Module 1: Matrices and Linear Algebra

Lesson 1
Linear Equations and Matrices

1.1 Introduction
The problem of solving system of linear equations arises in almost all areas of
science and engineering. This is an important part of linear algebra and lies at the
heart of it.

A linear equation on n variables x1, x2, . . . , xn is an equation of the form a1x1 + a2x2
++ anxn = b,
where a1, a2, . . . , an and b are real or complex numbers, usually known in advance.
A system of linear equations (or a linear system) is a collection of one or more
linear equations involving the same variables. The following is an example of a
system of linear equations:

x1 - 2x2 + 4x3 = 10
2x1 - 3x3 = -9

(1.1)

It is convenient to represent large systems of linear equations in terms of

rectangular arrays called matrices. An m

n matrix is a rectangular array of

elements with m number of rows and n number of columns. It is denoted by (aij)m

n,

where i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , m, and j = 1, 2 , . . . , n, and aij are real or complex

numbers (or elements of a field) called entries of the matrix. Almost all the
concepts in linear algebra are expressed in terms of matrices.

Linear Equations and Matrices

A system of m linear equations on n variables x1, x2, . . . , xn can be written as

a11x1 + a12x2 + . . . + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + . . . + a2nxn = b2
am1x1+ am2x2 +. . . + amnxn = bn

(1.2)

The m n matrix

a11 a12 a1n

a
a

a
21
22
2n

a
a
a

m2
mn
m1
associated with the system (1.2) is called the co-efficient matrix of the system. The
m (n + 1) matrix

a11

a 21

a m1

a12
a 22

a1n
a 2n

a m2 a mn

b1

b2
.

bm

is called the augmented matrix of the system (1.2).

The augmented matrix of a system consists of the co-efficient matrix with an

additional column whose entries are the constants from the right sides of the
equations. If in (1.2) bi = 0 for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n then the system is called
homogeneous otherwise non-homogeneous. We perform some operations on

Linear Equations and Matrices

matrices not only for solving system of linear equations but also for studying other
topics in linear algebra.

1.2. Matrix Operations

As matrix notation simplifies the calculations in solving systems of linear
equations, we shall discuss different kind of matrices and operations on them.
Recall that a matrix A of size m n over a field F (here we take F as the real or
complex field) is denoted by A = (aij)m n, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , m, and j = 1, 2 , . . . , n,
and aij are from F. If m = n then A is called a square matrix. In this case the entries
a11, . . . , ann are called the main diagonal or principal diagonal and other entries
are called off-diagonal entries. If aij = 0 for all i and j, then A is called the null
matrix or the zero matrix, and is denoted by 0. An identity matrix, denoted by I, is
a square matrix whose all diagonal entries are equal to 1 and off diagonal entries
are equal to zero.

A square matrix A is called a diagonal matrix if all the off-diagonal entries are
zero. A square matrix A = (aij)n n is called lower (respectively upper) triangular
matrix if aij = 0 whenever i > j (respectively i < j), that is, all entries above
(respectively below) the main diagonal are zero.

Two matrices of the same size A = (aij)m n and B = (bij)m n are said to be equal if
aij = bij for all i, j.

Linear Equations and Matrices

1.2.1 Addition and Scalar Multiplication

If A = (aij)m n is a matrix over F and F then the scalar multiplication of A by
is the matrix A =( aij)m n i.e. each entry of A is multiplied by .

If A = (aij)m n and b = (bij)m n are matrices of the same size over F then addition
of A and B denoted by, A + B, is the matrix C = (cij)m n , where cij = aij + bij.

Scalar multiplication and addition of matrices satisfy some properties as given

below.
For matrices A, B and C of the same size over F and , F:
(1) A + B = B + A (commutative)
(2) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (associative)
(3) A + 0 = 0+A =A, where 0 is the zero matrix of the same size as A.
(4) A + ( A) = ( A)+A= 0, where A = ( 1)A i.e. if A = (aij)m n then A = (
aij)m n.
(5) ( + ) A = A + A.
(6) (A + B) = A + B.
(7) (A) = A.
1.2.2 Matrix Multiplication
If A = (aij)m n and B = (bij)n p are matrices over F then multiplication or product
of A and B, denoted by AB, is the matrix C = (cij)m p, where

Linear Equations and Matrices

Matrix multiplication satisfies some properties as given below.

(1) Matrix multiplication need not be commutative, that is, one can find matrices A
and B such that AB is not equal to BA.
(2) For matrices A and B if AB = 0 then it may not imply either A = 0 or B = 0.
(3) If for matrices A, B, C if AB = AC, it may not imply B = C, that is matrix
multiplication does not obey cancellation law.
(4) If A, B and C are matrices of sizes m n, n p, and p q respectively then
(A B) C = A (B C) (associative).
(5) If A is a matrix of size m n and both B and C are matrices of size n p then
A (B + C) = AB + AC (left distributive).
(6) If A, B are matrices of size m n each and C is a matrix of size n p then
(A + B) C = AC + BC (right distributive).
(7) For any square matrix A, AI=IA=A, where I is the identity matrix of the same
size as A.
For matrix A = (aij)m n , the transpose of A, denoted by AT, is the matrix AT = (aji)n
m.

In other words AT is obtained from A by writing the rows of A as the columns

of AT in order. Some properties of transpose operation are as given below.

(1) For any matrix A, (AT)T = A.
(2) For matrices A and B of the same size

Linear Equations and Matrices

(A + B)T = AT + BT.
(3) For matrices A and B over F of sizes m n and n p respectively,
(AB)T = BTAT.

1.2.3 Some Special Matrices

Here we shall discuss about some of the special type of matrices which will be
used in the subsequent lectures.
We consider a square matrix A = (aij)n n. If A is a real matrix and satisfies A = AT
then A is called symmetric. In this case aij = aji for all i, j. If A satisfies AT = A
then A is called skew-symmetric. In this case aij = aji for all i, j, and therefore all
diagonal entries are equal to zero.

Here we take a complex square matrix A = (aij)n n. The conjugate of A is the

matrix

= ( ij) n n, where

ij

is the complex conjugate of aij. Matrix A is said to

be Hermitian if (A)T = A. In this case aij =

ji

and in particular aii =

ii.

Thus for

Hermitian matrices diagonal entries are real numbers. Matrix A is said to be skewHermitian if (A)T = A. By the similar argument aij = -

ji

and so diagonal entries

are either 0 or pure imaginary for skew-Hermitian matrices. One sees that
symmetric and Hermitian matrices agree for real matrices. Similarly, skewsymmetric and skew-Hermitian matrices also agree for real matrices.
A complex square matrix A = (aij)n n is called unitary if A(A)T =(A)TA=I,
where I is the identity matrix of the same size as A. In case of real matrices unitary

Linear Equations and Matrices

matrices are called orthogonal, that is, a real matrix A is orthogonal if AAT = ATA
= I.

1.2.4 Elementary Row/Column Operations

For any matrix A, each of the following is called an elementary row (resp.
columns) operation on A:
(1) Interchange of two rows (resp. columns).
(2) Addition of scalar multiple of one row (resp. column) to another row (resp.
column).
(3) Multiplication of a row (resp. column) by a non-zero scalar.

1.3 Determinant of Matrices

Let A = (aij)n n be a square matrix with aij

or

We define determinant of A, denoted by det A or | A |, recursively as below. For

n = 2,

a11 a12
|A|= a
a 22 = a11a22 a12a21.
21
For n 3,
m

det A = | A | = ( 1)

i+j

a ij mij .

j=1

Where i is a fixed integer with 1 i n, and mij is the determinant of the matrix
obtained from A by deleting ith row and jth column.

Linear Equations and Matrices

One may also find determinant of A by using following properties of determinant:

(1) For identity matrix I of any size, det I =1.
(2) det A = det AT
(3) If any two rows (or columns) are interchanged, then the value of the
determinant is multiplied by ( 1).
(4) If each element of a row is multiplied by a scalar then the value of the
determinant is multiplied by . Therefore | A | = n | A |.
(5) If a non-zero scalar multiple of the elements of some row (or column) is added
to the corresponding elements of some other row (or column), then the value of
the determinant remains unchanged.
(6) Determinant of diagonal or triangular matrices is the product of its diagonal
entries.
(7) If A and B are the matrices of the same order then det (AB) = det (A) det (B).

1.4 Conclusions
Matrices and operations on them will be used in almost all the subsequent lectures.
In the next lecture we shall solve systems of linear equations. A solution of a
system of linear equations on n variables x1, x2, . . . , xn is a list (s1, s2, . . .,sn) of
numbers such that each equation is a true statement when the values s1, s2, . . . , sn
are substituted for x1, x2, . . . , xn respectively. The set of all possible solutions is
called the solution set of the given system. Two systems are called equivalent if
they have the same solution set. That is, every solution of the first system is a
solution of the second system and vice versa. Getting solution set of a system of
two linear equations in two variables is easy because it is just finding the
intersection of two lines. However, solving a large system is not so straight-

Linear Equations and Matrices

forward. For this we represent a system in matrix notation and then we perform
some operations on the associated matrices. From the resultant matrices either we
draw conclusion that the system has no solution or find solutions of the system.

Keywords: Algebra of matrices, special matrices, elementary row operations,

determinant of matrices, linear systems.

Suggested Readings:
Linear Algebra, Kenneth Hoffman and Ray Kunze, PHI Learning pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 2009.
Linear Algebra, A. R. Rao and P. Bhimasankaram, Hindustan Book Agency, New
Delhi, 2000.
Linear Algebra and Its Applications, Fourth Edition, Gilbert Strang, Thomson
Books/Cole, 2006.
Matrix Methods: An Introduction, Second Edition, Richard Bronson, Academic
press, 1991.