EDR Multifamily Design

Guide for Energy Efficiency

This report was prepared by Pacific Gas and Electric Company and funded by California utility
customers under the auspices of the California Public Utilities Commission. Neither Pacific
Gas and Electric Company nor any of its employees and agents:

1. Makes any written or oral warranty, expressed or implied, regarding this report, including,
but not limited to those concerning merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.

2. Assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of
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3. Represents that use of the report would not infringe any privately owned rights, including,
but not limited to, patents, trademarks or copyrights.

November 2009
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction.................................................................................... 2
Unique Challenges and Solutions for Multifamily Energy Efficiency... 3
Impact of Title 24 Code Requirements on Building Energy Use.......... 5
Energy Efficiency Measures for Multifamily Buildings...................... 9
Non-Energy Benefits of Multifamily Energy Efficiency.................... 20
Special Opportunities for Affordable Housing.................................. 22
Resources for Designers and Product Specification.......................... 24

List of Figures, Graphs, and Tables

Figure 1: Multifamily Construction as Percentage of Total Residential
Construction in CA............................................................................... 2
Figure 2: Time Dependent Valuation Graph........................................... 5
Figure 3: Diagram of Integrated Multifamily Design Process................. 9
Figure 4: Example of 15% Compliance Options Analysis—
Weighing Windows, Duct Testing, and Hot Water Controls for a
Sample Project................................................................................... 18
Figure 5: Simple Payback Cost-Benefit Analysis Process..................... 19
Figure 6: Average Percentage of Monthly Income Spent on Utilities.20
Figure 7: Impact of an EEBUA............................................................ 23

1
 INTRODUCTION

According to the California Department of Finance’s Economic Forecast, the number of multi-
family new construction units permitted in California has grown from 26% of all residential
permits to around 40% between 2005 and 2007. Assuming this trend continues, California
could save an average of 1,155,521 kWh annually if just 10% of the newly constructed units
exceed 2008 Title 24 standards by 15%.1

60

50
Figure 1:
M u lt i f a m i ly
40
Construction as
P e r c e n ta g e o f 30
To t a l R e s i d e n t i a l
Construction in CA 20

10
1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007

This Multifamily Design Guide For Energy Efficiency provides a summary of resources, methods,
and tools to assist the design community in building more energy efficient multifamily build-
ings. Energy efficiency in multifamily buildings is measured, regulated, and evaluated in Cali-
fornia by both the Title 24 Building Energy Standards and the Title 20 Appliance Standards.

This document focuses on multifamily energy efficiency in an effort to better understand

Data from the appliance efficiency metrics and the various mechanisms for exceeding the minimum Title 24
California building standards.
Department of
F i n a n c e ’s E c o n o m i c Architects, engineers, energy consultants and owner-developers with a basic knowledge of
Forecast shows
building science fundamentals will learn how these subjects apply and are specifically relevant
that overall home-
to multifamily housing projects.
building is down,
but the proportion
of multifamily
to single family
units permitted in
California is growing.

1 Based on PG&E projections for estimated kWh savings for California Multifamily New Homes program.

2 INTRODUCTION
 UNIQUE CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS FOR
MULTIFAMILY ENERGY EFFICIENCY

There are several challenges unique to multifamily housing that owner-developers must over-
come for energy efficiency to make economic sense. They can all be addressed, however, through
proper planning, good decisions, and early investment in energy efficiency.

Various Multifamily Building Types

Title 24 defines a multifamily building as one that contains three or more attached dwelling
units. This definition spans various multifamily building configurations including low-rise,
high-rise, mixed-use, and attached town homes, each of which require different approaches
when making energy efficiency decisions. For example, the energy use profiles and energy effi-
ciency options for high-rise and mixed-use buildings differ from those of single family residen-
tial construction. High-rise multifamily projects (four or more habitable floors) are regulated by
the non-residential energy code for envelope and Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning
(HVAC) measures and the residential code for water heating and lighting. Also, mixed-use
spaces, such as offices, retail, and recreational facilities, which are often included in multifamily
buildings, are covered by non-residential code and construction practices.

Split Incentive

Multifamily developers often overlook investing in energy efficiency if they do not directly
benefit from the resultant monetary savings. When the tenants benefit financially from energy
efficiency decisions paid for by the owner, it is called a ‘split incentive’. What many owners and
developers often fail to realize, however, is that an energy efficient building with documented
lower utility costs and higher occupant comfort levels can provide indirect benefits such as
decreased vacancy rates, reduced turnover, an edge over the competition, and, in some cases,
higher than average rent.

An investment in energy efficiency is more likely to occur in cases where the owner-developer
maintains control of the property and pays for the utilities, since it typically proves to make
good economic sense. Therefore, both the eventual ownership structure and the utility bill
payment system play a significant role in equipment and system selection during design.

Shared Systems vs. Individual Systems

Multifamily buildings often have a combination of shared and individual systems serving the
HVAC and domestic water heating (DHW) needs of the dwelling units. It is common to have a
central boiler provide hot water and sometimes space heating as well. At the same time, cooling

UNIQUE CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS FOR MULTIFAMILY ENERGY EFFICIENCY 3

 may be provided through local fan-coil units. For large multifamily buildings, the decision
about which systems to choose is dependant on several factors such as first costs, maintenance
costs, and allowing tenants local control over their indoor environment.

Energy Use Schedules

Energy use schedules in multifamily buildings are not as predictable as, say, an office building,
where one can assume people are working between certain hours of the day and that the space
is unoccupied outside those hours. In residential buildings, the uncertainty of occupancy times
makes it difficult to estimate peak demand or energy use. Within a given dwelling unit, it is
difficult to predict how much energy occupants will use, both in terms of duration of energy
use and operation of systems. Occupant behavior impacts the building energy use independent
of the technical efficiency of the system.

Water Heating as a Higher Percentage of Total Energy Budgets

Another key aspect of multifamily buildings is that, when considering the combined elec-
tric and gas budget for space heating, cooling, water heating, lighting, and process loads, the
energy used to heat water is typically a higher percentage of the overall energy use than in
other building types. While water heating is a standard necessity in both single family and
multifamily residential buildings, it is a larger portion of the total energy bill in multifamily
buildings due to increased occupant density and reduced building envelope areas. In areas
where there is not a significant heating or cooling load, such as California climate zones 3 and
5, the dominance of the water heating energy use over the other energy uses becomes even
more significant.

For these reasons, it is important to take an integrated approach to the complex multifamily
building and system design so that incremental first costs are minimized and the long-term
energy efficiency of the building is maximized. This document provides information on strate-
gies to achieve this integrated design while maintaining cost savings.

4 UNIQUE CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS FOR MULTIFAMILY ENERGY EFFICIENCY

 IMPACT OF TITLE 24 CODE REQUIREMENTS ON
BUILDING ENERGY USE

The multifamily building sector was not included in California’s Building Energy Efficiency
Standards (Title 24, Part 6) prior to 1998. Between 1998 and 2005, several loopholes in
code provisions significantly reduced the effectiveness of Title 24 regulations for multifamily
buildings. By correcting and clarifying most of these loopholes, the 2005 code change signifi-
cantly raised the bar for energy efficiency in multifamily buildings. Overall, the 2005 standards
increased the energy efficiency of a minimally compliant multifamily building by about 24.3%
for electricity usage, 25.8% for electric demand usage, and 15.7% for gas usage over that of a
minimally compliant building under the 2001 standards.

The 2008 energy code, effective August 1, 2009, further raises the bar with new roofing
performance requirements, more stringent minimum performance requirements for fenestra-
tion, and additional HERS measures. The changes require new multifamily buildings to use
approximately 19.7% less electricity, 7.4% less demand electricity, and 7.0% less gas than was
standard for a home compliant with 2005 standards.

Time Dependent Valuation (TDV)

Time Dependent Valuation (TDV) was introduced with the 2005 Title 24 standards. TDV
changed how energy is ‘valued’ based on the time of day, the time of the year, and the build-
ing’s climate zone. It plays an integral role in the energy budget calculation for the performance
method by assigning high values for on-peak electric savings (e.g. summer afternoons) and low
values for off-peak electric savings (e.g. nighttime).

In the 2008 Title 24 code, the difference in valuation of electricity on-peak versus off-peak is larger.

Time Dependent Time Dependent TDV places a higher value on a kWh saved during a high-
Energy Value in 2005 Energy Value in 2008 cost peak hour than that saved during an off-peak hour
Standards Standards

Figure 2:
Graphical
Energy Value

Illustration of
Ti m e D e p e n d e n t
Va l u a t i o n G r a p h

Flat Energy Value used in With flat energy value a kWh saved is
2001 standards valued the same for every hour of the day

Monday Friday

IMPACT OF TITLE 24 CODE REQUIREMENTS ON BUILDING ENERGY USE 5

 Consequently, there is greater Title 24 compliance credit given to peak electric energy saving
measures, like high energy efficiency ratio (EER) air conditioners and low solar heat gain
coefficient (SHGC) windows, versus measures that save energy off-peak. Conversely, TDV
results in greater Title 24 compliance penalties for building features that cause increased energy
consumption during on-peak periods, such as a disproportionately higher percentage of glazing
on west-facing facades and oversized, un-shaded windows or skylights.

Home Energy Rating System (HERS) Measures

Each new cycle of the Title 24 Standards increases the emphasis placed on site verification
performed by a certified HERS Rater. HERS Raters provide a valuable quality assurance
service, ensuring that the equipment or envelope measure specified in the energy calculation is
actually installed in the building.

The 2008 code includes a list of new HERS verification measures. For example, the standards
no longer acknowledge a thermal expansion valve inspection in place of a refrigerant charge test.
The presence of a refrigerant charge light indicator display, however, may now be verified in place
of the refrigerant charge test. Other new HERS verification measures include testing air handlers
for air leakage, verifying cooling coil airflow, and exchanging quality insulation installation for
spray polyurethane foam, all spin-offs of HERS measures included in past codes.

The following graphic illustrates changes to those measures requiring HERS verification.

2005 HERS Measures New or Revised Measures for 2008

Reduced Duct Leakage Low Leakage Air Handlers

Supply Duct Location and Deeply Burried Ducts Refrigerant Charge Indicator Light Display (CID)

Duct Surface Area and R-value Verified Cooling Coil Airflow

Improved Refrigerant Charge Evaporatively Cooled Condensers

Thermostatic Expansion Valve Ice Storage Air Conditioners

Air Handler Fan Watt Draw Quality Insulation Installation for Sparay Polyurethane Foam

High EER PV Field Verification Protocol

Maximum Cooling Capacity

Adequate Airflow Measures Removed from HERS Testing in 2008

Building Envelope Sealing Thermostatic Expansion Valve

Quality Insulation Installation Adequate Airflow

6 IMPACT OF TITLE 24 CODE REQUIREMENTS ON BUILDING ENERGY USE

 Envelope Measures

2008 Title 24 revisions tightened envelope efficiency requirements by adding performance

requirements for roofing materials and increasing window efficiency standards.

Glazing
The 2008 Title 24 requirements are more stringent for glazing U-factor requirements in
all climate zones, while SHGC requirements have been lowered in some climate zones. A
new National Fenestration Rating Council Component Modeling Approach (CMA) is now
allowed for modeling of site-built fenestration without physical testing.

Other 2005 Title 24 prescriptive requirements remain unchanged in the 2008 Title 24 stan-
dards, including:

ƒƒ West-facing window-to-floor ratios exceeding 5% result in a compliance penalty for low-

rise buildings. In high-rise buildings, west-facing window-to-wall ratios exceeding 40%
result in a compliance penalty.
ƒƒ For both low-rise and high-rise buildings, window area of the proposed building is
compared to a standard design with identical window area.

Insulation
In 2008 Title 24, maximum prescriptive U-factors for high-rise residential envelope assemblies
were revised in certain climate zones. Consequently, metal-framed walls and screw down metal
roofs without thermal blocks now require continuous insulation to meet the new requirements.

The 2005 Title 24 regulation de-rating the effective R-value of an envelope assembly by approx-
imately 13% for ‘standard’ insulation installation in low-rise residential buildings remains in
force with the 2008 standards. This addresses the poor quality of typical insulation installation
and the resultant decrease in overall R-value of the assembly.

Roofing
Under the 2008 Title 24 code, there are new prescriptive standards for the thermal emittance
and reflectance of roofing products. The most significant change includes specifications for
steep-sloped roofs, making them similar to the previous requirements for low-sloped roofs.
The reflectance for the roofing product must now be ‘aged-reflectance,’ which is the reflectance
estimated after three-years of field use of the product, rather than reflectance of a new roof.

For high-rise buildings, these requirements apply to:

ƒƒ Low-sloped roofs in climate zones 10, 11, 13, 14, and 15

For low-rise buildings, they apply to:

ƒƒ Low-sloped roofs in climate zones 13 and 15

ƒƒ Lighter weight steep-sloped roofs in climate zones 10 through 15
ƒƒ Heavier weight steep-sloped roofs in all climate zones

In addition, a new Solar Reflective Index (SRI) calculator allows some trade-offs between
reflectance and emittance lower than 0.85.
IMPACT OF TITLE 24 CODE REQUIREMENTS ON BUILDING ENERGY USE 7
 Central Domestic Water Heating

In the 2008 Title 24 standards, additional requirements for central water heating systems ensure
more efficient operation. They include new mandatory requirements for either the installation
of an air release valve on a riser immediately upstream from the pump or the attachment of the
pump on a vertical section of pipe to avoid pump failure from air pockets in the recirculation
loop. A hose bib must also be installed immediately downstream of the pump to allow the
pump to be primed after maintenance and isolation valves must be provided to allow for easy
removal of the pump. In addition, 2008 Title 24 includes a new mandatory requirement to
install a check valve on the cold water make-up line into the heater to minimize crossover flows
between hot and cold water pipes.2

HVAC

HVAC requirements for the 2008 code are designed to reduce peak load. These include:

ƒƒ Credit for high Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) with HERS field verification
ƒƒ A mandatory minimum Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) of 13.0 for small air
conditioners and heat pumps based on the 2007 federal appliance standards
ƒƒ Increased prescriptive duct insulation R-values (except climate zones six through eight)
ƒƒ Prescriptive duct testing in high-rise buildings

Since the residential standards are requiring a tighter building envelope, there must also be
a way of ensuring healthy air changes within a home. Consequently, 2008 code additions
include mandatory whole-house mechanical ventilation. Mechanical ventilation requirements
also include proper sealing of walls between garages and the house and exhausting bathrooms,
clothes dryers, and HVAC combustion to the outdoors.

The 2005 code option for HERS verification of a thermal expansion valve in place of a refrig-
erant charge test in split system air conditioners was traded for the presence of a refrigerant
charge light indicator in the 2008 prescriptive standard.

Lighting

Mandatory lighting measures require that general lighting fixtures in bathrooms, garages,
laundry rooms, and utility rooms are either high efficacy or controlled by occupancy sensors.
Additionally, the total wattage from installed high-efficacy fixtures in kitchens must equal or
exceed that of the installed wattage from low-efficacy incandescent fixtures.

2 2008Title 24, section 113(c)5

8 IMPACT OF TITLE 24 CODE REQUIREMENTS ON BUILDING ENERGY USE

 ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR
MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS

Mandatory Minimums, Prescriptive, and

Above Code Performance

California’s energy code sets forth mandatory minimum requirements for building envelope,
mechanical equipment, and lighting that applies to all residential projects, regardless of climate
zone, statewide. In addition, a project must meet the appropriate prescriptive minimum
requirements for each of the sixteen California Energy Commission (CEC) defined climate
zones to receive a building permit. If a building deviates from the compliance constraints of the
prescriptive approach or shows performance beyond code minimum, the whole building must
comply with the performance approach. When a project intends to go beyond code with the
performance approach, it is measured in terms of ‘percent better than standard.’ From 2001 to
2011, statewide utility residential new construction programs and the ENERGY STAR® for
Homes Program and have set 15% better than standard as the next incremental step towards
achieving energy efficiency. Regardless of whether or not a project is participating in a utility-
sponsored energy efficiency incentive program, each high-efficiency multifamily project must
utilize the whole building performance approach to demonstrate compliance with their better-
than-code goal.

In California, EnergyPro and MICROPAS are the software tools approved by the Energy
Commission to model buildings for performance compliance with residential Title 24 require-
ments. An energy consultant typically uses these software programs to prepare documents that
demonstrate the building design meets or exceeds California’s Title 24 Building Energy Standards.

Integrated Design Process

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-ARKETING &INANCING "UILDING
%NERGY%FFICIENCY$ESIGN/PTIONS Process
3TRATEGIES /PTIONS 3TRATEGIES

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ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS 9

 Integrated energy design is an approach that looks at building components as part of an inte-
grated and interactive system rather than stand alone components. Since the building design
and construction of multifamily buildings involves numerous trade disciplines in the decision
making process, integrated design requires close collaboration between the owner-developer,
architect, mechanical engineer, electrical engineer, energy consultant, and a utility or energy
efficiency program representative. Energy efficiency objectives and decisions also need to
be conveyed to contractors, purchasers, construction superintendents, financing teams, and
leasing agents.

Design charrettes, brainstorming, and decision-making sessions are an efficient and effective
way to gather the expertise of the project’s contributors, encourage them to establish the scope
of the project, and facilitate them in creating an integrated solution. With common energy effi-
ciency goals established in an early design phase charrette, an energy consultant can calculate
a rough model of the expected building energy consumption. Performing a building simula-
tion early in the design phase establishes the building’s basic energy efficiency profile within
its climate zone and site. Additionally, these models inform the building geometry with the
optimal specifications for essential parameters, such as window orientation and area, which aids
in decreasing the need for mechanical systems and performance elements, like HVAC sizing
and windows. Upon making some intuitive decisions about the interaction of these systems,
the design team will use the building simulation tools to assist in the decision-making process
during design development. To evaluate the options produced by the building simulation tools,
cost-benefit analyses are also used to make final decisions about design and specifications.

Following are essential topics to cover during a charette to help ensure that energy efficiency is
analyzed comprehensively:

ƒƒ Optimize long-term energy cost savings through energy efficiency

ƒƒ Establish funding and financing criterion, such as LIHTC, to be included in the project
ƒƒ Identify measure combinations that result in optimal energy efficiency
ƒƒ Consider utility and other incentives and rebates to reduce first costs
ƒƒ Use cost analysis tools to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of measures
ƒƒ Consider on-site generation to complement energy efficiency
ƒƒ Identify green marketing opportunities
ƒƒ Don’t forget the non-energy benefits of energy efficiency

Energy Efficiency Measure Selection

There are various means to cost-effectively achieve whole building energy efficiency. Using a
package of measures specific to each building, its respective climate zone, and site layout is often
the most practical mechanism to go beyond the Title 24 requirements. While certain energy
efficiency measures have predictable performance in specific climates and building prototypes,
no two buildings are exactly the same. Each building needs its own customized set of measures
that meet both the energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness criterion. Cost-effectiveness is a

10 ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS

simple comparison between two economic elements—first costs and long-term energy savings.
A cost-effective solution is one that uses a combination of measures that provide comfort
to the occupants, reasonable up-front costs for the owner-developer, and lowered long-term
energy usage.

Designing the most cost-effective high-efficiency buildings requires the project team to eval-
uate packages of measures by comparing their upfront costs against their energy savings over
the lifetime of the building, rather than selecting individual measures in isolation. Performing
multiple building simulation runs with different combinations of measures establishes the
sensitivity of particular measures in that building. This parametric analysis gives the design
team an understanding of the most cost-effective measures to achieving greater energy effi-
ciency. The resultant building will include a package of climate-appropriate measures where
each individual measure performs optimally and acts in synergy with the others.

Next we will look at some of the common measures used to increase energy efficiency in multi-
family buildings and how to choose an appropriate package of measures for a specific project.

Site Considerations
Every building site comes with a unique set of climate conditions. The two main site aspects
that impact energy performance are sun and wind, which directly affect the orientation and
exterior envelope of a building. Creating a building design that responds optimally to site
influences should be considered early in the design process so as not to miss this opportunity
for cost-effective energy savings.
An excellent
Optimal shape and building orientation decrease the need for heating, cooling, and electric resource
lighting. Although there is some additional time required in the design phase, these measures for Climate
can yield the most cost-effective energy savings because there are no associated material or Responsive
installation costs, as there are with mechanical measures, and the consequent savings accumu- Design is the EDR
publication titled
late over the lifetime of the building.
“ D e s i g n F o r Yo u r
Climate”
The general idea is to maximize solar gains in winter and minimize them in summer, especially
in the afternoons. Orienting larger surfaces to the north or south and shading windows on the
south are the most common mechanism of ensuring energy savings through this method. To
provide protection from wind and reduce ambient temperatures, one can also take advantage
of natural shading features on site, such as trees, hills, and surrounding buildings.

Building envelope
Building professionals call the outer layer of a building the building envelope because it
envelopes the interior living space. This outer layer includes walls, roofs, floors, windows,
doors, and skylights. The building envelope is the primary source for solar heat, light, and air
to enter and exit the building. Thus, envelope efficiency is a principal determinate of heating
and cooling loads in a building.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS 11

 Quality Insulation

Insulation is used in combination with building materials that readily transfer heat, such as
brick, concrete, or wood, because of its ability to resist heat flow. The energy performance
specification for insulation in low-rise residential buildings is the R-value, a measure of a mate-
rial’s resistance to conductive heat transfer. The minimum prescriptive R-values (see Section
151, Table 151-C of the 2008 Title 24 standards for detailed specifications) vary by climate
zone and are highest in those with extreme temperatures, such as climate zone 1 and 11-16.
Installing insulation with a higher R-value than what is prescriptively required by Title 24 can
be a cost-effective method to achieve a performance credit.

For high-rise residential buildings, the metric used for insulation performance is the U-factor,
which is the metric for how much heat is transmitted through the construction assembly. Thus,
while higher is better for R-value in terms of energy performance, lower is better for U-factor.
The maximum prescriptive U-factors vary by climate zone and by construction assemblies
(wood-framed vs. metal-framed vs. heavy mass).

When calculating the overall R-value of the construction assembly, the R-values for each indi-
vidual envelope components are added together to calculate the overall resistance to heat flow
of the assembly. When calculating the overall U-factor of the construction assembly, the inverse
for each individual envelope component is added together. The overall U-value is then the
reciprocal of the result (ie. 1/Ua + 1/Ub = 1/Utotal). This resistance can be compromised,
however, and is much lower than the specified level of insulation when insulation is not prop-
erly installed. The most common flaws that degrade thermal performance in insulation instal-
lations are:

ƒƒ The insulation is not in contact with the air barrier, creating air pockets through which
convective air movements allow additional heat transfer, bypassing the insulation and
reducing overall energy performance. On the exterior envelope, the air barrier is gener-
ally the back of the drywall.
ƒƒ The insulation has voids or gaps, resulting in portions of the construction assembly that
are not insulated.
ƒƒ The insulation is compressed, creating a gap near the air barrier and/or reducing the
thickness of the insulation.

For low-rise residential buildings, these common problems of sub-standard insulation installa-
tion are addressed with the Quality of Insulation Installation (QII) HERS measure for wood
framed walls, ceilings, and roof assemblies (floor assemblies are not included). A standard
R-value calculation method is applied for the effective value used in Title 24 compliance. If
the insulation on a building is not to be inspected by a HERS rater, then this standard value is
reduced by 13%. If the insulation is to be inspected by a HERS rater following the procedures
of the QII HERS measure, a Title 24 compliance credit is available that restores the effective
R-value to the standard calculation value.

12 ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS

The QII measure verification is similar to the process set forth by the EPA in their Thermal
Bypass Checklist (TBC) requirement. This checklist identifies the sixteen areas where heat
most commonly bypasses the insulation. These must be verified by a HERS rater in order for a
building to meet the minimum requirements for certification as an ENERGY STAR® home.

Air Sealing (Reducing Infiltration)

Infiltration is the unintentional exchange of conditioned air with unconditioned air through
cracks and leaks in the building envelope. Loss of conditioned air and the subsequent need to
condition the newly infiltrated air represents a significant loss of energy. HERS verification by
a blower door test ensures that cracks and other leakage sources are sealed. Additionally, air
sealing produces non-energy benefits by preventing undesirable moisture infiltration, making
living spaces draft free, and greatly improving comfort.

Radiant Barrier

A simple and cost-effective solution to block the sun’s heat from penetrating the roof and
heating the attic is a radiant barrier. A radiant barrier can reduce attic heat by up to 30% and
block up to 97% of radiant heat gain, saving energy and increasing comfort.3 Additional
energy savings are achieved in homes where the HVAC and ductwork are within an attic space
with a radiant barrier because it reduces heat gain otherwise incurred by this equipment. The
essential characteristic of radiant barriers is that they are high reflectance and low emittance
materials. A radiant barrier can have reflective surfaces on one or two sides. If a one-sided
radiant barrier is installed, it must face an air space to be effective.

Radiant barriers are most effective in hotter climate zones and low-rise buildings. When incor-
porated into a well-thought-out energy efficient design (i.e. with a whole building approach)
that can be documented through a building energy simulation program, air conditioners can
be down-sized, which significantly reduces first costs.

Glazing—Windows, Doors and Skylights

Windows, doors, and skylights transmit daylight, which brings health and a sense of well-being
into our homes. They also bring a connection to the outside world and the cycles of day and
night, winter and summer. However, a single pane glass window, commonly found in older
multifamily buildings, has insulation properties that cause it to lose heat ten to twenty times
faster than a well-insulated wall. The introduction of dual-glazed windows was a great improve-
ment, almost doubling the insulating value.

The overall size of the window itself is a key energy performance metric. Larger window area
effectively means larger heat flows between the indoors and outdoors, even when using the best
windows possible for a given climate (since insulated walls are better than the best windows in
terms of thermal performance).

3“Radiant Barriers.” ToolBase Services. 8 July 2008

http://www.toolbase.org/Technology-Inventory/Roofs/radiant-barriers

ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS 13

 The orientation of windows also impacts energy usage in a building. Windows facing south
and west have more solar gains than those facing north and east. Large west-facing windows
are the least energy efficient window design. To this effect, Title 24 has limitations on total
window area as a percentage of total floor area for low-rise and of total wall area for high-rise
in the prescriptive approach.

The National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) provides comprehensive ratings of window,
door, and skylight thermal efficiency. Their fenestration evaluation system identifies three basic
properties to consider for energy performance calculations:

ƒƒ Insulation value (U-factor): a measure of conductive heat transfer that results from a
difference in air temperatures between the outside and inside
ƒƒ Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC): a measure of heat transfer from direct or indirect
solar radiation that is independent of air temperature
ƒƒ Visibility (Visible Transmittance or VT): although not a measure of energy perfor-
mance, it is an important consideration when selecting a window; the choice of U-Factor
and SHGC will usually affect the VT of the window

Adjusting the U-factor and SHGC has significantly different effects on the energy performance
depending on whether the building is in a heating-dominated or cooling-dominated climate.

In cooling-dominated climates (inland hotter regions), reducing the SHGC will provide
larger energy savings than lowering the U-factor. This is because the heat from direct solar
radiation coming through windows is a magnitude larger than the heat from conduction
through windows.

In heating-dominated climates, on the other hand, a reduced U-factor has a relatively larger
effect on reducing heating energy. This occurs because any heat gains from solar radiation are
welcome in cold climates, whereas heat losses due to heat conduction from the warm interiors
to the cold outdoors contribute to higher energy use.

Window selection is not as simple as selecting a window with the ‘best’, i.e. lowest, perfor-
mance values. Each climate zone and building will have its own characteristic mix of heating
and cooling days throughout the year and the best energy efficiency measures will vary accord-
ingly. Only computer simulation, either with specialized window programs like RESFEN and
Window5 or whole house simulation programs, can provide climate- and building-specific
guidance for the optimal SHGC and U-value.

Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC)

Purchasing a heating and cooling system for new and existing multifamily homes represents a
major cost decision. More often than not, the owner-developer needs to rely on professional
expertise for guidance. Since the lifetime cost of running heating and cooling equipment can
surpass the cost of the home itself, it pays to get the selection right the first time.

14 ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS

Improving energy efficiency with high-efficiency equipment and distribution systems does
not have to result in unacceptably higher first costs. When combined with efficient building
envelope measures and an accurate building load calculation, mechanical equipment can be
properly sized and the resulting cost savings can help pay for other energy efficiency measures.
Common techniques for HVAC energy efficiency are the use of higher efficiency equipment,
correct sizing of air conditioners, proper duct system design and installation, reduced air
handler fan power, and adequate airflow over the indoor coil.

Selecting the right system is often based on prior experience and first costs, not a rational energy
efficiency decision. Do not allow your project to fall into this default. Not all systems are equal
energy users; central air conditioners, such as split or packaged systems, and heat pumps are
available in higher efficiency ratings than smaller, room air conditioners. Heat pumps, for
example, tend to be 40-50% 4 more efficient than electric resistance baseboards because 1) the
heat generated is immediately transferred to the air stream and delivered (presumably) to the
correct location and 2) the heat transfer takes place in an enclosed environment, so more heat
is transferred to the air stream.

High-efficiency HVAC Equipment

The simplest approach to improving equipment efficiency is to choose ENERGY STAR®

labeled equipment. Higher efficiencies can be attained by consulting online resources such as
the Consortium for Energy Efficiency’s (CEE) Directory of ARI Verified Equipment, which
groups equipment in efficiency tiers above and beyond those provided by ENERGY STAR®.
Also useful is the Energy Commission’s Appliances Database, which lists equipment certified
for use in the State of California in a simpler spreadsheet format.

SEER vs. EER Ratings

Although the federal standards look at the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) rating,
in California, it is more important to select an air conditioner based on its Energy Efficiency
Ratio (EER) rating, especially in the hotter, inland regions. The test conditions for the EER
rating are more like California’s hot, dry climate than the SEER rating, making it a better
measure of energy efficiency performance in our area. The Energy Commission recognizes this
by rewarding high EER equipment with a much higher Title 24 credit than high SEER equip-
ment. This credit is only available when a HERS Rater verifies that the system consists of the
properly matched components necessary to achieve the high EER rating.

Correctly Sizing an Air Conditioner

Using a ‘rule of thumb’ approach or past experience to ballpark the equipment size typically
results in an oversized air conditioning unit. Oversizing is common because it ensures against
future customer complaints that the equipment cannot adequately cool or heat one or more
rooms. Oversizing, however, is a costly mistake, both in the inflated first cost of equipment
with unnecessary capacity and in the long-term cost to run the oversized unit.

4 As with any energy using system, savings will vary depending on climate and particulars of the building.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS 15

 Heating and cooling equipment efficiency is based on properly sized equipment. When an
HVAC unit is oversized, there is a significant efficiency cost because the equipment is short
cycling, i.e. cycling on and off often. This short cycling can increase wear and tear on the
equipment, which reduces life expectancy and increases maintenance costs. In addition, the
oversized fans that blast hot or cold air creates uncomfortable drafty conditions and unneces-
sary noise in equipment that short cycles. Conversely, right-sized systems provide even heating,
cooling, and quiet operation.

The main benefits, however, are cost and energy savings. Properly sized equipment can reduce
energy usage by as much as 35%.5 The bonus is the superior comfort that properly sized and
designed systems can provide.

Proper Duct Design and Installation

HVAC equipment efficiency is only part of the equation for an energy efficient HVAC system.
No matter how efficient the equipment is, if the distribution system is not also well designed
and operating properly, the HVAC system as a whole will not be efficient.

The first step towards an efficient air distribution system is to include an ACCA Manual D duct
design, or equivalent, as part of the construction documents. This will tell the HVAC installer
where to install the supply and return registers and what sized ducts should be connected to
them. It will also provide critical external static pressure information so the air blower can
be sized correctly. There is software available that can automatically calculate duct sizes and
airflow requirements.

Ducts in Conditioned Space

When the duct design process starts early enough, providing time to negotiate duct locations
with the architect and structural engineer, it is possible to locate ducts entirely within the
conditioned space. This can be particularly cost-effective as there are little to no incremental
costs, apart from advanced planning, detailing in the design stage, and coordination between
the trades during the installation stage. In multifamily construction, this strategy is best accom-
plished by locating the duct system within a central dropped ceiling (soffited) area. The equip-
ment is located in an adjoining closet or in the dropped ceiling itself. One of the most impor-
tant details of this approach is to maintain the soffitted area within the thermal and air barriers
of the conditioned space, which is often a required detail for fire protection purposes. Ducts
in conditioned space can also be accomplished by running the ducting in the structural space
between floors. This approach requires early consultation with the structural engineer because
they generally require open web floor trusses.

Sealed and Tested Ducts

Duct systems that are not sealed can leak 20% to 40% of their conditioned air in new homes
and as much as 40% in existing homes, wasting energy and increasing the cost to the consumer.
When ducts are located in unconditioned space (e.g. attic), leakage of conditioned air from

5“Residential HVAC.” Consortium for Energy Efficiency. 8 July 2008

http://www.cee1.org/resid/rs-ac/rs-ac-main.php3

16 ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS

supply and return ducts cause significant energy losses because there is less conditioned air
reaching the intended space. The situation for leaky return ducts is further complicated by the
potential risk to the health of the inhabitant. The air that is sucked in from attics, crawl spaces,
or other building cavities can be contaminated by dust, mold, chemicals, and/or airborne
pathogens from animals. It is therefore especially important to make sure that the return ducts
are sealed.

Sealed ducts save energy and money and improve indoor air quality. Duct sealing is assumed in
the baseline low-rise Title 24 building model for every climate zone. Buildings that do not have
sealed and tested ducts are assumed to leak 22% of their conditioned air and receive a penalty
in the code calculations. If a proposed building does not include sealing ducts, other measures
must be used to offset the penalty.

Water Heating
Because a multifamily project’s water heating energy budget often represents a significant
portion of the overall energy budget, water heating systems have a disproportionately large
impact on a project’s overall energy performance. There are various system options and
components that can improve performance, and therefore several layers of decisions. For
most large multifamily buildings, a central water heating system with a recirculation loop is
an effective method of delivering hot water in a reasonable amount of time. A central system
allows maintenance to be carried out at a single location, whereas having individual water
heaters in units multiplies the number of locations requiring maintenance, creating many
more locations within the building where leaks and water damage could occur. Addition-
ally, central water heaters are typically more efficient than individual water heaters. In order
to increase the efficiency of the central hot water system, it is important to consider the
following:

ƒƒ Efficiency of the boiler/heater: The federal minimum and Title 24 standard for large
gas boilers is 80% thermal efficiency. Simple atmospheric boilers can reach a maximum
of about 82% thermal efficiency. Condensing boilers can attain thermal efficiencies up
to 98% by capturing the sensible and latent heat from the flue gases.
ƒƒ Controlling energy use in recirculation loop pumps: Continuous pumping of hot
water wastes energy by using electric energy when hot water is not needed. Installing
controls, like demand and temperature modulation controls, that turn the pump off
when hot water is not needed is an effective energy efficiency strategy.
ƒƒ Pipe location: Similar to ducts in unconditioned spaces, pipes (especially when un-in-
sulated) can lose a significant amount of heat to the surrounding air or ground when
exposed to the outdoors or buried underground. The best location for pipes is within the
building envelope so that heat losses are minimized.
ƒƒ Pipe insulation: It is important to insulate pipes, especially in unconditioned and
semi-conditioned locations. Underground pipes can cause massive heat loss due to the
high conductivity of ground moisture, so they require special watertight insulation.
In large hot water distribution systems, heat loss from piping accounts for 15-25% of
total domestic hot water gas consumption, so pipe insulation is an important means of
reducing energy waste.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS 17

 Combination of Measures

By performing multiple building simulation runs with different combinations of measures, the
design team can determine the sensitivity of particular measures in that building. This kind
of parametric analysis becomes useful in later stages of design because the team as a whole has
a shared knowledge of where to expect the most cost-effective measures for achieving greater
energy efficiency.

Op tio n 1 = H i gh Eff Wi ndow s Opti on 3 = Ti ght D ucts Onl y

Figure 4: Example
Op tio n 2 = H i gh Eff Wi ndow s + Ti ght D ucts Opti on 4 = D H W Temperature C ontrol s
of 15% Compliance
% lower energy use than cod e a l l owa bl e

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One of the things that building simulation software can accomplish, which is almost impos-
sible without the calculation power of a computer, is to accurately evaluate the effectiveness of
multiple measures and compare those results with alternate combinations. For example, it is
well known that a significant amount of the cooling load enters the living space through the
roof/attic/ceiling areas in hot climates. One might think that by simply adding insulation, the
cooling load could be controlled to any desired level. Insulation, however, is subject to the laws
of diminishing returns. Building simulation models show that combining a radiant barrier
with a comparatively lower level of insulation further reduces cooling loads and is a more cost-
effective solution for a particular climate zone than maximizing insulation alone.

It is important to remember that the goal of the integrated design process is not to use the most
efficient measure for any given building element, but rather to seek the most cost-effective
combination of energy efficient measures. Economics is always a prime consideration when
selecting any set of measures. Only by balancing the elements of first cost and energy savings
can one achieve a combination of measures that will provide comfort to the occupants, cost
savings to the owner-developer, and low energy usage.

As seen in this example, the same measure or combination of measures can result in widely
divergent energy savings for different buildings having different envelope, HVAC, and site
characteristics.

Conducting a parametric analysis that explores various options is the best way to determine the
most efficient measure(s) for a given project.
18 ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS
 Cost-Benefit Analysis

There can be multiple combinations of measures that will achieve similar levels of energy effi-
ciency for a building. However, this does not mean each combination is equally cost-effective.
A basic payback analysis is the simplest way to compare different energy efficiency options.

Incremental Measure Cost ($)

Simple Payback (Years) =
Predicted First Year Energy Savings ($)

The simple payback compares the initial purchase price (first cost) of the energy efficiency
measures to the projected dollar savings the first year the measures are in place. In most new
construction projects and those where lower-efficiency equipment is installed without an
energy efficiency analysis, the first cost is the incremental price difference between the energy
efficient measure and the code minimum or less efficient measure.

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For larger projects, or those where long term cost-effectiveness is more important than first
cost savings alone, a Life Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis is the best approach. Although energy
efficiency first costs can exceed those of conventional construction, the LCC of an energy
efficient building is typically much lower. Generally, the energy savings in an efficient building
will offset any upfront construction or installation costs.

LCC = First Costs + Operational Costs + Maintenance Costs + Replacement Costs +

Tenant/Occupancy Considerations – Salvage Value

Just as one should compare energy savings from a combination of measures, one should analyze
the costs associated with the measure combinations and analyze the cost-benefit ratio for energy
savings measures.
Incremental LCC ($)
Cost-Benefit Ratio = Energy Savings ($)
Where Incremental LCC = LCC of Energy Efficiency Measures – LCC of Baseline Design.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES FOR MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS 19

 NON-ENERGY BENEFITS OF MULTIFAMILY
ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Energy efficiency not only provides direct energy savings and lower energy bills, but also non-
energy related benefits such as:

ƒƒ Greater Marketability for Market-Rate Housing: Market-rate multifamily builders

80 can differentiate themselves by marketing their homes as energy efficient, whether by
participating in a utility new homes program or meeting the ENERGY STAR® labeling
70
requirements. According to a National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) survey,
Retired E l d e r l y o n S S I

Low-Income H o u s e h o l d s
(worst mon t h s o f 2 0 0 1 )

60 homebuyers are were willing to pay a median of $5,000 more upfront in the purchase
Affordable-Q u a l i f i e d

50
price of their next home to save $1,000 every year in utility costs.
ƒƒ ENERGY STAR® for Homes Partnership Marketing Benefits: As ENERGY STAR®
40
partners, builders can use the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) produced
Middle Income

30 marketing resources and technical resources at no cost. Some examples include:

ENERGY STAR® logos, partner locator listings, consumer brochures, fact sheets, sales
20
toolkits, outreach partnerships, awards, and recognition. For more information on these
10
benefits, visit www.energystar.gov/homes.
0 ƒƒ Greater Opportunity for Increased Revenue: Energy efficient features can help to
increase revenue; the projected energy and utility cost savings may allow a homebuyer to
Figure 6: Average
P e r c e n ta g e o f purchase additional upgrades, thereby increasing builder profit.
M o n t h ly I n c o m e ƒƒ Greater Affordability for Affordable Housing: The cost of housing includes both rent
Spent on Utilities and utilities. On average, middle-income households spend about 5% of their monthly
income on utilities, low-income households about 20%, and one out of every four low-
income older person spends about 20% or more of their total income on home energy
bills.6 Simply put, energy efficiency saves energy, lowers utility bills, and enhances long-
term home affordability.
ƒƒ Increased Comfort and Enhanced Customer Satisfaction: Energy efficiency features
make homes more comfortable; comfortable homes reduce customer complaints and
callbacks and improve customer satisfaction. High performance heating and cooling
equipment help provide consistent temperatures, balance humidity, create proper airflow,
improve indoor air quality, and run more quietly. High performance windows conduct
less heat and reduce drafts to keep the home’s temperature more consistent. They also
help to reduce the fading of carpets, floors, furniture, and drapes as well as reduce
unwanted outside noise.
ƒƒ Lower Maintenance: Energy efficient products are associated with higher performance
and lower maintenance.
ƒƒ Quality Construction: Energy efficiency implies quality and high performance. Because
many features in an energy efficient home, such as quality insulation installation or tight
duct verification, require a third-party inspection, builders, tenants, and homeowners
can be confident that the energy efficiency measures are installed properly.
6Karen Brown, Ex Dir, Colorado Energy Assistance Foundation. James Benfield, Ex Dir, Campaign for Home
Energy Assistance.

20 NON-ENERGY BENEFITS OF MULTIFAMILY ENERGY EFFICIENCY

 SPECIAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFFORDABLE HOUSING

Affordable housing and energy efficiency both offer solutions to some of California’s, and the “Inability to pay
nation’s, most pressing social and environmental problems. While technical challenges remain utilities is second
only to inability to
in both areas, financing mechanisms often prove to be the determining factor for successful proj-
pay rent as a reason
ects. Many affordable housing funding sources encourage energy efficiency in their financing
for homelessness.”7
requirements, often going as far as offering higher incentives or rebates for those projects that
incorporate energy efficiency. This convergence of public policy goals has resulted in a range of
special funding rewards and opportunities for energy efficient affordable housing projects.

State and Federal Financial Assistance—Tax Credits

Low Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTCs): One of the most important sources of funding
for affordable housing in California, LIHTCs, are awarded to new construction and rehabilita-
tion projects on a competitive points basis by the Department of the Treasury, The Department
of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and the Department of Justice. Of the 155 total
points required for eligibility, there are currently a maximum of eight points available for incor-
porating sustainable measures, including energy efficiency. Of those eight maximum points,
there are six available for energy efficiency. In addition, there is discretionary funding, up to
5% of the project’s basis limit, for distributive energy technologies.

Federal Energy Efficiency Tax Credits: Federal Tax Credits for New Homes are available for
site built homes, excluding rental properties and non-profits.

ƒƒ The builder receives $2,000 for each home whose performance is calculated to exceed
Heating and Cooling Use of Section 404 of the IECC’s 2004 Supplement by 50%.
ƒƒ Homes must be built after August 2005 and purchased between January 1, 2006 and
December 31, 2009.

New Solar Homes Partnership: The Emerging Renewables Program (ERP), administered
by the Energy Commission, was created to stimulate market demand for renewable energy
systems that meet certain eligibility requirements. The ERP offers rebates to reduce the initial
cost of the system for the customer in single and multifamily home new construction.

Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

Public Housing Authorities

Public Housing Authorities (PHAs) play an active role in promoting energy efficiency in
affordable housing. When affordable housing projects are funded through tax credits, the local

7 Karen Brown, Ex Dir, Colorado Energy Assistance Foundation. James Benfield, Ex Dir, Campaign for Home

Energy Assistance.

NON-ENERGY BENEFITS OF MULTIFAMILY ENERGY EFFICIENCY 21

 Figure 7: Example housing authority sets the total housing burden, including rent and utilities, at 30% of the
of the Potential tenant’s income. The utility portion is determined based on an average level of efficiency for
I m pa c t o f a n E E B U A multifamily buildings in the area, which includes those built before the introduction of energy
efficiency standards. Rent is then calculated as the total housing burden minus utilities. This
5TILITYCOSTS5TILITY!LLOWANCE standard Utility Allowance is artificially high when applied to energy efficient projects.

In July 2008, the IRS authorized the use of an energy consumption software model to deter-
5! mine project-specific utility allowances for new construction. This allows the owners of more
energy efficient buildings to charge more rent without affecting the total housing burden of
the tenant. Thus, the owner-developer has a mechanism to recover some, if not all, of the
cost to implement the energy efficiency measures. Additionally, the tenant receives a small
2ENTTO benefit since the Energy Efficiency Based Utility Allowance (EEBUA) is only partially reduced,
/WNER compared to the estimated energy savings (see Figure 7). In example below, owner’s rent income
increases $10/mo and tenant’s net utility costs decrease $2/mo without changing total calcu-
lated housing burden.

Energy Efficiency-Based UA

Total Housing Burden $500/mo

Utility Allowance $90/mo
Developer Rent $410/mo HUD Energy Action Plan
Tenant Utility Costs $88/mo
versus The overall goal of the HUD Energy Action Plan is to reduce energy use in HUD’s inventory
Standard UA of public and assisted housing and HUD-financed housing by at least 5%. Public Housing
Total Housing Burden $500/mo
Authorities, community planning associations, the Federal Housing Association, and other
Utility Allowance $100/mo regional and local partnerships are also involved in this plan.
Developer Rent $400/mo
Tenant Utility Costs $100/mo

RESOURCES FOR DESIGNERS AND PRODUCT

SPECIFICATION

This Multifamily Design Guide For Energy Efficiency is part of four new construction resource
materials and tools the Heschong Mahone Group, Inc. is developing to assist designers and
owner-developers of multifamily projects. These guides include:

ƒƒ Multifamily Design Guide for Energy Efficiency

ƒƒ Case Study on Energy Efficient Multifamily Building
ƒƒ Design Brief on Efficient Central Water Heating in Multifamily Buildings
ƒƒ Multifamily Energy Efficiency Training Slides

22 SPECIAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFFORDABLE HOUSING

 Program Information

ƒƒ US EPA ENERGY STAR® Program

www.energystar.gov/homes
ƒƒ California Multifamily New Homes Program: SCE and PG&E
www.h-m-g.com/multifamily
ƒƒ California Multifamily Energy Efficiency Programs
www.californiaenergyefficiency.com
www.fyppower.com

General Information

ƒƒ California Association of Building Energy Consultants (CABEC)

www.cabec.org
ƒƒ California Multifamily Housing Consortium
www.seiinc.org/mfconsortium.html
ƒƒ Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
www.hud.gov/offices/cpd/energyenviron/energy/index.cfm
ƒƒ California Housing and Community Development
www.hcd.ca.gov/
ƒƒ Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing (PATH)
www.pathnet.org
ƒƒ US Green Building Council (USGBC)
www.usgbc.org

Verification and HERS Rating

ƒƒ California Home Energy Efficiency Rating System: www.cheers.org

ƒƒ CalCERTS: www.calcerts.com
ƒƒ Resnet: www.natresnet.org/herseems/ratingmethod.htm
ƒƒ Building Commissioning Association: www.bcxa.org

Finance

ƒƒ Energy-Efficient Mortgages: Home buyers looking to buy energy-efficient homes can

qualify for mortgages with more favorable loan terms
www.pueblo.gsa.gov/cic_text/housing/energy_mort/energy-mortgage.htm
ƒƒ Solar and Wind Financial Incentives & Tax Credits
www.californiasolarcenter.org/incentives.html
ƒƒ California Housing Finance Agency (CalHFA)
http://www.calhfa.ca.gov/multifamily/financing/index.htm
ƒƒ US DOE Building Technologies Program
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/

SPECIAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFFORDABLE HOUSING 23