Global Strategy Journal

Global Strat. J., 2: 4147 (2012)

Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-5805.2011.01025.x

COMMENTARIES
WHAT IS REALLY DIFFERENT ABOUT EMERGING
MARKET MULTINATIONALS?
1025

gsj_

41..47

RAVI RAMAMURTI*
Center for Emerging Markets, Northeastern University, Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

The multinationalizing trend (is) widely recognized

as similar in nature irrespective of the nationality of
the parent company.Raymond Vernon (Wilkins,
1986: 202)

INTRODUCTION
As growth has picked up in emerging markets and
slowed in advanced economies, firms everywhere
have had to rethink their global strategies. Developed country MNEs (DMNEs) have had to gear up
to exploit new opportunities and resources in emerging markets, and emerging market firms have had to
figure out how to take advantage of opportunities and
resources in the rest of the world. The article in this
issue by de la Torre and Chacar (2012) looks at the
first kind of challenge, through an empirical analysis
of DMNE responses to regional integration in Latin
America, while that by Madhok and Keyhani (2012)
looks at the second kind of challenge, through a
conceptual analysis of how and why emerging
market MNEs (EMNEs) internationalize.
In this commentary, I will focus on the second
kind of challenge, asking specifically whether existing theories, developed principally from studying
DMNEs, are adequate to explain the behavior of
Keywords: emerging market MNEs; developed country MNEs;
ownership advantage; MNE stage of evolution; stages model of
internationalization
*Correspondence to: Ravi Ramamurti, Center for Emerging
Markets, Hayden 309, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington
Ave., Boston, MA 02115, U.S.A. E-mail: r.ramamurti@neu.edu

Copyright 2012 Strategic Management Society

EMNEs. In the literature, there are two extreme

views of this question: one is that EMNEs are a new
species of MNEs that can be understood only with
new theory (Mathews, 2002); the other, mirroring
Vernons quote above, is that existing theory, such as
the OLI model, is quite adequate to explain EMNEs
(Narula, 2006). I suspect the truth is somewhere in
between and that the real challenge is to discover
which aspects of existing theory are universally
valid, which aspects are not, and what to do about the
latter.
One way to discover areas in which existing
theory is inadequate is to look deliberately for situations in which reality appears to be at odds with
itin other words, to look for situations in which the
behavior of EMNEs appears to be strange or inexplicable based on what we know about DMNEs.
Having identified such situations, one can strive to
explain them and hope eventually to develop better
theory. I will identify two such puzzles in the discussion that follows.

PUZZLE NO. 1: MULTINATIONALS

SANS OWNERSHIP ADVANTAGE?
The first puzzle is why emerging economies produce
MNEs at all. Given their economic and technological backwardness, it can be argued that they ought
not to do so. As poor countries, they are expected to
import capital, including foreign direct investment
(FDI), rather than export it. They are expected to go
through years of inward FDI before becoming

42

R. Ramamurti

prosperous and competitive enough to produce

MNEs of their own (Dunning and Narula, 1997),
rather than spawn MNEs while still poor, as China
and India have done. More importantly, a bedrock
principle of international business (IB) theory is that
to become an MNE, a company must possess significant ownership advantages that can offset its
disadvantages in competing abroad (Dunning, 1988).
Yet, on the surface, EMNEs seem to lack the
technology, brand, or management advantages of
DMNEs. Madhok and Keyhani (2012: 28) characterize EMNEs as having only ordinary resources, by
which they mean resources that have traditionally
not been considered to be the source of extraordinary
rents as is the case, for instance, for technology or
brand, which are argued to underpin a monopolistic
firm-specific advantage.
How then, is one to explain the surge of EMNEs in
the last decade? I will consider two unsatisfying
explanations and three promising explanations for
this puzzle.
Unsatisfying explanations
One unsatisfactory explanation is that EMNEs
simply do not possess ownership advantages. Their
internationalization is seen as the result of exploiting
home country comparative advantages, such as
cheap labor or natural resources, not firm-specific
ownership advantages (Rugman, 2009). But such
location advantages cannot be the foundation of long
run success, because they are common to all firms
located in a given country (Lessard and Lucea,
2009: 283). If this explanation is correct, the EMNE
trend should fizzle out because of its weak competitive foundations. Five or 10 years ago, such a prediction might have been held in abeyance, but it is
hard to do so today, as EMNEs have gained steam
rather than sputtered. In 2010, emerging markets
accounted for 25 percent of global FDI flows, compared to only 6 % in 2001, and individual EMNEs
have gained muscle in many industries (see, for
example, Boston Consulting Group, 2011).
A second interesting but unpersuasive explanation
is that EMNEs internationalize to obtain the ownership advantages they lack (e.g., Mathews, 2002;
Madhok and Keyhani, 2012). This argument is
sometimes referred to as the springboard theory of
internationalization (Luo and Tung 2007). While
there is considerable evidence that EMNEs venture
abroad in search of valuable technologies or brands,
it is quite another thing to argue that they do so
Copyright 2012 Strategic Management Society

without ownership advantages ex ante. Anyone

making this argument carries the burden of showing
why a time-tested tenet of the OLI modeli.e., that
firms must possess ownership advantages before
they can internationalizeis not applicable to
EMNEs. This has yet to be done convincingly.
More promising explanations
Turning next to promising explanations, the first one
is that EMNEs do possess ownership advantages, but
these are different from the ones we have been trained
and conditioned to see in DMNEs (Ramamurti,
2009a: 402410). The fact that many EMNEs have
market capitalizations in the tens of billions of dollars
should give one pausecould such firms really not
possess ownership advantages? Dunning himself was
open to the idea that ownership advantages could take
other forms besides cutting-edge technology or
global brands, and he believed at least some EMNEs
had valuable ownership advantages (Dunning, Kim,
and Park, 2008). Among the ownership advantages
attributed in the literature to EMNEs is their deep
understanding of customer needs in emerging
markets, the ability to function in difficult business
environments, their ability to make products and services at ultra-low costs, their ability to develop good
enough products with the right feature-price mix for
local customers, and so on (see Cuervo-Cazurra and
Genc, 2008; Govindarajan and Ramamurti, 2011;
Guillen and Garcia-Canal, 2009; and Ramamurti,
2009a).
What we need is an open-minded, thoughtful, and
empirically grounded search for the ownership
advantages of EMNEs, similar to that which
unearthed the ownership advantages of DMNEs
(Ramamurti, 2009b). We need to understand better
which advantages can help with successful internationalization, which ones cannot, and why. For
instance, one of the advantages of Chinese stateowned firms is their access to cheap capital, which has
sometimes financed their internationalization
(Buckley et al., 2007). Should this be regarded as an
ownership advantage or not? Madhok and Keyhani
(2012) regard the ability of EMNEs to do things at
low cost as a weak form of ownership advantage, but
would we regard Wal-Marts capabilities in low-cost
retailing a weak ownership advantage? Prima facie, it
is not obvious why some advantages are more precious than others or why some conventional ownership advantages, such as brands or marketing
prowess, are readily accepted as being precious.
Global Strat. J., 2: 4147 (2012)
DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-5805.2011.01025.x

Commentary
Table 1.

43

Share of selected countries in worldwide stock of outward FDI, various years

Region/country
Europe#
U.K.
France
Germany
Netherlands
United States
Japan
Emerging markets@
Worldwide OFDI stock (US $ billion)

1914

1969

1980

1990

2009

93%
50%

43%

43.2%
16.2%
na
na
na

41.1%
14.1%
4.2%
7.5%
7.4%

49.5%#
12.8%
6.1%
8.5%
6.0%

56.0%#
8.7%
9.1%
7.3%
4.5%

6%
0%
0%
n.a.

55%
1.3%
0%
n.a.

37.7%
3.4%
12.7%
571

24.3%
11.2%
8.3%
1,791

22.7%
5.6%
15.9%
18,982

Source: Adapted from Aharoni and Ramamurti (2011: 116), except for 2009 data, which are from UNCTAD (2010: 10172-176).
#
Europes share fell secularly from 1914 to 1980, but began to reverse course because of growth in intra-EU FDI after the Single
European Act of 1986 and the creation of the euro. Here, Europe does not include transitional economies, such as Hungary, Poland, the
Czech Republic, or the Baltic states, but includes what UNCTAD calls developed Europe, e.g., Switzerland.
@
Reported as developing economies in UNCTADs FDI statistics. Following the same source, emerging markets includes highincome countries such as Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, and Korea.

A second plausible (and partial) explanation for

puzzle No. 1 is that DMNEs have more potent ownership advantages because they have had more time
to accumulate capabilities. In other words, EMNEs
and DMNEs are in different stages of evolution as
MNEs (Ramamurti, 2009a: 419420) and with time,
EMNEs may augment and enhance their ownership
advantages to become more like DMNEs (Lessard
and Lucea, 2009: 290301). The observed differences in ownership advantage between DMNEs and
EMNEs may, thus, simply reflect differences in their
evolution as MNEs rather than differences stemming
from country of origin.
In this context, it is useful to remember that MNE
theory has been heavily influenced not just by
Western experiencea fact that is widely recognizedbut also by studies of mature MNEsa fact
that is not as widely recognized (Ramamurti, 2009b).
When the Academy of International Business was
born in the U.S. in 1959 and its principal organ, the
Journal of International Business Studies, was first
published in 1970, Western European and U.S. firms
had already globalized for several decades (see
Table 1). Therefore, it was natural for pioneers of the
IB field to focus on mature MNEs, leaving it to
historians to investigate how Western firms became
MNEs in the first place. EMNEs, on the other hand,
are infant MNEs involved with early-stage internationalization. They provide us a wonderful opportunity to study internationalization as it unfolds and
glean insights about causation that might be missed in
retrospective historical research.
Copyright 2012 Strategic Management Society

Failure to adjust for stage-of-evolution differences

can lead to misleading conclusions about the ownership advantages of DMNEs versus EMNEs. A good
example of this is the oft-stated point that EMNEs,
unlike DMNEs, do not possess strong global brands.
However, this difference simply reflects the fact that
DMNEs have invested in brands for decades,
whereas EMNEs have only begun to do so. CocaCola did not have a global brand when it began to
internationalize; it did so only after years of brand
investment in several countries. Indeed, how could
any firm have global brands to begin with, given that
brands are location-bound assets that have to be replicated in each new market? Yet it is not unusual for
IB researchers to assume that DMNEs always possessed the ownership advantages they possess today.
A third plausible explanation for puzzle No. 1 is
that EMNEs go abroad to obtain technologies and
brands primarily for exploitation in their home
markets, not abroad. For firms from large, highgrowth markets, such as China, Brazil, or India, this
may make strategic sense. When EMNEs from these
countries acquire companies abroad, they may
appear to be engaging in market-seeking internationalization when, in fact, they are engaging in strategic
asset seeking. The liability of foreignness problem is
more severe in the case of market-seeking internationalization and, therefore, ownership advantage is
more of a necessity in that situation than it is for
resource-seeking internationalization. One interesting twist here is that after obtaining foreign technology and integrating it with local capabilities for
Global Strat. J., 2: 4147 (2012)
DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-5805.2011.01025.x

44

R. Ramamurti

exploitation at home, EMNEs may venture out

againthis time with market-seeking intentbut
also with greater ownership advantages (for fascinating examples from China, see Williamson, 2011).

PUZZLE NO. 2: MULTINATIONALS

THAT INTERNATIONALIZE IN
WRONG WAYS?
The IB literature has a few tenets about how firms
should internationalize, as articulated in the stages
model of internationalization (Johanson and Vahlne,
1977) or the product cycle hypothesis (Vernon,
1966, 1979). According to the former, firms internationalize gradually, with learning between stages of
expansion and increasing commitment to host countries if things go well. Firms are also assumed to
expand first to countries similar to the home country
before going to dissimilar countries. According to
the product cycle hypothesis, FDI flows from moredeveloped to less-developed countries, not the other
way around.
At various times, EMNEs appear to have violated
some or all of these core tenets, making it appear that
they internationalize in wrong ways. It has been
argued that EMNEs internationalize at a much faster
pace than the stages model would suggest (Mathews,
2002; Guillen and Garcia-Canal, 2009; Madhok
and Keyhani, 2012). At other times, EMNEs have
targeted countries in the wrong sequence, that is,
they have expanded into physically or economically
distant countries before entering more proximate and
similar countries (Ramamurti, 2004). Particularly
puzzling has been the propensity of EMNEs from
some countries to invest more in developed countries
(South to North) than in other emerging economies
(South to South). It has also been argued that EMNEs
use high-commitment choices, such as mergers and
acquisitions (M&A), to enter new markets, rather
than beginning with low-risk, low-commitment
options, such as using sales agents or sales subsidiaries (Madhok and Keyhani, 2012).
Unsatisfying explanations
Based on their speed of internationalization, choice of
target countries, and high reliance on M&A as the
mode of entry, it might appear that EMNEs are not
conforming to mainstream IB theory. Mathews
(2002: 12) speaks of the novel strategies and organizational forms of EMNEs, and he notes that they
Copyright 2012 Strategic Management Society

internationalized very rapidly. It was as if they

executed a gestalt switch from domestic to global
playereven if their actual pattern of internationalization was incremental (Mathews, 2002: 220) He
goes on to offer an alternative model to explain
EMNE internationalization, which cleverly uses the
same initials as the OLI framework (but which stands
for outward orientation, linkage/leverage, and integration). Madhok and Keyhani (2012) explain the
South to North FDI of EMNEs and their propensity
for M&A as resulting from their emergingness, that
is, from the disadvantages of being from emerging
markets and needing to catch-up quickly with
DMNEs. Others note that these elements of EMNE
internationalization set them apart from MNEs
that came before, but offer no explanation for the
differences.
I wonder if these explanations are too quick to
attribute the anomalous behavior to the emerging
market origins of EMNEs without considering
alternative explanations that may be unrelated to
nationality.
More promising explanations
Let us consider some of the alternative explanations
of puzzle No. 2. Take the question of rapid internationalization by EMNEs. This may well be the result
of the global economic context in which EMNEs have
been internationalizingone in which the world has
become flatter and in which industries have been
deverticalized, making it easier for firms to obtain the
resources and help they need to internationalize (Williamson and Zeng, 2009). Support for this viewpoint
is provided by the fact that firms in developed countries have also sped up their internationalization in
recent years, witness the born global phenomenon
(Knight and Cavusgil, 2004). In other words, rapid
internationalization by EMNEs may be a reflection of
changes in the global business environment rather
than any innate organizational trait of EMNEs. The
IB literature does not pay sufficient attention to
period effects of this sorti.e., changes in global
conditions that may significantly lower or raise the
costs and risks of internationalization.
A second promising explanation for puzzle No. 2
is that EMNEs invest in countries that are physically
or economically distant because their strategies are
based on exploiting differences rather than similarities across countries (Ghemawat, 2007), a prime
example being EMNEs that engage in labor cost
arbitrage. Because MNE theory is overly influenced
Global Strat. J., 2: 4147 (2012)
DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-5805.2011.01025.x

Commentary
by DMNE experience, it has not paid attention to the
case of supplier firms in low-wage countries that
forward integrate into developed countries to move
up the value curve or to get closer to customers, as
caricatured in Acers smiling curve (Bartlett and
Ghoshal, 2000). However, it is happening on a larger
scale now, because of the integration of megaeconomies with plenty of cheap labor. The point is that
South to North FDI is not surprising in these cases,
and it is also unsurprising that this option would not
have appeared in the stages model, which emerged in
the context of FDI by firms from rich countries,
mostly investing in other rich countries.
Two other generic strategies for internationalization can also result in South to North FDI by
EMNEsboth determined by the nature of the
EMNEs industry. One is the case of cross-border
vertical integration in natural resource industries,
either by firms searching for downstream markets or
firms searching for upstream supplies. In either case,
part of the FDI may go to developed countries. In
fact, a very substantial part of South to North FDI by
BRIC firms has been in such industries. There is
nothing new or surprising here compared to the historical experience of European, American, or Japanese firms in the same industries (Vernon, 1983).
The other strategy that results in South to North
FDI occurs in industries that have matured in the
developed world, but have been booming in emerging economiesindustries such as cement, steel,
chemicals, beverages, processed foods and meats,
PCs, auto parts, etc. EMNEs, acting as global consolidators (Ramamurti and Singh, 2009: 140146),
build scale through horizontal expansion and obtain
advanced technologies through acquisitions in
developed countries. Because the industries are
mature or declining in the developed world, it stands
to reason that, in those countries, EMNEs prefer
M&A deals to greenfield investments, which would
only add to the capacity glut.

CONCLUSION
The notion that firms must have ownership advantages before they can engage in market-seeking
internationalization seems to hold up well even for
EMNEs. However, we must be open to the possibility that EMNEs have different ownership advantages
than DMNEs, reflecting the distinctive conditions of
their home market. Prima facie, there is no reason to
believe these ownership advantages are less valuable
Copyright 2012 Strategic Management Society

Figure 1.

45

Determinants of EMNE internationalization

or special than those of DMNEs, especially when

applied to emerging markets, which are now the
worlds growth engines. We do need more research
into what makes an ownership advantage valuable or
special, which ownership advantages are transferable to other countries, and how much ownership
advantage a firm needs to offset the liabilities of
foreignness. We also need more research on how the
home country context shapes the ownership advantages of all firms, including EMNEs.
A second conclusion is that we must not assume
EMNEs behave the way they do only because of
their roots in emerging markets. In the preceding
sections, at least three contextual variables surfaced,
beside country of origin, that have important implications for the internationalization strategy of firms:
(1) the global context for internationalization, which
affects the ease with which emerging market firms
can internationalize; (2) the stage of evolution of the
firm as an MNE; and (3) the industry in which it
operates, e.g., natural resources, basic industries, etc.
(see Figure 1).These variables, along with idiosyncratic firm factors, shape the internationalization
strategy of EMNEs which, in turn, affects the speed
at which they internationalize, the countries they
target, and the modes of entry they use. If we pay
attention only to an EMNEs country of origin, we
are certain to overestimate its effect on EMNE
behavior. For instance, if EMNEs are in the early
stages of multinationalization and DMNEs are at the
mature stage, that alone may explain some differences in their behaviors. After correcting for these
effects, we may conclude that EMNEs are less
Global Strat. J., 2: 4147 (2012)
DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-5805.2011.01025.x

46

R. Ramamurti

different from DMNEs than we first thoughtbut

still different, because country of origin also matters.
A third conclusion is that EMNEs may have strategic options that we have not seen with DMNEs.
One example is that of the EMNE going abroad to
bring back technologies and brands for exploitation
in the home market. Another is the case of EMNEs
whose internationalization is based on exploiting differences across countries rather than similarities; this
includes companies that start out as contract manufacturers or supplier partners of developed country
firms and then become MNEs in their own right. Yet
another is the EMNE that globally consolidates
sunset industries. In all these cases, EMNEs can be
expected to invest in developed countries, including
through M&A.
This leads to the fourth conclusion: that our
models of the internationalization process seem particularly in need of refinement and extension to
incorporate the case of EMNEs. Both the stages
model and the product cycle hypothesis resulted
from studying outward FDI by firms in rich countries
in the 1960s and 1970s, and they are particularly
wanting when applied to outward FDI from poor
countries in the 2000s. They are fixated on marketseeking internationalization among countries with
similar levels of development and have no room for
arbitrage-based internationalization, which is a huge
opportunity for companies from low-cost countries
operating in a flatter and more open global economy.
Finally, the greatest payoff from studying EMNEs
is not finding out if and how they differ from
DMNEs, but the chance it offers to develop more
comprehensive theories of the internationalization
process. Since the birth of the IB and strategy fields,
there has been no richer opportunity than now to
study how firms become MNEs, because the drama
is unfolding before our very eyes across the developing world.

REFERENCES
Aharoni Y, Ramamurti R. 2011. Evolution of multinationals. In The Future of Foreign Direct Investment and the
Multinational Enterprise (Research in Global Strategic
Management, Vol. 15), Ramamurti R, Hashai N (eds).
Emerald: Bingley, U.K.: 113135.
Bartlett CA, Ghoshal S. 2000. Going global: lessons from
late movers. Harvard Business Review 78(2): 132142.
Boston Consulting Group. 2011. 2011 BCG Global Challengers: Companies on the Move: Rising Stars from
Copyright 2012 Strategic Management Society

Rapidly Developing Economies Are Reshaping Global

Industries. Boston Consulting Group: Boston, MA.
Buckley PJ, Clegg LJ, Cross AR, Liu X, Voss H, Zheng P.
2007. The determinants of Chinese outward foreign
investment. Journal of International Business Studies
38(4): 499518.
Cuervo-Cazurra A, Genc M. 2008. Transforming disadvantages into advantages: developing country MNEs in the
least developed countries. Journal of International Business Studies 39: 957979.
de la Torre JR, Chacar A. 2012. Network coordination and
performance among MNEs in Latin America. Global
Strategy Journal 2(1).
Dunning JH. 1988. Explaining International Production.
Unwin Hyman: London, U.K.
Dunning JH, Kim C, Park D. 2008. Old wine in new bottles:
a comparison of emerging-market TNCs today and
developed-country TNCs thirty years ago. In The Rise of
Transnational Corporations from Emerging Markets:
Threat or Opportunity? Sauvant KP (ed). Edward Elgar:
Cheltenham, U.K.: 158179.
Dunning JH, Narula R. 1997. The investment development
path revisited: some emerging issues. In Foreign Direct
Investment and Government Catalysts for Economic
Restructuring, Dunning JH, Narula R (eds). Routledge:
London, U.K.; 141.
Ghemawat P. 2007. Redefining Global Strategy. Harvard
Business School Press: Boston, MA.
Govindarajan V, Ramamurti R. 2011. Reverse innovation,
emerging markets, and global strategy. Global Strategy
Journal 1(3/4): 191205.
Guillen MF, Garcia-Canal E. 2009. The American model of
the multinational firm and the new multinationals from
emerging markets. Academy of Management Perspectives 23(2): 2335.
Johanson J, Vahlne J-E. 1977. The internationalization
process of the firm: a model of knowledge development
and increasing foreign market commitments. Journal of
International Business Studies 8: 2332.
Knight GA, Cavusgil ST. 2004. Innovation, organizational
capabilities, and the born-global firm. Journal of International Business Studies 35: 124141.
Lessard D, Lucea R. 2009. Mexican multinationals: insights
from CEMEX. In Emerging Multinationals in Emerging
Markets. Ramamurti R, Singh JV (eds). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, U.K.: 280311.
Luo Y, Tung RL. 2007. International expansion of emerging
market enterprises: a springboard perspective. Journal of
International Business Studies 38(4): 481498.
Madhok A, Keyhani M. 2012. Acquisitions as entrepreneurship: asymmetries, opportunities, and the internationalization of multinationals from emerging economies.
Global Strategy Journal 2(1).
Mathews JA. 2002. Dragon Multinational: A New Model
for Global Growth. Oxford University Press: New
York.
Global Strat. J., 2: 4147 (2012)
DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-5805.2011.01025.x

Commentary
Narula R. 2006. Globalization, new ecologies, new zoologies, and the purported death of the eclectic paradigm.
Asia Pacific Journal of Management 23(2): 143151.
Ramamurti R. 2004. Developing countries and MNEs:
extending and enriching the research agenda. Journal of
International Business Studies 35: 277283.
Ramamurti R. 2009a. What have we learned about
emerging-market MNEs? In Emerging Multinationals in
Emerging Markets, Ramamurti R, Singh JV (eds). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, U.K.; 399426.
Ramamurti R. 2009b. The theoretical value of studying
Indian multinationals. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations 45(1): 101114.
Ramamurti R, Singh JV (eds). 2009. Emerging Multinationals in Emerging Markets. Cambridge University Press:
Cambridge, U.K.
Rugman A. 2009. Theoretical aspects of MNEs from
emerging markets. In Emerging Multinationals in Emerging Markets, Ramamurti R, Singh JV (eds). Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge, U.K.; 4263.
UNCTAD. 2010. World Investment Report 2010: Investing
in a Low-Carbon Economy. United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development: Geneva, Switzerland.

Copyright 2012 Strategic Management Society

47

Vernon R. 1966. International investment and international

trade in the product cycle. Quarterly Journal of
Economics 80(2): 190207.
Vernon R. 1979. The product cycle hypothesis in a new
international environment. Oxford Bulletin of Economics
and Statistics 41(4): 255267.
Vernon R. 1983. Two Hungry Giants: The United States and
Japan in the Quest for Oil and Ores. Harvard University
Press: Cambridge, MA.
Wilkins M. 1986. Japanese multinational enterprises before
1914. Business History Review 60(2): 199232.
Williamson P. 2011. The changing role of cross-border
M&A in building Chinese EMNEs competitive advantage. Paper presented at the Cambridge UniversityNortheastern University-FGV-USP conference on
Evolving Competitive Advantage of EMNEs, Cambridge,
U.K.
Williamson P, Zeng M. 2009. Chinese multinationals:
emerging through new gateways. In Emerging Multinationals in Emerging Markets, Ramamurti R, Singh JV
(eds). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, U.K.;
81109.

Global Strat. J., 2: 4147 (2012)

DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-5805.2011.01025.x