid Chambers . . . . . .
0.0.8 Evacuating and filling chambers under external forces
0.0.9 Oblique shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iii

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ix
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xii
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xv
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xvi
xvii
xxv
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xxvi
xxvi
xxxi
xxxvi
xxxvi
xxxvi
xxxvi
xxxvii
xxxvii
xxxvii
xxxvii
xxxvii

iv

CONTENTS
0.0.10 PrandtlMeyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvii
0.0.11 Transient problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxvii

1 Introduction
1.1 What is Compressible Flow ? . . . . .
1.2 Why Compressible Flow is Important?
1.3 Historical Background . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Early Developments . . . . . .
1.3.2 The shock wave puzzle . . . .
1.3.3 Choking Flow . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 External flow . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.5 Biographies of Major Figures .

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1
1
2
2
4
5
9
12
14

2 Fundamentals of Basic Fluid Mechanics

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Control Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Reynolds Transport Theorem . . . . .

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23
23
23
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23

3 Speed of Sound
3.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Speed of sound in ideal and perfect gases . . . .
3.4 Speed of Sound in Real Gas . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Speed of Sound in Almost Incompressible Liquid
3.6 Speed of Sound in Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Sound Speed in Two Phase Medium . . . . . . .

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25
25
25
27
29
33
34
35

4 Isentropic Variable Area Flow

4.1 Stagnation State for Ideal Gas Model . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 General Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Relationships for Small Mach Number . . . . .
4.2 Isentropic Converging-Diverging Flow in Cross Section
4.2.1 The Properties in The Adiabatic Nozzle . . . .
4.2.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3 Mass Flow Rate (Number) . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Isentropic Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Isentropic Isothermal Flow Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 General Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 The Impulse Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1 Impulse in Isentropic Adiabatic Nozzle . . . .
4.5.2 The Impulse Function in Isothermal Nozzle . .
4.6 Isothermal Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 The effects of Real Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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39
39
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42
43
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48
51
54
55
55
62
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65
65
66

CONTENTS

5 Normal Shock
5.1 Solution of the Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Informal model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Formal Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3 Speed of Sound Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.4 Prandtls condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Operating Equations and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 The Limitations of The Shock Wave . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 Small Perturbation Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.3 Shock Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 The Moving Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 Shock Result From A Sudden and Complete Stop
5.3.2 Moving Shock Into Stationary Medium . . . . . . .
5.4 Shock Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Shock with Real Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 Shock in Wet Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7 Normal Shock in Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ideal Gas . . . . . . . .
5.8 Tables of Normal shocks,


 

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73
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94
98
98
98
98

6 Normal Shock in Variable Duct Areas

105
6.1 Nozzle efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.1.1 Diffuser Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7 Nozzle Flow With External Forces
115
7.1 Isentropic Nozzle (
) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.2 Isothermal Nozzle



 
 
 

8 Isothermal Flow
8.1 The Control Volume Analysis/Governing equations
8.2 Dimensionless Representation . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 The Entrance Limitation Of Supersonic Brach . . .
8.4 Comparison with Incompressible Flow . . . . . . .
8.5 Supersonic Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6 Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8 Unchoked situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9

Fanno Flow
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Dimensionalization of the equations .
9.3 The Mechanics and Why The Flow is Chock?
9.4 The working equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5 Supersonic Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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119
119
120
125
126
128
129
130
135

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137
137
138
139
142
143
146
151

vi

CONTENTS
9.6 Maximum length for the supersonic flow . . . . . . . . .
9.7 Working Conditions . . . . . . . . . .
 . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.1 Variations of the tubelength
(  ) effects . . . .

9.7.2 The Pressure Ratio,   , effects . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.3 Entrance Mach number,
 , effects . . . . . . .
9.8 The Approximation of the Fanno flow by Isothermal Flow
9.9 More Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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152
152
153
158
162
166
167

10 RAYLEIGH FLOW
171
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
10.2 Governing Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
11 Evacuating and Filling a Semi Rigid Chambers
11.1 Governing Equations and Assumptions . . .
11.2 General Model and Non-dimensioned . . . .
11.2.1 Isentropic process . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.2 Isothermal Process in the Chamber .
11.2.3 A Note on the entrance Mach number
11.3 Rigid Tank with Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1 Adiabatic Isentropic Nozzle Attached .
11.3.2 Isothermal Nozzle Attached . . . . . .
11.4 Rapid evacuating of a rigid tank . . . . . . .
11.4.1 With Fanno Flow . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.2 Filling process . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.3 The Isothermal Process . . . . . . . .
11.4.4 Simple Semi Rigid Chamber . . . . .
11.4.5 The Simple General Case . . . . . .
11.5 Advance Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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183
184
186
187
188
188
189
189
191
191
191
193
194
194
195
196

12 Evacuating/Filing Chambers under External Volume Control

12.1 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.1 Rapid Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.3 Direct Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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199
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206

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207
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208
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209
212
212

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13 Oblique-Shock
13.1 Preface to Oblique Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.1 Introduction to Oblique Shock . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.2 Introduction to PrandtlMeyer Function . . . . . .
13.2.3 Introduction to zero inclination . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Oblique Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Solution of Mach Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.1 Upstream Mach number,
 , and deflection angle,

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CONTENTS

13.4.2 In What Situations No Oblique Shock Exist or When

13.4.3 Upstream Mach Number,
 , and Shock Angle,
.
13.4.4 For Given Two Angles, and
. . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.5 Flow in a Semi2D Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.6 Small Weak Oblique shock . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.7 Close and Far Views of The Oblique Shock . . . . .
13.4.8 Maximum value of of Oblique shock . . . . . . . . .
13.4.9 Detached shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.10Issues related to the Maximum Deflection Angle . .
13.4.11Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.12Application of oblique shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.13Optimization of Suction Section Design . . . . . . .
13.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6 Appendix: Oblique Shock Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . .



vii

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215
221
222
224
224
225
225
226
227
229
230
242
242
242

14 Prandtl-Meyer Function
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Geometrical Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2.1 Alternative Approach to Governing equations . . . . . . . . .
14.2.2 Comparison Between The Two Approaches, And Limitations
14.3 The Maximum Turning Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 The Working Equations For Prandtl-Meyer Function . . . . . . . . .
14.5 dAlemberts Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.6 Flat Body with angle of Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.7 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.8 Combination of The Oblique Shock and Isentropic Expansion . . . .

245
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A Computer Program
261
A.1 About the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
A.2 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
A.3 Program listings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

viii

CONTENTS




 

   
"!




This document is published under dual licenses: You can choose the license under
which you use the document and associate files and software.

0.1

GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.2, November 2002
Copyright 2000,2001,2002 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license

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We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
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ix

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come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this
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0.1. GNU FREE DOCUMENTATION LICENSE

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xiv

CONTENTS

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6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
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0.1. GNU FREE DOCUMENTATION LICENSE

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the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding
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You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except
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10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

xvi

CONTENTS

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the
GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be
similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If
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later version applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions
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as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
the License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices
just after the title page:

Copyright YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by
the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no FrontCover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included
in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License.

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,

replace the with...Texts. line with this:

with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the FrontCover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software
license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software.

0.2. POTTO PROJECT LICENSE

0.2

xvii

Potto Project License

This document may be redistributed provided a pointer appears in a prominent

place showing clearly where the original version was published and/or was obtained.
The original version of this document may be found at 

 










This document is derived from open content license 

  !"!
#!


%$


LICENSE
Terms and Conditions for Copying, Distributing, and Modifying
1. Disclaimer of warranty of the original author
You may copy and distribute exact replicas of this document as you receive
it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and appropriately publish
on each copy an appropriate copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty of
the original author; keep intact all the copyright notices that refer to this document. You may at your discretion charge a fee for the media and/or handling
involved in creating a unique copy of this document. You may offer instructional support for this document and software exchange for a fee. You may at
your option offer warranty in exchange for a fee.
2. Modification and distribution of modified material
You may modify your copy or copies of this document and the attached software or any portion of it. You may distribute such modifications, all the material based on this original content or work, under the terms of Section 1
above.
3. Your Name and Communication With You
If you wish to modify this text or software in any way, you must document the
nature of those modifications in the Credits section along with your name,
and information concerning how you may be contacted. You must have a
reasonable way to contact you.
4. No Endorsement
The names POTTO Project and Fundamentals of Compressible Fluid Mechanics or the author of this document must not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this text (book or software) without prior written
permission.
5. Derived Name(s)
Products derived from this software may not be called POTTO Project, or
alleged association with this author nor may POTTO or POTTO Project
appear in their name, without prior written permission of the Dr. Genick BarMeir.

xviii

CONTENTS

6. Applicability of this license

You are not required to accept this License, since you have not signed it.
However, nothing else grants you permission to copy, distribute or modify
these materials. These actions are prohibited by law if you do not accept
this License. Therefore, by distributing or translating these materials, or by
deriving works here from, you indicate your acceptance of this License to
do so, and all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or translating
these materials.
7. No Warranty
Because these materials are licensed free of charge, there is no warranty
for the manuscript, to the extent permitted by applicable law. Except when
otherwise stated in writing the copyright holders and/or other parties provide
these manuscripts AS IS without warranty of any kind, either expressed or
implied, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability
and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk of use of this manuscript
is with you. Should this manuscript prove faulty, inaccurate, or otherwise
unacceptable you assume the cost of all necessary repair or correction.
8. No Liability
In no event unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing will any
copyright holder, or any other party who may mirror and/or redistribute these
materials as permitted above, be liable to you for damages, including any
general, special, incidental or consequential damages arising out of the use
or inability to use this manuscript, even if such holder or other party has been
advised of the possibility of such damages.
9. Jurisdiction
These terms and conditions are governed by and will be interpreted in accordance with the state of POTTO Project residence law and any disputes
relating to these terms and conditions will be exclusively subject to the jurisdiction of the courts of POTTO Project residence. Currently, the POTTO
Project residence is the state of Minnesota. The various provisions of these
terms and conditions are severable and if any provision is held to be invalid
or unenforceable by any court of competent jurisdiction then such invalidity
or unenforceability shall not affect the remaining provisions. If these terms
and conditions are not accepted in full, you use the book and or the software
must be terminated immediately.





 




Genick Bar-Meir holds a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from University of Minnesota and a Master in Fluid Mechanics from Tel Aviv University. Dr. Bar-Meir was
the last student of the late Dr. R.G.E. Eckert. Much of his time has been spend doing research in the field of heat and mass transfer (this includes fluid mechanics)
related to manufacturing processes and design. Currently, he spends time writing books and software for the POTTO project (see Potto Epilogue). The author
enjoys to encourages his students to understand the material beyond the basic
requirements of exams.
In his early part of his professional life, Bar-Meir was mainly interested in
elegant models whether they have or not a practical applicability. Now, this authors
views had changed and the virtue of the practical part of any model becomes the
essential part of his ideas, books and softwares.
He developed models for Mass Transfer in high concentration that became a building blocks for many other models. These models are based on analytical solution to a family of equations1 . As the change in the view occurred, Bar-Meir
developed models that explained several manufacturing processes such the rapid
evacuation of gas from containers, the critical piston velocity in a partially filled
chamber (related to hydraulic jump), supply and demand to rapid change power
system and etc. All the models have practical applicability.
These models have been extended by several research groups (needless to say with large research grants). For example, the Spanish Comision Interministerial provides grants TAP97-0489 and PB98-0007, and the CICYT and the
European Commission provides 1FD97-2333 grants for minor aspects of that models. Moreover, these models were used in numerical works, in GM, British industry,
and even Iran.
The author believes that this book, as in the past, will promote new re1 Where

the mathematicians were able only to prove that the solution exists.

xix

xx

CONTENTS

search. More than that, this author believes that the book will blaze a trail of new
understanding.
The author lives with his wife and three children. A past project of his was
building a four stories house, practically from scratch. While he writes his programs
and does other computer chores, he often feels clueless about computers and
programing. While he known to look like he know about many things, the author
just know to learn quickly. The author spent years working on the sea (ships) as a
engine sea officer but now the author prefers to remain on solid ground.

 

  
 

  

This series of books was born out of frustrations in two respects. The first issue
is the enormous price of college textbooks. It is unacceptable that the price of the
college books will be over $150 per book (over 10 hours of work for an average
student in The United States).
The second issue that prompted the writing of this book is the fact that
we as the public have to deal with a corrupted judicial system. As individuals we
have to obey the law, particularly the copyright law with the infinite2 time with the
copyright holders. However, when applied to small individuals who are not able
to hire a large legal firm, judges simply manufacture facts to make the little guy
lose and pay for the defense of his work. On one hand, the corrupted court system
defends the big guys and on the other hand, punishes the small entrepreneur
who tries to defend his or her work. It has become very clear to the author and
founder of the POTTO Project that this situation must be stopped. Hence, the
creation of the POTTO Project. As R. Kook, one of this authors sages, said instead
of whining about arrogance and incorrectness, one should increase wisdom. This
project is to increase wisdom and humility.
The POTTO Project has far greater goals than simply correcting an abusive Judicial system or simply exposing abusive judges. It is apparent that writing
textbooks especially for college students as a cooperation, like an open source,
is a new idea3 . Writing a book in the technical field is not the same as writing a
novel. The writing of a technical book is really a collection of information and practice. There is always someone who can add to the book. The study of technical


  






     

! " # 

  
 !$ %"&

# ('*)(' 
 '+ ", ('*)(' - %' #%./  ,
2 After

the last decision of the Supreme Court in the case of Eldred v. Ashcroff (see
for more information) copyrights practically remain indefinitely with the holder (not the creator).
3 In some sense one can view the encyclopedia Wikipedia as an open content project (see
). The wikipedia is an excellent collection of articles which are
written by various individuals.

xxi

xxii

CONTENTS

material isnt only done by having to memorize the material, but also by coming to
understand and be able to solve related problems. The author has not found any
technique that is more useful for this purpose than practicing the solving of problems and exercises. One can be successful when one solves as many problems
as possible. To reach this possibility the collective book idea was created/adapted.
While one can be as creative as possible, there are always others who can see
new aspects of or add to the material. The collective material is much richer than
any single person can create by himself.
The following example explains this point: The army ant is a kind of
carnivorous ant that lives and hunts in the tropics, hunting animals that are even
up to a hundred kilograms in weight. The secret of the ants power lies in their
collective intelligence. While a single ant is not intelligent enough to attack and hunt
large prey, the collective power of their networking creates an extremely powerful

   
intelligence to carry out this attack ( see for information 

  






   

 

 $ 
# )4. So when an insect which is blind can be so powerful by

networking, so can we in creating textbooks by this powerful tool.
Why would someone volunteer to be an author or organizer of such a
book? This is the first question the undersigned was asked. The answer varies
from individual to individual. It is hoped that because of the open nature of these
books, they will become the most popular books and the most read books in their
respected field. In a way, the popularity of the books should be one of the incentives
for potential contributors. The desire to be an author of a well-known book (at
least in his/her profession) will convince some to put forth the effort. For some
authors, the reason is the pure fun of writing and organizing educational material.
Experience has shown that in explaining to others any given subject, one also
begins to better understand the material. Thus, contributing to this book will help
one to understand the material better. For others, the writing of or contributing
to this kind of book will serve as a social function. The social function can have
at least two components. One component is to come to know and socialize with
many in the profession. For others the social part is as simple as a desire to
reduce the price of college textbooks, especially for family members or relatives
and those students lacking funds. For some contributors/authors, in the course of
their teaching they have found that the textbook they were using contains sections
that can be improved or that are not as good as their own notes. In these cases,
they now have an opportunity to put their notes to use for others. Whatever the
reasons, the undersigned believes that personal intentions are appropriate and
are the authors/organizers private affair.
If a contributor of a section in such a book can be easily identified, then
that contributor will be the copyright holder of that specific section (even within
question/answer sections). The books contributors names could be written by
their sections. It is not just for experts to contribute, but also students who happened to be doing their homework. The students contributions can be done by
4 see also in Franks, Nigel R.; Army Ants: A Collective Intelligence, American Scientist, 77:139,
1989

0.2. POTTO PROJECT LICENSE

xxiii

adding a question and perhaps the solution. Thus, this method is expected to
accelerate the creation of these high quality books.
These books are written in a similar manner to the open source software
process. Someone has to write the skeleton and hopefully others will add flesh
and skin. In this process, chapters or sections can be added after the skeleton has
been written. It is also hoped that others will contribute to the question and answer
sections in the book. But more than that, other books contain data5 which can be
typeset in LATEX. These data (tables, graphs and etc.) can be redone by anyone
who has the time to do it. Thus, the contributions to books can be done by many
who are not experts. Additionally, contributions can be made from any part of the
world by those who wish to translate the book.
It is hoped that the book will be error-free. Nevertheless, some errors are
possible and expected. Even if not complete, better discussions or better explanations are all welcome to these books. These books are intended to be continuous
in the sense that there will be someone who will maintain and improve the book
with time (the organizer).
These books should be considered more as a project than to fit the traditional definition of plain books. Thus, the traditional role of author will be replaced
by an organizer who will be the one to compile the book. The organizer of the book
in some instances will be the main author of the work, while in other cases This
may merely be the person who decides what will go into the book and what will
not (gate keeper). Unlike a regular book, these works will have a version number
because they are alive and continuously evolving.
The undersigned of this document intends to be the organizer/author/coordinator
of the projects in the following areas:
project name
Die Casting
Mechanics
Statics
Dynamics
Strength of Material
Compressible Flow
Fluid Mechanics
Thermodynamics
Heat Transfer
Open Channel Flow
Two/Multi phases flow

progress
alpha
not started yet
not started yet
not started yet
not started yet
early beta
alpha
early alpha
not started yet
not started yet
not started yet

remarks

Based on Eckert
Tel-Avivnotes

version
0.0.3
0.0.0
0.0.0
0.0.0
0.0.0
0.4
0.1
0.0.01
0.0.0
0.0.0
0.0.0

The meaning of the progress is as:

The Alpha Stage is when some of the chapters are already in rough draft;
5 Data

are not copyrighted.

xxiv

CONTENTS

In Beta Stage is when all or almost all of the chapters have been written and
are at least in a draft stage; and
In Gamma Stage is when all the chapters are written and some of the chapters are in a mature form.
The Advanced Stage is when all of the basic material is written and all that is
left are aspects that are active, advanced topics, and special cases.
The mature stage of a chapter is when all or nearly all of the sections are in a
mature stage and have a mature bibliography as well as mature and numerous
examples for every section. The mature stage of a section is when all of the topics
in the section are written, and all of the examples and data (tables, figures, etc.)
are already presented. While some terms are defined in a relatively clear fashion,
other definitions give merely a hint on the status. But such a thing is hard to define
and should be enough for this stage.
The idea that a book can be created as a project has mushroomed from
the open source software concept, but it has roots in the way science progresses.
However, traditionally books have been improved by the same author(s), a process
in which books have a new version every a few years. There are book(s) that
have continued after their author passed away, i.e., the Boundary Layer Theory
originated6 by Hermann Schlichting but continues to this day. However, projects
such as the Linux Documentation project demonstrated that books can be written
as the cooperative effort of many individuals, many of whom volunteered to help.
Writing a textbook is comprised of many aspects, which include the actual writing of the text, writing examples, creating diagrams and figures, and writing
the LATEX macros7 which will put the text into an attractive format. These chores can
be done independently from each other and by more than one individual. Again,
because of the open nature of this project, pieces of material and data can be used
by different books.

6 Originally authored by Dr. Schlichting, who passed way some years ago. A new version is created
every several years.
7 One can only expect that open source and readable format will be used for this project. But more
than that, only LATEX, and perhaps troff, have the ability to produce the quality that one expects for these
writings. The text processes, especially LATEX, are the only ones which have a cross platform ability to
produce macros and a uniform feel and quality. Word processors, such as OpenOffice, Abiword, and
Microsoft Word software, are not appropriate for these projects. Further, any text that is produced by
Microsoft and kept in Microsoft format are against the spirit of this project In that they force spending
money on Microsoft software.

 

  

0.1





Version 0.4.3

The title of this section is change to reflect that it moved to beginning of the book.
While it move earlier but the name was not changed. Dr. Menikoff pointed to this
inconsistency, and the author is apologizing for this omission.
Several sections were add to this book with many new idea for example
on the moving shock tables. However, this author cannot add all the things that he
was asked and want to the book in instant fashion. For example, one of the reader
ask why not one of the example of oblique shock was not turn into the explanation
of von Neumann paradox. The author was asked by a former client why he didnt
insert his improved tank filling and evacuating models (the addtion of the energy
equation instead of isentropic model). While all these requests are important, the
time is limited and they will be inserted as time permitted.
The moving shock issues are not completed and more work is needed
also in the shock tube. Nevertheless, the idea of moving will reduced the work
for many student of compressible flow. For example solving homework problem
from other text books became either just two mouse clicks away or just just looking
that the tables in this book. I also got request from a India to write the interface
for Microsoft. I am sorry will not be entertaining work for non Linux/Unix systems,
especially for Microsoft. If one want to use the software engine it is okay and
permitted by the license of this work.

0.2

Version 0.4.2

It was surprising to find that over 14,000 downloaded and is encouraging to receive
over 200 thank you eMail (only one from U.S.A./Arizona) and some other reactions.

xxv

xxvi

CONTENTS

This textbook has sections which are cutting edge research8 .

The additions of this version focus mainly on the oblique shock and related issues as results of questions and reactions on this topic. However, most
readers reached to www.potto.org by searching for either terms Rayleigh flow
(107) and Fanno flow ((93). If the total combined variation search of terms
Fanno and Rayleigh (mostly through google) is accounted, it reaches to about
30% (2011). This indicates that these topics are highly is demanded and not many
concerned with the shock phenomena as this author believed and expected. Thus,
most additions of the next version will be concentrated on Fanno flow and Rayleigh
flow. The only exception is the addition to TaylorMaccoll flow (axisymmetricale
conical flow) in Prandtl -Meyer function (currently in a note form).
Furthermore, the questions that appear on the net will guide this author
on what is really need to be in a compressible flow book. At this time, several
questions were about compressibility factor and two phase flow in Fanno flow and
other kind of flow models. The other questions that appeared related two phase
and connecting several chambers to each other. Also, an individual asked whether
this author intended to write about the unsteady section, and hopefully it will be
near future.

0.3

Version 0.4

Since the last version (0.3) several individuals sent me remarks and suggestions.
In the introductory chapter, extensive description of the compressible flow history
was written. In the chapter on speed of sound, the two phase aspects were added.
The isothermal nozzle was combined with the isentropic chapter. Some examples
were added to the normal shock chapter. The fifth chapter deals now with normal
shock in variable area ducts. The sixth chapter deals with external forces fields.
The chapter about oblique shock was added and it contains the analytical solution.
At this stage, the connection between PrandtlMeyer flow and oblique is an note
form. The a brief chapter on PrandtlMeyer flow was added.

0.4

Version 0.3

In the traditional class of compressible flow it is assumed that the students will be
aerospace engineers or dealing mostly with construction of airplanes and turbomachinery. This premise should not be assumed. This assumption drives students
from other fields away from this knowledge. This knowledge should be spread to
other fields because it needed there as well. This rejection is especially true when
students feel that they have to go through a shock wave in their understanding.
This book is the second book in the series of POTTO project books.
POTTO project books are open content textbooks. The reason the topic of Com8 A reader asked this author to examine a paper on Triple Shock Entropy Theorem and Its Consequences by Le Roy F. Henderson and Ralph Menikoff. This led to comparison between maximum to
ideal gas model to more general model.

0.4. VERSION 0.3

xxvii

pressible Flow was chosen, while relatively simple topics like fundamentals of
strength of material were delayed, is because of the realization that manufacture
engineering simply lacks fundamental knowledge in this area and thus produces
faulty designs and understanding of major processes. Unfortunately, the undersigned observed that many researchers who are dealing with manufacturing processes are lack of understanding about fluid mechanics in general but particularly
in relationship to compressible flow. In fact one of the reasons that many manufacturing jobs are moving to other countries is because of the lack of understanding
of fluid mechanics in general and compressible in particular. For example, the lack
of competitive advantage moves many of the die casting operations to off shore9 .
It is clear that an understanding of Compressible Flow is very important for areas
that traditionally have ignored the knowledge of this topic10 .
As many instructors can recall from their time as undergraduates, there
were classes during which most students had a period of confusion, and then
later, when the dust settled, almost suddenly things became clear. This situation
is typical also for Compressible Flow classes, especially for external compressible
flow (e.g. flow around a wing, etc.). This book offers a more balanced emphasis
which focuses more on internal compressible flow than the traditional classes. The
internal flow topics seem to be common for the traditional students and students
from other fields, e.g., manufacturing engineering.
This book is written in the spirit of my adviser and mentor E.R.G. Eckert.
Who, aside from his research activity, wrote the book that brought a revolution in
the heat transfer field of education. Up to Eckerts book, the study of heat transfer
was without any dimensional analysis. He wrote his book because he realized that
the dimensional analysis utilized by him and his adviser (for the post doc), Ernst
Schmidt, and their colleagues, must be taught in engineering classes. His book
met strong criticism in which some called to burn his book. Today, however, there
is no known place in world that does not teach according to Eckerts doctrine. It is
assumed that the same kind of individuals who criticized Eckerts work will criticize
this work. This criticism will not change the future or the success of the ideas in
this work. As a wise person says dont tell me that it is wrong, show me what is
wrong; this is the only reply. With all the above, it must be emphasized that this
book will not revolutionize the field even though considerable new materials that
have never been published are included. Instead, it will provide a new emphasis
and new angle to Gas Dynamics.
Compressible flow is essentially different from incompressible flow in
mainly two respects: discontinuity (shock wave) and choked flow. The other issues, while important, are not that crucial to the understanding of the unique phenomena of compressible flow. These unique issues of compressible flow are to
be emphasized and shown. Their applicability to real world processes is to be
9 Please read the undersigneds book Fundamentals of Die Casting Design, which demonstrates
how ridiculous design and research can be.
10 The fundamental misunderstanding of choking results in poor models (research) in the area of die
casting, which in turn results in many bankrupt companies and the movement of the die casting industry
to offshore.

xxviii

CONTENTS

demonstrated11 .
The book is organized into several chapters which, as a traditional textbook, deals with a basic introduction of thermodynamics concepts (under construction). The second chapter deals with speed of sound. The third chapter provides
the first example of choked flow (isentropic flow in a variable area). The fourth
chapter deals with a simple case of discontinuity (a simple shock wave in a nozzle). The next chapter is dealing with isothermal flow with and without external
forces (the moving of the choking point), again under construction. The next three
chapters are dealing with three models of choked flow: Isothermal flow12 , Fanno
flow and Rayleigh flow. First, the Isothermal flow is introduced because of the relative ease of the analytical treatment. Isothermal flow provides useful tools for the
pipe systems design. These chapters are presented almost independently. Every
chapter can be ripped out and printed independently. The topics of filling and
evacuating of gaseous chambers are presented, normally missed from traditional
textbooks. There are two advanced topics which included here: oblique shock
wave, and properties change effects (ideal gases and real gases) (under construction). In the oblique shock, for the first time analytical solution is presented, which
is excellent tool to explain the strong, weak and unrealistic shocks. The chapter on
one-dimensional unsteady state, is currently under construction.
The last chapter deals with the computer program, Gas Dynamics Calculator (CDC-POTTO). The program design and how to use the program are described (briefly).
Discussions on the flow around bodies (wing, etc), and PrandtlMeyer
expansion will be included only after the gamma version unless someone will provide discussion(s) (a skeleton) on these topics.
It is hoped that this book will serve the purposes that was envisioned
for the book. It is further hoped that others will contribute to this book and find
additional use for this book and enclosed software.

11 If
12 It

you have better and different examples or presentations you are welcome to submit them.
is suggested to referred to this model as Shapiro flow









 



 

This book started because I needed an explanation for manufacturing engineers.

Apparently many manufacturing engineers and even some researchers in manufacturing engineering were lack of understanding about fluid mechanics in particularly about compressible flow. Therefore, I wrote to myself some notes and I converted one of the note to a chapter in my first book, Fundamentals Of Die Casting
Design. Later, I realized that people need down to earth book about compressible
flow and this book was born.
The free/open content of the book was created because the realization
that open content accelerated the creation of books and reaction to the corruption
of the court implementing the copyright law by manufacturing facts and laws. It was
farther extended by the allegation of free market and yet the academic education
cost is sky rocketing without a real reason and real competition. There is no reason
why a text book which cost leas than 10$ to publish/produce will cost about 150
dollars. If a community will pull together, the best books can be created. Anyone
can be part of it. For example, even my 10 years old son, Eliezer made me change
the chapter on isothermal flow. He made me realized that the common approach to
supersonic branch of isothermal as nonexistent is the wrong approach. It should
be included because this section provides the explanation and direction on what
Fanno flow model will approach if heat transfer is taken into account13 .
I realized that books in compressible flow are written in a form that is hard
for non fluid mechanic engineer to understand. Therefore, this book is designed
to be in such form that is easy to understand. I wrote notes and asked myself
what materials should be included in such a book so when I provide consultation
to a company, I do not need to explain the fundamentals. Therefore, there are
some chapters in this book which are original materials never published before.
The presentation of some of the chapters is different from other books. The book
13 Still

in untyped note form.

xxix

xxx

CONTENTS

does not provide the old style graphical solution methods yet provide the graphical
explanation of things.
Of course, this book was written on Linux (MicrosoftLess book). This
book was written using the vim editor for editing (sorry never was able to be comfortable with emacs). The graphics were done by TGIF, the best graphic program
that this author experienced so far. The old figures where done by grap (part the
old Troff). Unfortunately, I did not have any access to grap and switched to Grace.
Grace is a problematic program but is the best I have found. The spell checking
was done by gaspell, a program that cannot be used on new system and I had to
keep my old Linux to make it work14 . I hope someone will write a new spell check
so I can switch to a new system.
The figure in cover page was created by Michael Petschauer, graphic
designer, and is open/free content copyright by him ( happy circle@yahoo.com).

14 If

you would like to to help me to write a new spell check user interface, please contact me.



    
   






Gas Dynamic Calculator, (PottoGDC) was created to generate various tables for
the book either at end the chapters or for the exercises. This calculator was given
to several individuals and they found PottoGDC to be very useful. So, I decided
to include PottoGDC to the book.
Initially, the Potto-GDC was many small programs for specific tasks. For
example, the stagnation table was one such program. Later, the code became a
new program to find the root of
something
between the values of the tables e.g.

finding parameters for a given  . At that stage, the program changed to contain
a primitive interface to provide parameters to carry out the proper calculations. Yet,
then, every flow model was a different program.
When it become cumbersome to handle several programs, the author
utilized the object oriented feature of C++ and assigned functions to the common
tasks to a base class and the specific applications to the derived classes. Later,
a need to intermediate stage of tube flow model (the PipeFlow class) was created
and new classes were created.
The graphical interface was created only after the engine was written.
The graphical interface was written to provide a filter for the unfamiliar user. It also
remove the need to recompile the code everytime.

0.1

The new version

Version 4.1.7 had several bug fixes and add two angle calculations to the oblique
shock. Change the logtable to tabular environment for short tables.

xxxi

xxxii

CONTENTS

   


 

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This book, Fundamentals of Compressible Flow, describes the fundamentals of compressible flow phenomena for engineers and others. This book is
designed to replace the book(s) or instructors notes for the compressible flow in
(mostly) undergraduate classes for engineering/science students. It is hoped that
the book could be used as a reference book for people who have at least some
knowledge of the basics of fundamental fluid mechanics, and basic science such
as calculus, physics, etc. It is hoped that the computer program enclosed in the
book will take on a life of its own and develop into an open content or source
project.
The structure of this book is such that many of the chapters could be
usable independently. For example, if you need information about, say, Fanno
flow, you can read just chapter 9. I hope this makes the book easier to use as a
reference manual. However, this manuscript is first and foremost a textbook, and
secondly a reference manual only as a lucky coincidence.
I have tried to describe why the theories are the way they are, rather than
just listing seven easy steps for each task. This means that a lot of information
is presented which is not necessary for everyone. These explanations have been
marked as such and can be skipped.16 Reading everything will, naturally, increase
your understanding of the fundamentals of compressible fluid flow.
This book is written and maintained on a volunteer basis. Like all volunteer work, there is a limit on how much effort I was able to put into the book
and its organization. Moreover, due to the fact that English is my third language
and time limitations, the explanations are not as good as if I had a few years to
15 To

the power and glory of the mighty God. This book is only to explain his power.
the present, the book is not well organized. You have to remember that this book is a work in
progress.
16 At

xxxiii

xxxiv

CONTENTS

perfect them. Nevertheless, I believe professionals working in many engineering

fields will benefit from this information. This book contains many original models,
and explanations never published before.
I have left some issues which have unsatisfactory explanations in the
book, marked with a Mata mark. I hope to improve or to add to these areas in the
near future. Furthermore, I hope that many others will participate of this project and
will contribute to this book (even small contributions such as providing examples or
editing mistakes are needed).
I have tried to make this text of the highest quality possible and am interested in your comments and ideas on how to make it better. Incorrect language,
errors, ideas for new areas to cover, rewritten sections, more fundamental material,
more mathematics (or less mathematics); I am interested in it all. If you want to be
involved in the editing, graphic design, or proofreading, please drop me a line. You
may contact me via Email at barmeir@gmail.com.
Naturally, this book contains material that never was published before.
This material never went through a peer review. While peer review and publication
in a professional publication is excellent idea in theory. In practice, this process
leaves a large room to blockage of novel ideas and plagiarism. If you would like
be peer reviews or critic to my new ideas please send me your idea(s). Even
reaction/comments from individuals like David Marshall17
Several people have helped me with this book, directly or indirectly. I
would like to especially thank to my adviser, Dr. E. R. G. Eckert, whose work was
the inspiration for this book. I also would like to thank Amy Ross for her advice
ideas, and assistance.
The symbol META was added to provide typographical conventions to
blurb as needed. This is mostly for the authors purposes and also for your amusement. There are also notes in the margin, but those are solely for the authors purposes, ignore them please. They will be removed gradually as the version number
advances.
I encourage anyone with a penchant for writing, editing, graphic ability,
LATEX knowledge, and material knowledge and a desire to provide open content
textbooks and to improve them to join me in this project. If you have Internet e-mail
access, you can contact me at barmeir@gmail.com.

17 Dr. Marshall wrote to this author that the author should review other people work before he write
any thing new (well, literature review is always good?). Over ten individuals wrote me about this letter.
I am asking from everyone to assume that his reaction was innocent one. While his comment looks like
unpleasant reaction, it brought or cause the expansion the oblique shock chapter. However, other email
that imply that someone will take care of this author isnt appreciated.








 

This book is not complete and probably never will be completed. There will always
new problems to add or to polish the explanations or include more new materials.
Also issues that associated with the book like the software has to be improved. It
is hoped the changes in TEX and LATEX related to this book in future will be minimal and minor. It is hoped that the style file will be converged to the final form
rapidly. Nevertheless, there are specific issues which are on the table and they
are described herein.
At this stage, several chapters are missing. The effects of the deviations
from the ideal gas model on the properties should be included. Further topics
related to non-ideal gas such as steam and various freons are in the process of
being added to this book especially in relationship to Fanno flow.
One of the virtue of this book lay in the fact that it contains a software that
is extensible. For example, the Fanno module can be extended to include effects
of real gases. This part will be incorporated in the future hopefully with the help of
others.
Specific missing parts from every chapters are discussed below. These
omissions, mistakes, approach problems are sometime appears in the book under
the Meta simple like this

Meta


ample this part.

Meta End
Questions/problems appear as a marginal note. On occasions a footnote was
used to point out for a need of improvement. You are always welcome to add a
new material: problem, question, illustration or photo of experiment. Material can

xxxv

xxxvi

CONTENTS

be further illuminate. Additional material can be provided to give a different angle

on the issue at hand.

0.0.1

Speed of Sound

Discussion about the movement in medium with variation in speed of sound. This
concept in relation of the wind tunnel and atmosphere with varied density and
temperature.
More problems in relationship to two phase.
Speed of sound in wet steam.

0.0.2

Stagnation effects

extend
the applicability with examples


as a function of temperature (deviation of ideal gas model)
real gas like water
History on the teaching (for example when the concept of stagnation was first
taught.

0.0.3

Nozzle

The effect of external forces (add problems).

History specifically, who and when the important of part De Level nozzle were developed.
Real gases effects (only temperature effects)
Flow with tabulated gases calculations
Phase change and two phase flow (multi choking points) effects (after 1.0 version).
The dimensional analysis of the flow when the flow can be considered
as isothermal.
The combined effect of isentropic nozzle with heat transfer (especially with relationship to the program.).

0.0.4

Isothermal Flow

Classification of Problems
work on the software
Comparison of results with Fanno flow
Pipes Network calculation.

0.1. THE NEW VERSION

0.0.5

xxxvii

Fanno Flow

More examples: various categories

some improvement on the software (clean up)
real gas effects (compressible factor)

0.0.6

Rayleigh Flow

To mature the chapter: discussion on the dark corners of this model.

Provide discussion on variations of the effecting parameters.
Examples: provide categorization

0.0.7

Evacuation and filling semi rigid Chambers

To construct the Rayleigh flow in the tube (thermal chocking)

Examples classifications
Software (converting the FORTRAN program to c++)

0.0.8

Evacuating and filling chambers under external forces

Comparison with chemical reaction case

Examples
Software transformation from FORTRAN to c++. The FORTRAN version will not
be included.

0.0.9

Oblique shock

Add application to design problems

To add the note on the relation ship between PrandtlMeyer and the weak oblique
shock. (almost finished)
Example on the above relationship

0.0.10

PrandtlMeyer

The limitations (Prandtl-Meyer). Application

MarcellTaylor (from the notes)
Examples

0.0.11

Transient problem

xxxviii

CONTENTS