3.

GRADUALLY-VARIED FLOW (GVF)

AUTUMN 2015

3.1 Normal Flow vs Gradually-Varied Flow

V 2 /2g

EGL (en
ergy gra
de

line)

Friction
slope
h

Sf

Geome
tric slop
e

S0

In normal flow the downslope component of weight balances bed friction. As a result, the
water depth h and velocity V are constant and the total-head line (or energy grade line) is
parallel to both the water surface and the channel bed; i.e. the friction slope Sf is the same as
the geometric slope S0.

GVF

RVF

sluice
gate

GVF

RVF

hydraulic
jump

GVF

RVF

weir

GVF

RVF

GVF

UF

change
of slope

As a result of disturbances due to hydraulic structures (weir, sluice, etc.) or changes to

channel width, slope or roughness the downslope component of weight may not locally
balance bed friction. As a result, the friction slope Sf and bed slope S0 will be different and
the water depth h and velocity V will change along the channel.
The gradually-varied-flow equation gives an expression for dh/dx and allows one to predict
the variation of water depth along the channel.

Hydraulics 3

Gradually-Varied Flow - 1

Dr David Apsley

3.2 Derivation of the Gradually-Varied-Flow Equation

Provided the pressure distribution is hydrostatic then, at any streamwise location x:
p
z z s ( x)
g
The total head is then
V2
V2
H zs
zb h
2g
2g
where zs is the level of the free surface and zb is the level of the bed.
zs

zb

(1)

g
h h cos

Although not crucial, we make the small-slope assumption and make no distinction between
the vertical depth h (which forms part of the total head) and that perpendicular to the bed,
h cos (which is used to get the flow rate).
The total head may be written
H zb E
(2)
where E is the specific energy, or head relative to the bed:
V2
(3)
E h
2g
In frictionless flow, H = constant; i.e. the energy grade line is horizontal. In reality, H
decreases over large distances due to bed friction; the energy grade line slopes downward.
Differentiate (2):
dH dz b dE
(4)

dx
dx dx
Define:
dH
(5)
S f
dx
dz b
(6)
S 0
dx
Sf is the downward slope of the energy grade line, or friction slope; (more about how this is
calculated later). S0 is the actual geometric slope. Then
dE
S0 S f
(7)
dx
Thus, the specific energy only changes if there is a difference between the geometric and
friction slopes, i.e. between the rates at which gravity drives the flow and friction retards it.
Otherwise we would have normal flow, in which the depth and specific energy are constant.

Hydraulics 3

Gradually-Varied Flow - 2

Dr David Apsley

Equations (5) and (7) are two forms of the gradually-varied-flow equation. However, the
third, and most common, form rewrites dE/dx in terms of the rate of change of depth, dh/dx.
V2
Q
where V
(8)
E h
A
2g
Q2
2gA 2
Differentiating with respect to streamwise distance x (using the chain rule for the last term):
dE dh Q 2 dA

dx dx gA3 dx
If bs is the width of the channel at the surface:
bs
A
dA bs dh and h
bs
Hence,
A
Q 2 bs
dE dh

(1
)
dx dx
gA 3

E h

dh
V2

(1
)
dx
gh
dh

(1 Fr 2 )
dx
Combining this with (7) gives, finally,
Gradually-Varied-Flow Equation

dh S 0 S f

dx 1 Fr 2

(9)

3.3 Finding the Friction Slope

Since the flow (and hence velocity profile) is only gradually-varying with distance, friction is
primarily determined by the local bulk velocity V. The local friction slope Sf can then be
evaluated on the quasi-uniform-flow assumption that there is the same rate of energy loss
as in normal flow of the same depth; e.g. using Mannings equation:
1
V Rh2 / 3 S 1f / 2
n
Inverting for the friction slope:
n 2V 2
n 2Q 2
S f 4/3 4/3 2
(10)
Rh
Rh A
Both A and Rh (which depend on the channel shape) should be written in terms of depth h.
In general, the deeper the flow then the smaller the velocity and friction losses. Qualitatively,
greater depth lower velocity smaller Sf ;
smaller depth higher velocity greater Sf .

Hydraulics 3

Gradually-Varied Flow - 3

Dr David Apsley

dh

3.4 Profile Classification

For any given discharge (but independent of slope) there is a particular critical depth hc, at
which Fr = 1. For example, in a wide or rectangular channel, hc (q 2 /g )1 / 3 .
For any given discharge and slope there is a particular normal depth hn, associated with
uniform flow. For example, in a wide channel, hn (nq / S ) 3 / 5 . The normal depth is that to
which the flow would tend given a long enough undisturbed fetch.
A downward slope is classed as steep if the normal depth is less than the critical depth (i.e.
the normal flow is supercritical) and mild if the normal depth is greater than the critical depth
(i.e. the normal flow is subcritical).1 Note that, in principle at least, a particular slope could be
described as either steep or mild depending on the flow rate.
In general, given the actual depth h, critical depth hc and normal depth hn, simple inspection
of signs of numerator and denominator on the RHS of the GVF equation
dh S 0 S f

dx 1 Fr 2
will tell us whether depth is increasing or decreasing with distance. In the special case Sf = S0
we have dh/dx = 0; i.e. normal flow. Otherwise:

S0 Sf > 0 if and only if h is greater than normal depth; (slower, hence less friction)

1 Fr2 > 0 if and only if h is greater than critical depth

Hence,
dh
0 (depth decreasing) if and only if h lies between normal and critical depths.
dx
Considering the whole range of possibilities allows a two-character classification of slopes
(S1, M3 etc) where:

the first character is S, C, M, H, A for Steep, Critical, Mild, Horizontal, Adverse;

the second character is 1, 2, 3 depending on where h lies with respect to hc and hn.
Typical profiles and examples of where they occur are given in the table overleaf.
A backwater curve is a streamwise increase of depth because of a downstream obstruction or
because the slope is insufficient to maintain that rate of flow. A reduction in depth is called a
drawdown curve. Profiles with second character 1 or 3 are backwater curves (numerator and
denominator of the GVF equation have the same sign); profiles with second character 2 are
drawdown curves (numerator and denominator of the GVF equation have opposite signs).
Note that:

the normal depth (where S0 = Sf) is approached asymptotically (dh/dx 0);

the critical depth (where Fr = 1) is approached at right angles (dh/dx ).

above normal depth a backwater asymptotes a horizontal surface (M1, S1)

An alternative statement is that a downward slope is steep if it exceeds the critical slope (that slope at which
the normal flow is critical).

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Gradually-Varied Flow - 4

Dr David Apsley

Type

STEEP
(normal flow is
supercritical)

CRITICAL
(undesirable;
undular unsteady
flow)

MILD
(normal flow is
subcritical)

HORIZONTAL
(limiting mild
slope; hn )

ADVERSE
(upslope)

Hydraulics 3

Symbol

Definition

S1

h hc hn

S2

hc h hn

Sketches
hc
hn

Examples

S1

Hydraulic jump upstream with obstruction or

reservoir controlling water level downstream.

S2

Change to steeper slope.

S3

S3

hc hn h

C1

h hc hn

C3

hc hn h

M1

h hn hc

hn

M2

hn h hc

hc

M3

hn hc h

H2

h hc

H3

hc h

A2

h hc

A3

hc h

Change to less steep slope.

hc= hn

C1
C3

M1
M2
M3

Approach to free overfall.

hc
H3
A2

Gradually-Varied Flow - 5

Approach to free overfall.

Hydraulic jump downstream; change from steep to
mild slope or downstream of sluice gate.

H2

hc

Obstruction or reservoir controlling water level

downstream.

A3

Dr David Apsley

Hydraulic jump downstream; change from steep to

horizontal or downstream of sluice gate.

3.5 Qualitative Examples of Open-Channel-Flow Behaviour

A control point is a location where there is a known relationship between water depth and
discharge (aka stage-discharge relation). Examples include critical-flow points (weirs,
venturi flumes, sudden changes in slope, free overfall), sluice gates, entry or discharge to a
reservoir. A hydraulic jump can also be classed as a control point. Control points often
provide a location where one can start a GVF calculation; i.e. a boundary condition.
Some general rules:
(i)
Supercritical controlled by upstream conditions.
Subcritical controlled by downstream conditions.
(ii)

Given a long-enough undisturbed fetch the flow will try to revert to normal flow.

(iii)

A hydraulic jump occurs between regions of supercritical and subcritical graduallyvaried flow at the point where the jump condition for the sequent depths is correct.

(iv)

Where the slope is mild (i.e. the normal flow is subcritical), and any downstream
control is a long way away, a hydraulic jump can be assumed to jump directly to the
normal depth.

Flow over a weir (mild slope)

normal
hn

M1
h1

normal

hc
h2

WEIR

hydraulic
jump

M3

CP

hn

CP

Flow under a sluice gate (a) mild slope

normal

M1

normal

hn

h1

h2

hydraulic
jump

M3

CP

hn

CP

Flow under a sluice gate (b) steep slope

normal
hn

S1
h1

h2
CP

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Gradually-Varied Flow - 6

S3

normal
hn

Dr David Apsley

Flow from a reservoir (a) mild slope

CP

normal

hn
RESERVOIR

Flow from a reservoir (b) steep slope

CP
hc

S2
normal

RESERVOIR

Flow into a reservoir (mild slope)

normal

M1

CP

hn
RESERVOIR

Free overfall (mild slope)

normal
hn

M2
CP
hc
critical

Hydraulics 3

Gradually-Varied Flow - 7

Dr David Apsley

3.6 Numerical Solution of the GVF Equation

Analytical solutions of the GVF equation are very rare and it is usual to solve it numerically.
The process yields a series of discrete pairs of distance xi and depth hi. Intermediate points
can be determined, if required, by interpolation.
All methods employ a discrete approximation to one of the following forms of GVF equation:
V2
dH
(total head H z s
)
(11)
S f
dx
2g

dE
S0 S f
dx
dh S 0 S f

dx 1 Fr 2

(specific energy E h

V2
)
2g

(12)

(depth h)

(13)

In any of these the friction slope can be obtained by inverting Mannings equation:
n 2V 2
n 2Q 2
S f 4/3 4/3 2
Rh
Rh A
and the Froude number is
V
Fr
gh

(14)

(15)

where h A / bs is the mean depth (= actual depth for a rectangular or wide channel).
Physically, integration should start at a control point and proceed:

forward in x if the flow is supercritical

(upstream control)

flow

CP

CP

backward in x if the flow is subcritical

(downstream control).

flow

h4

There are two main classes of method:

Standard-step methods: solve for depth h at

specified distance intervals x.
x

h2

h1

h0

h3

Direct-step methods: solve for distance x at

specified depth intervals h. (One advantage is
that they can calculate profiles starting from a
critical point, where 1 Fr2 = 0 and standard-step
methods would fail).

x0

Hydraulics 3

Gradually-Varied Flow - 8

x1

x2

Dr David Apsley

x3

3.6.1 Total-Head Form of the GVF Equation

dH
S f
dx

This is solved as a standard-step method (find depth h at specified distance intervals x). The
equation is discretised as
S f ,i S f ,i 1
H i 1 H i
(16)
(
)
x
2
solving sequentially for h1, h2, h3, starting with the depth at the control point h0.
Since both H and Sf are functions of h, the method operates by adjusting hi+1 iteratively at
each step so that the LHS and RHS of (16) are equal.
This is a good method, but since it requires iterative solution at each step it is better suited to
a computer program than hand or spreadsheet calculation.
3.6.2 Specific-Energy Form of the GVF Equation
dE
S0 S f
dx

(where E h

V2
)
2g

Since increments in E are determined by successive values of h, this is solved as a direct-step

method (find displacement x at specified depth intervals h).
First invert to make E the independent variable:
dx
1

dE S 0 S f
The equation is then discretised (

E
,
( S 0 S f ) av

x dx
) and rearranged for distance increments as:

E dE

where

E Ei 1 Ei

(17)

There are various ways of estimating the average slope difference: the example to follow uses
the average of values at depths hi and hi+1.

Hydraulics 3

Gradually-Varied Flow - 9

Dr David Apsley

3.6.3 Depth Form of the GVF Equation

dh S 0 S f

dx 1 Fr 2
Here we shall solve this by a direct-step method (find displacement x at specified depth
intervals h).
First, invert to make h the independent variable:
dx 1 Fr 2

dh S 0 S f
The function on the RHS is first written as a function of h. The equation is then discretised
x dx
(
) and rearranged for distance increments as:

h dh
dx
x h
(18)
dh av
As before, the bracketed term on the RHS can be taken as the average of values at the start
and end of an interval or (my own preference) by evaluation at the interval mid-depth
hmid 12 (hi hi 1 ) .
Comment. Different authors adopt different ways of solving the GVF equation numerically,
particularly in choosing whether to use the specific-energy or depth form, and how to form
the average derivative (e.g., average of values at the ends of the interval or simply the single
value at the midpoint). All should give the same answer when the step size h becomes very
small, but may differ for the larger step sizes typical of hand calculations. The specificenergy form seems to be slightly more common in the literature, but my own tests suggest
that the depth form, with derivative evaluated just once at the mid-point of the interval, gives
slightly better results for large step sizes. Note that surface profiles become highly curved
near critical points and more steps, with a smaller h, should be used there.

Hydraulics 3

Gradually-Varied Flow - 10

Dr David Apsley

Example (Examination, January 2007 modified).

A long rectangular channel of width 4 m has a slope of 1:5000 and a Mannings n of
0.015 m1/3 s. The total discharge is 8 m3 s1. The channel narrows to a width of 1 m as a
venturi flume over a short length.
(a)

Determine the normal depth for the 4 m wide channel.

(b)

Show that critical conditions occur at the narrow 1 m wide section.

(c)

Determine the depth just upstream of the venturi where the width is 4 m.

(d)

Determine the distance upstream to where the depth is 5% greater than the normal
depth using two steps in the gradually-varied flow equation given below; (you may
use either form).

Data
In standard notation,
dh S 0 S f

dx 1 Fr 2

dE
S0 S f
dx

or

Solution.
(a) For the normal depth,
Q VA

where

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
Rh S ,
n

Rh

h
,
1 2h / b

A bh

b S
h5 / 3
n (1 2h / b) 2 / 3
Rearranging as an iterative formula for h to find teh normal depth at the channel slope S0:

3/ 5

nQ
(1 2h / b) 2 / 5
h
b S
0

Here, with lengths in metres:

h 1.570(1 0.5h) 2 / 5
Iteration (from, e.g., h = 1.570) gives normal depth:
hn 2.090 m
Answer: 2.09 m.
(b) To determine whether critical conditions occur, compare the total head in the approach
flow with that assuming critical conditions at the throat.
The total head, assuming normal flow and measuring heights from the bed of the channel is
V2
Q2
H a E a hn n hn
2.137 m
2g
2 gb 2 hn2

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Dr David Apsley

At the throat the discharge per unit width is

Q
qm
8 m 2 s 1
bmin
The critical depth and critical specific energy at the throat are
1/ 3

q m2
hc
1.869 m
g
3
Ec hc 2.804 m
2
Since the bed of the flume is flat (zb = 0), the critical head Hc = Ec.
Since the approach-flow head Ha is less than the critical head Hc (the minimum head required
to pass this flow rate through the venturi, the flow must back up and increase in depth just
upstream to supply this minimum head. It will then undergo a subcritical to supercritical
transition through the throat. The total head throughout the venturi is H = Hc = 2.804 m.
(c) In the vicinity of the venturi the total head is H = 2.804 m. Upstream (where width
b = 4 m), we seek the subcritical solution of
V2
Q2
H zs
h
2g
2 gb 2 h 2
Rearrange for the deeper solution:
Q2
hH
2 gb 2 h 2
Here, with lengths in metres:
0.2039
h 2.804
h2
Iterate (from, e.g., h = 2.804) to get the depth just upstream of the venturi:
h 2.778 m
Answer: 2.78 m
(d) Do a GVF calculation (subcritical, so physically it should start at the fixed downstream
control and work upstream, although mathematically it can be done the other way) from the
pre-venturi depth (h = 2.778 m) to where h = 2.194 m (i.e. 1.05hn). Using two steps the
depth increment per step is
h0 = 2.778
2.194 2.778
h1 = 2.486
h
0.292 m
2
h2 = 2.194

Step 2

x2

Step 1

x1

x0

Both depth and specific-energy methods are shown on the following pages.

Hydraulics 3

Gradually-Varied Flow - 12

Dr David Apsley

METHOD 1: using the depth form of the GVF equation

dh S 0 S f

dx 1 Fr 2
dx 1 Fr 2

dh S 0 S f

x dx

h dh mid
dx

x h
dh mid
(mid means mid-point of the interval: half way between hi and hi+1; sometimes written hi+.)
For convenience, work out numerical expressions for Fr2 and Sf in terms of h:
V2
Q2 / b2
0.4077
Fr 2

3
gh
gh
h3
b S
h5 / 3
Mannings equation (see earlier) gave Q
. Assuming that the rate of loss
n (1 2h / b) 2 / 3
of energy (Sf) at a general depth h is the same as the channel slope that would give normal
flow at that depth, rearrangement for the slope gives
2

4/3
nQ (1 2h / b)
Sf

h10 / 3
b

9 10 4

(1 0.5h) 4 / 3
h10 / 3

Hence,
dx 1 Fr

dh S 0 S f
2

0.4077
h3

(1 0.5h) 4 / 3
2 9
10 4
10 / 3
h

With

dx
x h
and
h = 0.292 m
dh mid
working may then be set out in tabular form. (All depths assumed to be in metres.)
i
0

hi
2.778

xi
0

2.486

3157

2.194

hmid

(dx/dh)mid

2.632

10810

3157

2.340

18850

5504

8661

This gives a distance of about 8.7 km upstream.

Hydraulics 3

Gradually-Varied Flow - 13

Dr David Apsley

METHOD 2: Using the specific-energy form of the GVF equation

dE
S0 S f
dx
dx
1

dE S 0 S f

x
1

E ( S 0 S f ) av

E
( S 0 S f ) av
(av is taken as the average of values calculated at start and end of each interval in h.)

Here:
V2
Q2 / b2
0.2039
h
h
2
2g
2 gh
h2
and the same expression as before may be used for Sf, so that:
(1 0.5h) 4 / 3
S 0 S f 2 10 4 9 10 4
h10 / 3
With
E
x
( S 0 S f ) av
working may then be set out in tabular form. (All depths assumed to be in metres.)
E h

i
0
1
2

hi
2.778
2.486
2.194

xi
0
3208
9042

Ei
2.804
2.519

S0 Sf
1.046104

(S0 Sf)av

0.285

8.883105 3208

0.283

4.851105 5834

7.304105

2.236

This gives a distance of about 9.0 km upstream.

Smaller steps h will give more accurate results (and closer agreement between the two
methods).

Hydraulics 3

Gradually-Varied Flow - 14

Dr David Apsley

Example (Examination, January 2008 reworded)

A long, wide channel has a slope of 1:2747 with a Mannings n of 0.015 m1/3 s. It carries a
discharge of 2.5 m3 s1 per metre width, and there is a free overfall at the downstream end.
An undershot sluice is placed a certain distance upstream of the free overfall which
determines the nature of the flow between sluice and overfall. The depth just downstream of
the sluice is 0.5 m.
(a)

Determine the critical depth and normal depth.

(b)

Sketch, with explanation, the two possible gradually-varied flows between sluice and
overfall.

(c)

Calculate the particular distance between sluice and overfall which determines the
boundary between these two flows. Use one step in the gradually-varied-flow
equation.

Hydraulics 3

Gradually-Varied Flow - 15

Dr David Apsley