Advanced Thermodynamics: Lecture 2

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan
sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Equation of state
Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and
specific volume of a substance is called an equation of state.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Equation of state
Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and
specific volume of a substance is called an equation of state.
In 1662, Robert Boyle, an Englishman, observed during his
experiments with a vacuum chamber that the pressure of
gases is inversely proportional to their volume.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Equation of state
Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and
specific volume of a substance is called an equation of state.
In 1662, Robert Boyle, an Englishman, observed during his
experiments with a vacuum chamber that the pressure of
gases is inversely proportional to their volume.
In 1802, J. Charles and J. Gay-Lussac, Frenchmen,
experimentally determined that at low pressures the volume of
a gas is proportional to its temperature.
T

where the constant of proportionality R is called the gas constant.

Equation is called the ideal-gas equation of state
P=R

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The gas constant R is different for each gas is determined

from
Ru
R=
M

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The gas constant R is different for each gas is determined

from
Ru
R=
M
where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar
mass of the gas.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The gas constant R is different for each gas is determined

from
Ru
R=
M
where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar
mass of the gas.
The molar mass M can simply be defined as the mass of one
mole (also called a gram-mole, abbreviated gmol) of a
substance in grams, or the mass of one kmol (also called a
kilogram-mole, abbreviated kgmol) in kilograms.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The gas constant R is different for each gas is determined

from
Ru
R=
M
where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar
mass of the gas.
The molar mass M can simply be defined as the mass of one
mole (also called a gram-mole, abbreviated gmol) of a
substance in grams, or the mass of one kmol (also called a
kilogram-mole, abbreviated kgmol) in kilograms.
The constant Ru is the same for all substances, and its value is
Ru = 8.31447kJ/kmol K

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Gases deviate from ideal-gas behavior significantly at states near

the saturation region and the critical point. This deviation from
ideal-gas behavior at a given temperature and pressure can be
corrected by introducing a correction factor called the
compressibility factor Z defined as
P
RT
The behavior of different gases is different at varying pressures and
temperatures. Though if the pressure and temperature are
normalize with respective critical points, then at these reduced
pressure and temperatures, the behavior of gases are quite similar.
Z=

PR =

P
Pcrit

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

TR =

ME 661

T
Tcrit

Compressibility factor for various gases

Image source: Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach, Cengel and Boles, 7th edition

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ME 661

Other equations of state

Van der Waals equation of state

a
P + 2 ( b) = RT
v
Where,
a=

2
27R 2 Tcrit
64Pcrit

and

b=

RTcrit
8Pcrit

Beattie-Bridgeman EOS
P=

Ru T 
c 
A
1

(
+ B) 2
2
3

Where,
A = A0

a
1

and

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in



b
B = B0 1

ME 661

Forms of Energy
Energy can exist in various forms
Thermal
Kinetic
Potential
Electric
Magnetic
Chemical
Nuclear
The sum of all energies is the total energy of the system E . On
per unit mass basis it is denoted as
e=

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

E
m

ME 661

The total energy can be divided into two,i.e macroscopic and

microscopic

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The total energy can be divided into two,i.e macroscopic and

microscopic
Macroscopic energy is defined with respect to some
outside reference frame. for example, Potential and Kinetic
energies.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The total energy can be divided into two,i.e macroscopic and

microscopic
Macroscopic energy is defined with respect to some
outside reference frame. for example, Potential and Kinetic
energies.
Microscopic energy are related to the molecular structure
and molecular activity of the system.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The total energy can be divided into two,i.e macroscopic and

microscopic
Macroscopic energy is defined with respect to some
outside reference frame. for example, Potential and Kinetic
energies.
Microscopic energy are related to the molecular structure
and molecular activity of the system.
The sum of all microscopic energies is called internal energy
and denoted by U.
Hence total energy is given by,
E = U + KE + PE = U + m

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

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V2
+ mgz
2

Internal Energy
The sensible energy contains the translational, rotational and
vibrational energy of the molecules.

Image source: Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach, Cengel and Boles, 7th edition
Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Internal Energy

Image source: Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach, Cengel and Boles, 7th edition

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Energy

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

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Energy
Internal energy associated with the phase of a system is called
latent energy.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

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Energy
Internal energy associated with the phase of a system is called
latent energy.
Internal energy associated with atomic and molecular bonds is
called chemical energy.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Energy
Internal energy associated with the phase of a system is called
latent energy.
Internal energy associated with atomic and molecular bonds is
called chemical energy.
The energy associated with the bonds of the nucleus is called
nuclear energy.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Energy
Internal energy associated with the phase of a system is called
latent energy.
Internal energy associated with atomic and molecular bonds is
called chemical energy.
The energy associated with the bonds of the nucleus is called
nuclear energy.
Mechanical energy can be defined as the form of energy that
can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly
by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies are the familiar forms of
mechanical energy.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

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Energy transfer by heat

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

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Energy transfer by heat

Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Energy transfer by heat

Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference.
A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an
adiabatic process.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Energy transfer by heat

Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference.
A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an
adiabatic process.
The word adiabatic comes from the Greek word adiabatos,
which means not to be passed.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Energy transfer by heat

Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference.
A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an
adiabatic process.
The word adiabatic comes from the Greek word adiabatos,
which means not to be passed.
Heat is transferred by three mechanisms: conduction,
convection, and radiation.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Mechanisms of Energy transfer by heat

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Mechanisms of Energy transfer by heat

Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as
a result of interaction between particles.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Mechanisms of Energy transfer by heat

Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as
a result of interaction between particles.
Convection is the transfer of energy between a solid surface
and the adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it involves the
combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Mechanisms of Energy transfer by heat

Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic
particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as
a result of interaction between particles.
Convection is the transfer of energy between a solid surface
and the adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it involves the
combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
Radiation is the transfer of energy due to the emission of
electromagnetic waves (or photons).

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Energy transfer by work

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Energy transfer by work

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system
and its surroundings.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Energy transfer by work

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system
and its surroundings.
If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not
heat, it must be work.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Energy transfer by work

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system
and its surroundings.
If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not
heat, it must be work.
Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting
through a distance.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Energy transfer by work

Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system
and its surroundings.
If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed system is not
heat, it must be work.
Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting
through a distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing
the system boundaries are all associated with work
interactions.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the

complete description of a heat or work interaction requires the
specification of both the magnitude and direction.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the

complete description of a heat or work interaction requires the
specification of both the magnitude and direction.
Convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work
done on a system are negative.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the

complete description of a heat or work interaction requires the
specification of both the magnitude and direction.
Convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work
done on a system are negative.
Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they
cross the boundaries. That is, both heat and work are
boundary phenomena.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the

complete description of a heat or work interaction requires the
specification of both the magnitude and direction.
Convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work
done on a system are negative.
Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they
cross the boundaries. That is, both heat and work are
boundary phenomena.
Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike
properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the

complete description of a heat or work interaction requires the
specification of both the magnitude and direction.
Convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work
done on a system are negative.
Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they
cross the boundaries. That is, both heat and work are
boundary phenomena.
Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike
properties, heat or work has no meaning at a state.
Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the
path followed during a process as well as the end states).

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

First Law of Thermodynamics

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ME 661

First Law of Thermodynamics known as Conservation of

Energy

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ME 661

First Law of Thermodynamics known as Conservation of

Energy
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be
neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

First Law of Thermodynamics known as Conservation of

Energy
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can be
neither created nor destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms.
A major consequence of the first law is the existence and the
definition of the property total energy E.

Image source: Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach, Cengel and

Boles, 7th edition
Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the

system during a process is equal to the difference between the total
energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during
that process.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the

system during a process is equal to the difference between the total
energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during
that process.
Energy Change = Energy in Energy out
Esystem = Efinal Einitial = E1 E2

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the

system during a process is equal to the difference between the total
energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during
that process.
Energy Change = Energy in Energy out
Esystem = Efinal Einitial = E1 E2
Energy is a property, and the value of a property does not change
unless the state of the system changes.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the

system during a process is equal to the difference between the total
energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during
that process.
Energy Change = Energy in Energy out
Esystem = Efinal Einitial = E1 E2
Energy is a property, and the value of a property does not change
unless the state of the system changes.
E = U + PE + KE

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the

system during a process is equal to the difference between the total
energy entering and the total energy leaving the system during
that process.
Energy Change = Energy in Energy out
Esystem = Efinal Einitial = E1 E2
Energy is a property, and the value of a property does not change
unless the state of the system changes.
E = U + PE + KE
1
U = m(u2 u1 ) PE = mg (z2 z1 ) KE = m(V22 V12 )
2

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Mechanisms of Energy transfer

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ME 661

Mechanisms of Energy transfer

Heat Transfer

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ME 661

Mechanisms of Energy transfer

Heat Transfer
Work transfer

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ME 661

Mechanisms of Energy transfer

Heat Transfer
Work transfer
Mass flow
Ein Eout = (Qin Qout )+(Win Wout )+(Emass

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ME 661

in

Emass

out )

= Esyste

Cooling of a Hot Fluid in a Tank

A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred
by a paddle wheel. Initially, the internal energy of the fluid is 800
kJ. During the cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and
the paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine the
final internal energy of the fluid. Neglect the energy stored in the
paddle wheel.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Acceleration of Air by a Fan

A fan that consumes 20 W of electric power when operating is
claimed to discharge air from a ventilated room at a rate of 0.25
kg/s at a discharge velocity of 8 m/s. Determine if this claim is
reasonable.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Heating Effect of a Fan

A room is initially at the outdoor temperature of 25C. Now a large
fan that consumes 200 W of electricity when running is turned on.
The heat transfer rate between the room and the outdoor air is
given as Q = UA(Ti To ) where U = 6W /m2 o C is the overall
heat transfer coefficient, A = 30m2 is the exposed surface area of
the room, and Ti and To are the indoor and outdoor air
temperatures, respectively. Determine the indoor air temperature
when steady operating conditions are established.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Annual Lighting Cost of a Classroom

The lighting needs of a classroom are met by 30 fluorescent lamps,
each consuming 80 W of electricity. The lights in the classroom
are kept on for 12 hours a day and 250 days a year. For a unit
electricity cost of 7 rupees per kWh, determine annual energy cost
of lighting for this class- room. Also, discuss the effect of lighting
on the heating and air-conditioning requirements of the room.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Conservation of Energy for an Oscillating Steel Ball

The motion of a steel ball in a hemispherical bowl of radius h is to
be analyzed. The ball is initially held at the highest location at
point A, and then it is released. Obtain relations for the
conservation of energy of the ball for the cases of frictionless and
actual motions.

Image source: Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach,

Cengel and Boles, 7th edition

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Efficiency
Efficiency indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer
process is accomplished.
Efficiency =

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

Desired output
Required Input

ME 661

Cost of Cooking with Electric and Gas Ranges

The efficiency of cooking appliances affects the internal heat gain
from them since an inefficient appliance consumes a greater
amount of energy for the same task, and the excess energy
consumed shows up as heat in the living space. The efficiency of
open burners is determined to be 73 percent for electric units and
38 percent for gas units. Consider a 2-kW electric burner at a
location where the unit costs of electricity and natural gas are
$0.09/kWh and $0.55/therm, respectively. Determine the rate of
energy consumption by the burner and the unit cost of utilized
energy for both electric and gas burners.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Performance of a Hydraulic TurbineGenerator

The water in a large lake is to be used to generate electricity by
the installation of a hydraulic turbinegenerator at a location where
the depth of the water is 50 m. Water is to be supplied at a rate
of 5000 kg/s. If the electric power generated is measured to be
1862 kW and the generator efficiency is 95 percent, determine (a)
the overall efficiency of the turbine generator, (b) the mechanical
efficiency of the turbine, and (c) the shaft power supplied by the
turbine to the generator.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661

Cost Savings Associated with High-Efficiency Motors

A 60-hp electric motor (a motor that delivers 60 hp of shaft power
at full load) that has an efficiency of 89.0 percent is worn out and
is to be replaced by a 93.2 percent efficient high-efficiency motor.
The motor operates 3500 hours a year at full load. Taking the unit
cost of electricity to be Rs. 8/kWh, determine the amount of
energy and money saved as a result of installing the high-efficiency
motor instead of the standard motor. Also, determine the simple
payback period if the purchase prices of the standard and
high-efficiency motors are Rs. 452000 and Rs. 516000, respectively.

Shivasubramanian Gopalakrishnan sgopalak@iitb.ac.in

ME 661