ENGINE FIRE PROTECTION

INTRODUCTION
An aircraft powerplant and its related systems constitute a natural fire hazard. For example, flammable materials
such as fuel and oil are present in large quantities and are frequently pressurized. In addition, an engine's exhaust
system encloses high-temperature gases and, in some cases, flames, that if allowed to escape through a defective
component, could ignite fuel vapors. Because of these hazards, many aircraft are equipped with a fire protection
system that can detect and extinguish fires in the engine compartment. Therefore, as an aircraft maintenance technician, you must be familiar with the operating principles, maintenance practices, and repair of fire protection
systems.

FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

Fire protection systems perform two separate functions: fire detection and fire extinguishing. The primary purpose of a fire detection system is to activate a warning device in the event of a fire. An ideal
fire detection system should:
1. not cause false warning.
1. provide a rapid indication and accurate loca
tion of a fire.
2. provide a continuous indication when a fire
exists.
3. provide an accurate indication that a fire is
out.
4. provide an accurate indication that a fire has
re-ignited.
5. provide a means for testing the system from
the aircraft cockpit.
6. have detectors that resist exposure to oil, fuel,
hydraulic fluid, water, vibration, extreme tem
peratures, and maintenance handling.
7. have detectors that are lightweight and easily
mounted.
8. utilize detector circuitry that is powered by an
aircraft's electrical system and does not require
an inverter.
10. require minimal electrical current when
armed.
11. allow each detector to activate both a cockpit
light and an audible alarm.
12. have a seperate detection system for each
engine.

tem, a fire warning sounds only when a fire exists in

the same location as the detector. Therefore, with a
spot-detection system, fire detectors are placed in
locations where a fire is likely to occur. The continuous-loop type system works on the same basic
principle as the spot-type fire detectors except that
a single switch in the form of a long tube is used
instead of several individual switches. The small
diameter tube is run completely around an engine
nacelle or tail cone allowing for more complete coverage than any spot-type detection system.
The following paragraphs provide information on
the most common types of fire detection systems
found in modern aircraft. These systems include,
the thermal switch, the thermocouple, the Fenwal,
the Kidde, the Lindberg, and the Systron-Donner.
THERMOSWITCH DETECTOR
A thermoswitch fire detection system is a spot-type
detection system that uses a number of thermally
activated switches. Each switch, or sensor, consists of
a bimetallic thermoswitch that closes when heated to
a predetermined temperature. [Figure 11-1]
There are two basic types of thermoswitch systems,
the single loop and the double loop. With a Fenwal

There are a number of fire detection systems used in

aviation today. Most of the systems used consist of
one or more detectors that activate an alarm once
the air surrounding the detector reaches a predetermined temperature. Because of this, fire detectors
are sometimes referred to as overheat detectors.

ENGINE FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

Engine fire detection systems generally fall into two
categories: spot-detection type systems and continuous-loop type systems. With a spot-detection type
system individual fire detectors, or switches are
used to detect a fire. However, with this type of sys-

Figure 11-1. With a thermoswitch detector, the actual

switch, or detector, is mounted inside a stainless steel
housing. If a fire starts, the housing heats up and elongates
causing the contact points to close. To adjust a thermoswitch, you must heat the housing to the required temperature and then turn the tension adjustment in or out
until the contacts just close.

Engine Fire Protection

11-3

Figure 11-2. Fire detection systems using multiple thermal switches are wired so that the switches are in parallel with each other
and the entire group of switches is in series with the indicator light. When one switch closes, a ground is provided for the circuit
and the warning light illuminates.

single loop system, all of the thermoswitches are

wired in parallel with each other, and the entire
group of switches is connected in series with an
indicator light. In this arrangement, once a thermoswitch closes, the circuit is completed and
power flows to the warning light. [Figure 11-2]
To provide for circuit testing, a test switch is
installed in the cockpit. Once the test switch is
depressed, power flows to a relay that provides a
ground to the warning light, simulating a closed
thermoswitch. Once grounded, the warning light
illuminates only if there is no break in the warning
circuit. In addition to the test feature, most fire
detection circuits include a dimming relay for night
operations that, when activated, alters the warning
circuit by increasing resistance. The increased resistance reduces the amount of current flowing to the

light. In most airplanes, several circuits are wired

through the dimming relay so all the warning lights
may be dimmed at the same time.
In a double loop system all of the detectors are connected in parallel between two complete loops of
wiring. The system is wired so that one leg of the circuit supplies current to the detectors while the other
leg serves as a path to ground. With this double loop
arrangement the detection circuit can withstand one
fault, either an open or short circuit, without causing
a false fire warning. For example, if the ground loop
should develop a short, a false fire warning will not
occur because the loop is already grounded. On the
other hand, if the powered loop shorts, the rapid
increase in current flow would trip a relay that
causes the powered loop to become the ground and
the grounded loop to become powered. [Figure 11-3]

Figure 11-3. With the double loop thermoswitch system above, loop A is positive while loop B is negative. However, if an open or
short develops in loop A, the sudden rush of current will activate a relay that causes the positive loop to become negative and
the negative loop to become positive.

7 7-4

THERMOCOUPLE DETECTOR
A thermocouple-type, Edison fire detector system is
similar to a thermoswitch system in that they are
both spot-type detection systems. However, in a
thermocouple system the detectors are triggered by
the rate of temperature rise rather than a preset temperature. In other words, when the temperature of
the surrounding air rises too rapidly, a thermocouple detector initiates a fire warning.
If you recall from your earlier studies, a thermocouple consists of a loop of two dissimilar metal wires
such as chromel and constantan that are joined at
each end to form two junctions. When a temperature difference exists between the two junctions,
electrical current flows and a warning light is activated. In a typical thermocouple system, one or
more thermocouples, called active thermocouples
are placed in fire zones around an engine while a
separate thermocouple, called the reference thermocouple, is placed in a dead air space between two
insulated blocks. Under normal operations, the temperature of the air surrounding the reference thermocouple and the active thermocouples are relatively even and no current is produced to activate a
warning light. However, when a fire occurs, the air
temperature around the active thermocouples rises
much faster than the air temperature around the reference thermocouple. The difference in temperature
produces a current in the thermocouple circuit and
activates a warning light and horn. [Figure 11-4]

Engine Fire Protection

In most thermocouple systems, the sensitive relay,

slave relay, and a thermal test unit are contained in
a relay box. A typical relay box can contain from
one to eight identical circuits, depending on the
number of potential fire zones. The thermocouples
control the operation of the relays, while the relays
control the warning lights. The test circuit includes
a special test thermocouple that is wired into the
detector circuit and a small electric heater. The test
thermocouple and heater are mounted inside the
relay housing and, when the test switch in the cockpit is closed, current flows through the heater which
heats the test thermocouple. The temperature difference between the test thermocouple and the reference thermocouple produces a current flow that
closes the sensitive relay and slave relay so the
warning light can light. Approximately 4 milliamperes of current is all that is needed to close the
sensitive relay and activate the alarm.
The total number of thermocouples used in a particular detector circuit depends on the size of the
fire zone and the total circuit resistance. Typically,
circuit resistance is less than five ohms. In addition, most thermocouple circuits contain a resistor
connected across the slave relay terminals. This
resistor absorbs the coil's self induced voltage
when current ceases to flow through the coil and
the magnetic field collapses. If this self induced
voltage were not absorbed, arcing would occur
across the sensitive relay contacts causing them to
burn or weld.

Figure 11-4. In a thermocouple fire detection circuit, the wiring system is typically divided into a detector circuit, an alarm circuit,
and a test circuit. When a temperature difference exists between an active thermocouple and the reference thermocouple, current
flows through the sensitive relay coil. When the sensitive relay closes it trips the slave relay which, in turn, allows current to flow
to the warning light.

Engine Fire
Protection

11-5

Figure 11-5. A Fenwal continuous loop sensing element

consists of a sealed inconel tube containing a eutectic salt
and a single, center conductor.

FENWAL SYSTEM
In addition to a thermoswitch detection system,
Fenwal also produces a continuous-loop type system that consists of a single fire, or overheat sensing
element that varies in length depending on the size
of the fire zone. A typical sensing element can be
anywhere from 1-foot to 15 feet long. As mentioned
earlier, the sensing element used in a continuousloop fire detection system consists of a flexible,
small diameter inconel tube with a single wire electrode. The pure nickel electrode is surrounded by
ceramic beads to prevent the electrode and conductor from touching each other. The beads in this system are wetted with a eutectic salt which has an
electrical resistance that varies with temperature.
[Figure 11-5]
The center conductor protrudes out each end of the
inconel tube where an electric terminal is affixed to
the electrode. Current is then applied to the conductor while the outer tube is grounded to the aircraft structure. At normal temperatures, the eutectic
salt core material prevents electrical current from
flowing between the center conductor and the tube.
However, when a fire or overheat condition occurs,
the core resistance drops and current flows between
the center conductor and ground, energizing the
alarm system.

Figure 11-6. With a Fenwal continuous loop fire detection

system, AC voltage is applied to the sensing element
through the control unit. Once the air surrounding the
sensing element reaches a predetermined temperature,
the resistance of the eutectic salt within the element
decreases enough to allow current to flow to ground. The
control unit then senses the flow of AC current and closes
a relay which grounds the warning circuit and illuminates
the warning light.

KIDDE SYSTEM
The Kidde system is also a continuous-loop type
system that consists of a single overheat sensing element that varies in length. The sensing element consists of a rigid, preshaped inconel tube with two
wire conductors. The conductors are embedded in a
thermistor, or thermal resistor material to prevent

the two electrodes from touching each other and the

exterior casing. Like the eutectic salt used in the
Fenwal system, the thermistor material has an electrical resistance that decreases as the temperature
increases. [Figure 11-7]

The Fenwal system uses a magnetic amplifier control unit. This unit is a non-averaging controller that
supplies power to the sensing element and sounds
an alarm when the circuit to ground is completed
through the inconel tube. [Figure 11-6]
Figure 11-7. A Kidde sensing element consists of a sealed
inconel tube containing two conductors that are embedded
in a thermistor material.

Engine Fire
Protection

7 7-6

PNEUMATIC CONTINUOUS-LOOP
DETECTORS
Pneumatic continuous-loop detectors consist of a
sealed tube that can warn of either overheat conditions or of specific spot fires. There are three primary systems presently found on todayis aircraft:
Lindberg System, Systron-Donner System, and the
Meggitt Safety System.
LINDBERG SYSTEM
Figure 11-8. The sensing element used with a Lindberg continuous-loop system consists of a stainless steel tube that
is filled with an inert gas and a gas absorbing material. One
end of the tube is sealed while the other end is connected
to a diaphragm switch.

One of the wires is electrically grounded to the

outer tube at each end and acts as an internal
ground, while the second wire is a positive lead.
When a fire or overheat occurs, the resistance of the
thermistor material drops, allowing current to flow
between the two wires to activate an alarm.
Each conductor is connected to an electronic control unit mounted on separate circuit cards. In addition to constantly measuring the total resistance of
the full sensing loop, the dual control unit provides
for redundancy even if one side fails. In fact, both
the Fenwal and Kidde systems will detect a fire
when one sensing element is inoperative, even
though the press-to-test circuit does not function.

The Lindberg fire detection system is a pneumatic

continuous-loop type system consisting of a stainless steel tube filled with an inert gas and a discrete
material that is capable of absorbing a portion of the
gas. The amount of gas the material can absorb
varies with temperature. One end of the tube is connected to a pneumatic pressure switch called a
responder which consists of a diaphragm and a set
of contacts. [Figure 11-8]
When the temperature surrounding the sensing element rises because of a fire or overheat condition,
the discrete material within the tube also heats up
and releases the absorbed gas. As the gas is released,
the gas pressure within the tube increases and
mechanically actuates the diaphragm switch in the
responder unit. Once the diaphragm switch closes,
the warning light illuminates and the alarm bell
sounds. Because the Lindberg system works on the
principle of gas pressure, it is sometimes referred to
as a pneumatic system. [Figure 11-9]

Figure 11-9. With a Lindberg fire detection system, power is supplied to both the control unit and test unit by the AC bus. When
a fire or overheat condition exists, the diaphragm switch closes, completing the circuit for both the warning light and the bell.

Engine Fire Protection

11-7

To test a Lindberg system, low-voltage alternating

current is sent through the element's outer casing.
This current heats the casing until the discrete
material releases enough gas to close the contacts in
the diaphragm switch and initiate a fire warning.
When the test switch is released, the sensing element cools allowing the discrete material to reabsorb the gas. Once absorbed, the contacts in the
diaphragm switch open and the fire warning stops.

titanium wire provides the systems averaging or

overheat function. At normal temperatures, the
helium pressure in the tube exerts an insufficient
amount of force to close the overheat switch.
However, when the average temperature along the
length of the tube reaches an overheat level, the gas
pressure increases enough to close the diaphragm
switch which activates the alarm. Once the source
of an overheat is removed, the helium gas pressure
drops and the diaphragm switch opens.

SYSTRON-DONNER SYSTEM

The systems fire detection, or discrete, function is

provided by the gas-charged titanium wire. When
exposed to a localized high temperature, such as a
fire or bleed air leak, the titanium wire releases
hydrogen gas. This increases the sensor's total gas
pressure which closes the diaphragm switch and
trips the fire alarm. A typical Systron-Donner system sensor activates a fire alarm when exposed to a
2,000 flame for five seconds. After a fire is extinguished, the sensor core material reabsorbs the
hydrogen gas and the responder automatically
resets the system. [Figure 11-10]

The Systron-Donner system is another pneumatic

continuous-loop system that utilizes a gas filled
tube with a titanium wire running through its center as a sensing element. The tube itself is made of
stainless steel and is filled with helium gas. The
titanium wire, on the other hand, acts as a gas
absorption material that contains a quantity of
hydrogen. For protection, the wire is either
wrapped with an inert metal tape or inserted in an
inert metal tube. One end of the sensor tube is connected to a responder assembly containing a
diaphragm switch that provides a warning for both
an overheat condition and a fire.
Like the Lindberg system, the Systron-Donner system's principle of operation is based on the gas
laws. In other words, if the volume of a gas is held
constant and the temperature increases, gas pressure also increases. The helium gas surrounding the

To check system integrity, the responder unit of a

Systron-Donner system contains an integrity switch
that is held closed by the normal gas pressure
exerted by the helium. When the integrity switch is
closed, depressing the test switch results in a fire
warning. However, if the sensing element should
become cut or severely chafed, the helium gas will

Figure 11-10. The Systron-Donner fire detection and overheat system consists of a helium-filled sensor tube surrounding a hydro gen-charged core. With this system, excessive temperatures increase the gas pressure which forces a diaphragm switch closed.
Once closed, power flows to the warning light and bell.

11-8

Engine Fire
Protection

logic will isolate the defective loop and reconfigure

to a single loop operation using the good loop.
[Figure 11-11]
MEGGITT SAFETY SYSTEM
The Meggitt Safety System is the result of the
merger of the Lindberg Company with the SystronDonner Company. The present Meggitt pneumatic
continuous-loop detector is very similar to the
Systron-Donner System covered above. The primary
difference is in the test circuit. The Meggitt system
uses an integrity switch that is normally closed, but
held open by the helium gas in the system. If the
system is breached, the loss of gas allows the switch
to close and illuminate a fault indication that the
system is no longer functional.
FLAME DETECTORS
Another type of fire detection system you are likely
to see on an aircraft is a flame detector system. Most
flame detectors consist of a photoelectric sensor that
measures the amount of visible light or infrared
radiation in an enclosed area. The sensor is placed
so it can see the surrounding area, and anytime
there is an increase in the amount of light that
strikes the cell, an electrical current is produced.
Once enough current is produced and channeled
through an amplifier, a fire warning is initiated.

SMOKE AND TOXIC GAS

DETECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 11-11. A typical installation of a Systron-Donner

system consists of two independent loops attached to a
support tube. The support tube establishes the routing
of the detector element and provides attach points to
the airplane.

escape and the integrity switch remains open. In

this situation, depressing the test switch provides a
"no test" indication.
Systron-Donner sensor elements are quite durable
and can be flattened, twisted, kinked, and dented
without losing their overheat and fire detection abilities. A typical sensing system consists of two separate sensing loops for redundancy. Both loops are
required to sense a fire or overheat before an alarm
will sound. However, if one loop fails, the system

In addition to the engine fire detection systems just

discussed, there are a number of airframe detection
systems you should be familiar with. The most common types of detectors used in aircraft cabin areas
and cargo pits are flame detectors, smoke detectors,
and carbon monoxide detectors. Each of these are
discussed in detail in the A&-P Technician Airframe
Textbook. However, it is important to note that
smoke detectors and carbon monoxide detectors are
not used to detect fires in powerplant areas. The reason for this is because the air turbulence around an
engine dissipates smoke and carbon monoxide gas
too rapidly for the detector to recognize a fire.

INSPECTION AND TESTING

Although the engine cowl provides some protection
for the sensing elements of a fire detection system,
damage can still result from engine vibration and
the removal and re-installation of cowl panels. This,
combined with the relatively small size of the sensing elements, dictates the need for a regular inspec-

Engine Fire Protection

Figure 11-12. A loose clamp can result in interference

between a cowl brace and a sensing element. This interference can cause the sensing element to wear which could
create a short.

tion program. The following procedures are

provided as examples of some general inspection
practices that should be periodically accomplished
on a typical fire detection system. However, these
procedures should not be used in lieu of the manufacturer's approved maintenance directives or
applicable instructions.
One of the first items that must be periodically
checked is the routing and security of the sensing
elements. Long, unsupported sections can vibrate
excessively and cause damage to the element. The
distance between clamps on straight runs is usually
between 8 and 10 inches and is specified by each
manufacturer. In addition, to ensure adequate sup-

Figure 11-13. Grommets should be installed on the sensing

element so both ends are centered on its clamp. The split
end of the grommet should face the outside of the nearest
bend. Clamps and grommets should fit the element snugly.

11-9

Figure 11-14. Fire sensing elements are located in exposed

areas and, therefore, are subject to impact and abrasion.
When inspecting fire elements, be alert for sharp bends,
kinks, and crushed sections.

port when a sensing element ends at a connector, a

support clamp should be located about four to six
inches from the connector fitting. On elements that
are routed around certain components, a straight
run of one inch is typically maintained from all connectors before a bend is started. Furthermore, the
optimum bend radius for most continuous-loop
type sensing elements is three inches. Common
locations of cracked or broken elements are near
inspection plates, cowl panels, engine components,
or cowl supports. [Figure 11-12]
The clamps used to support most continuous-loop
sensing elements consists of a small hinged piece of
aluminum that is bolted or screwed to the aircraft
structure. To help absorb some of the vibration produced by the engine, most support clamps use a
rubber grommet that is wrapped around the sensing
element. These grommets often become softened
from exposure to oils and hydraulic fluid, or hardened from excessive heat. Therefore, the grommets
should be inspected on a regular basis and replaced
as necessary. [Figure 11-13]
In addition to checking for security, a continuousloop sensing element should be checked for dents,
kinks, or crushed areas. Each manufacturer establishes the limits for acceptable dents or kinks as
well as the minimum acceptable diameter for a
sensing element. It is important to note that if a dent
or kink exists that is within the manufacturer's limits, no attempt should be made to straighten it. The
reason for this is that by attempting to straighten a
sensing element, stresses may be set up that could
cause the tubing to fail. [Figure 11-14]

Engine Fire Protection

77-70

Figure 11-15. When inspecting an electrical connector joint

such as this one, you should verify that the retaining nut is
properly torqued and the safety wire is secure.

If shielded flexible leads are used, they should be

inspected for fraying. The braided sheath is made
up of many fine metal strands woven into a protective covering surrounding the inner insulated wire.
Continuous bending or rough treatment can break
the wire strands, especially those near the connectors, and cause a short circuit.
Nuts at the end of a sensing element should be
inspected for tightness and proper safetying. Loose
nuts should be retorqued to the value specified by
the manufacturer. Some connection joints require
the use of copper crush gaskets. If this type of gasket is present on a joint, it should be replaced anytime the connection is separated. Additional items
to look for include pieces of safety wire or other
metal particles that could short the sensing element.
[Figure 11-15]
Thermocouple detector mounting brackets should
be repaired or replaced when cracked, corroded, or
damaged. When replacing a thermocouple detector,
note which wire is connected to the plus (+) terminal of the defective unit and connect the replacement detector in the same way.
After the components of a fire detection system
have been inspected, the system must be tested. To
test a typical fire detection system, power is turned
on in the cockpit and the fire detection test switch
is placed in the "TEST" position. Once this is done,
the red warning light should illuminate within the
time period established for the system. On some aircraft an audible alarm will also sound.
On some continuous-loop fire detection systems a
Jetcal Analyzer unit may be used to physically test
the sensing element. A Jetcal Analyzer consists of a

Figure 11-16. A Jetcal Analyzer heats the continuous-loop

fire sensing element to test the fire warning system.

heating element that is used to apply a known heat

value to a sensing element. The heat value displays
on the potentiometer of the Jetcal control panel.
When the alarm temperature is reached, the cockpit
warning light will illuminate. If the light illuminates before the prescribed temperature setting, the
entire loop should be inspected for dents, kinks, or
other damage that could reduce the normal spacing
between the power lead and ground potential of the
loop. [Figure 11-16]
TROUBLESHOOTING
Intermittent alarms or false alarms are probably the
most common problems associated with a fire
detection system. Most intermittent alarms are
caused by an intermittent short circuit in the detector system wiring. Electrical shorts are often caused
by a loose wire that occasionally touches a nearby
terminal, a frayed wire brushing against a structure,
or a sensing element that has rubbed against a structural member long enough to wear through the insulation. Intermittent faults can often be located by
applying power to the system and moving wires to
recreate the short.

Engine Fire Protection

False alarms can typically be located by disconnecting the engine sensing loop from the aircraft wiring.
If the false alarm continues, a short must exist
between the loop connections and the control unit.
However, if the false alarm ceases when the
engine sensing loop is disconnected, the fault is
in the disconnected sensing loop. The loop
should be examined to verify that no portion of
the sensing element is touching the hot engine. If
there is no contact, the shorted section can be
located by isolating and disconnecting elements
consecutively around the entire loop. Kinks and
sharp bends in the sensing element can cause an
internal wire to short intermittently to the outer
tubing. The fault can be located by checking the
sensing element with a megohm meter, or megger,
while tapping the element in the suspected area
to produce the short.
Moisture in the detection system seldom causes a
false fire alarm. However, if moisture does cause an

77-77

alarm, the warning will persist until the contamination is removed or boils away and the resistance of
the loop returns to its normal value.

Another problem you could encounter is the failure

to obtain an alarm signal when the test switch is
actuated. If this occurs, the problem could be
caused by a defective test switch or control unit, the
lack of electrical power, an inoperative indicator
light, or an opening in the sensing element or connecting wiring. Kidde and Fenwal continuous-loop
detectors will not test if a sensing element is shorted
or broken; however, they will provide a fire warning
if a real fire exists. When the test switch fails to provide an alarm, the continuity of a two-wire sensing
loop can be determined by opening the loop and
measuring the resistance of each wire. In a singlewire continuous-loop system, the center conductor
should be grounded.

FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS

Before you can fully understand how fires are
extinguished, you must know what makes a fire
burn. A fire is simply a chemical reaction that
occurs when oxygen combines with a fuel to produce heat and, in most cases, light. Three elements
must be present for a fire to occur, including: a
combustible fuel, a supply of oxygen, and heat. If
you remove any one of these three elements, combustion can not be sustained.
The easiest elements for a fire extinguishing agent to
remove are the oxygen supply and the heat required
to start combustion. Therefore, fire extinguishing
systems are designed to dilute oxygen levels to a
point that does not support combustion or to reduce
the temperature below the ignition point.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES
All fires are classified by the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) according to the type
of combustible fuel involved. For example, a Class
A fire is one in which solid combustible materials
such as wood, paper, or cloth burn. An aircraft cabin
fire is a good example of a Class A fire.
Class B fires, on the other hand, involve combustible liquids such as gasoline, oil, turbine fuel,
hydraulic fluid, and many of the solvents used in
aviation maintenance. Class B fires are the most
common type of fire encountered in an engine
nacelle.
Class C fires are those which involve energized
electrical equipment. Special care must be exercised when trying to extinguish a Class C fire
because of the dangers presented by both the electricity and the fire itself.
Class D fires involve a burning metal, such as magnesium, and burn extremely hot. Because Class D
fires burn so hot, the use of water or other liquids on
Class D fires causes the fire to burn more violently
or explode.

ENGINE FIRE ZONES

The powerplant area is divided into fire zones based
on the volume and smoothness of the airflow
through the engine compartment. These classifications allow manufacturers to match the type of
detection and extinguishing system to the fire conditions. Do not confuse these classifications with
the NFPA fire classifications discussed earlier.
Class A fire zones have large quantities of air flowing past regular arrangements of similarly shaped
obstructions. The power section of a reciprocating
engine where the air flows over the cylinders is an
example of a Class A fire zone.
Class B fire zones have large quantities of air flowing past aero dynamically clean obstructions. Heat
exchanger ducts and exhaust manifold shrouds constitute Class B fire zones. Additional Class B fire
zones include cowlings or tight enclosures that are
smooth, free of pockets, and adequately drained so
leaking flammables cannot puddle. Turbine engine
surfaces sometimes fall within this class if the
engine's surfaces are aerodynamically clean and all
airframe structural formers are covered by a fireproof liner to produce a smooth enclosure.
Class C fire zones have relatively small quantities of
air flowing through them. The compartment behind
the firewall is considered to be a Class C fire zone.
Class D fire zones are areas that have little or no airflow. Wheel wells and the inside of a wing structure
are typical Class D fire zones.
Class X fires zones have large volumes of air flowing through them at an irregular rate. Because of the
sporadic airflow, Class X fire zones are the most difficult to protect from fire. In fact, the amount of
extinguishing agent required to adequately protect a
Class X fire zone is normally twice that required for
other zones. Class X fire zones are common in
engine nacelles.

Engine Fire Protection

11-13

FIRE EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

As mentioned previously, the three elements that
are needed to support combustion are a combustible fuel, oxygen, and heat. If any one of these
elements is removed, a fire will not burn. The fixed
fire extinguisher systems used in most engine fire
protection systems are designed to displace the
oxygen with an inert agent that does not support
combustion. The most common types of extinguishing agents used include carbon dioxide and
halogenated hydrocarbons.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless gas
that is about one and one-half times heavier than air.
To be used as an extinguishing agent, carbon dioxide must be compressed and cooled until it becomes
a liquid that can be stored in steel cylinders. When
released into the atmosphere, carbon dioxide
expands and cools to a temperature of about 13110.
Once cooled, it becomes a white solid that resembles snow and smothers a fire. After a fire is extinguished, the remaining carbon dioxide slowly
changes from its solid state directly into a gas, leaving almost no residue.
Carbon dioxide is effective on both Class B and
Class C fires. In addition, since carbon dioxide
leaves almost no residue, it is well-suited for engine
intake and carburetor fires. Furthermore, carbon
dioxide is nontoxic and does not promote corrosion.
However, if used improperly, carbon dioxide can
cause physiological problems such as mental confusion and suffocation. Because of its variation in
vapor pressure with temperature, it is necessary to
store CO2 in stronger containers than are required
for most other extinguishing agents.

HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS
A halogen element is one of the group that contains
chlorine, fluorine, bromine, or iodine. Some hydrocarbons combine with halogens to produce very
effective fire extinguishing agents that extinguish
fires by excluding oxygen from the fire source and
by chemically interfering with the combustion
process. Halogenated hydrocarbon fire extinguishing agents are most effective on Class B and C fires,
but can be used on Class A and D fires as well.
However, their effectiveness on Class A and D fires
is somewhat limited.
Halogenated hydrocarbons are numbered according
to their chemical formulas with five-digit Halon

Figure 11-17. Halogenated hydrocarbon fire extinguishing

agents provide effective fire suppression in aircraft engine
compartments.

numbers which identify the chemical makeup of

the agent. The first digit represents the number of
carbon atoms in the compound molecule; the second digit, the number of fluorine atoms; the third
digit, the number of chlorine atoms; the fourth
digit, the number of bromine atoms; and the fifth
digit, the number of iodine atoms, if any. If there is
no iodine present the fifth digit does not appear.
For example, bromotrifluoromethane CF 3Br is
referred to as Halon 1301, or sometimes by the
trade name Freon 1313.
Halon 1301 is extremely effective for extinguishing
fires in engine compartments of both piston and turbine powered aircraft. In engine compartment
installations, the Halon 1301 container is pressurized by compressed nitrogen and is discharged
through spray nozzles. [Figure 11-17]
A number of halogenated hydrocarbon agents have
been used in the past, but are no longer in production. The reason for this is that some early Halon
extinguishing agents produced toxic or corrosive
gases when exposed to fire. For example, carbon
tetrachloride (Halon 104) was the first generally
accepted Halon extinguishing agent, and was very
popular for electrical hazards. However, when
exposed to heat, its vapors formed a deadly phosgene gas. Another once popular agent was methyl
bromide (Halon 1001). However, methyl bromide is
toxic to personnel and corrosive to aluminum
alloys, magnesium, and zinc. Of all the halogenated
hydrocarbon extinguishing agents, Halon 1301 is
the safest to use from the standpoint of toxicity and
corrosion hazards.
Because of changing regulations, and developing
environmental impact data, you should keep
abreast of current developments pertaining to the

7 7-74

Engine Fire Protection

Figure 11-18. If a CO2 cylinder is mounted vertically, a straight-siphon tube is used, however, if the cylinder is mounted horizontally, a short-flexible siphon tube must be used. The type of siphon tube installed is typically indicated by stamping a code on the
body bushing. If an "SF" appears, a short-flexible siphon is installed. However, if an "S" appears, a straight siphon tube is
installed. Other manufacturers stamp or stencil the type of siphon used on the cylinder body.

use of halogenated hydrocarbons as fire extinguishing agents. For example, several studies suggest that
chloroflourocarbons (CFCs) such as Halon damage
the ozone layer in the stratosphere, allowing higher
levels of ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth. To
reduce damage to the ozone layer, the
Environmental Protection Agency banned the production of CFCs after December 31, 1995. However,
existing stocks of CFCs were allowed to be used
after this date. Several alternatives to CFCs have
recently been developed and will most likely find
applications as aviation fire extinguishing agents.
For example, DuPont FE-2514 has proven to be an
acceptable substitute for Halon 1301 as an extinguishing agent and has no harmful affect on the
earth's ozone layer.
It is important for you, as an aviation maintenance
technician, to be aware of EPA and FAA regulations
governing the use and disposal of CFCs. Improper
handling or disposal of halogenated hydrocarbons
can lead to civil and criminal penalties.

FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS

hi an aircraft, it is important that the type of fire
extinguishing system available be appropriate for
the class of fire that is likely to occur. There are two

basic categories of fire extinguishing systems: conventional systems, and high-rate-of-discharge

(HRD) systems. Both systems utilize one or more
containers of extinguishing agent and a distribution
system that releases the extinguishing agent through
perforated tubing or discharge nozzles. As a general
rule, the type of system installed can be identified
by the type of extinguishing agent used. For example, conventional systems usually employ carbon
dioxide as the extinguishing agent while HRD systems typically utilize halogenated hydrocarbons.
CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS
The fire extinguishing installations used in most
older aircraft are referred to as conventional systems. Many of these systems are still used in some
aircraft, and are satisfactory for their intended use.
A conventional fire extinguisher system consists of
a cylinder that stores carbon dioxide under pressure
and a remotely controlled valve assembly that distributes the extinguishing agent to the engines.
Carbon dioxide cylinders come in various sizes, are
made of stainless steel, and are typically wrapped
with steel wire to make them shatterproof. In addition, the normal gas storage pressure ranges from

Engine Fire Protection

11-15

700 to 1,000 psi. Since the freezing point of carbon

dioxide is so low, a storage cylinder does not have
to be protected against cold weather; however,
cylinders can discharge prematurely in hot climates. To prevent this, manufacturers sometimes
charge a cylinder with about 200 psi of dry nitrogen
before they fill the cylinder with carbon dioxide.
When treated in this manner, most CO 2 cylinders
are protected against premature discharge up to
160. The nitrogen also provides additional pressure during normal release of the agent.
Carbon dioxide cylinders are equipped internally
with one of three types of siphon tubes. The cylinders used in aircraft typically utilize either a
straight-rigid, or a short-flexible siphon tube. The
type of siphon tube installed in the cylinder is
determined by the cylinder's mounting position.
[Figure 11-18]
The CO2 within a cylinder is distributed through
tubing from the CO2 cylinder valve to the control
valve assembly in the cockpit. Once past the control
valve, the CO2 proceeds to the engines via solid tubing installed in the fuselage and wing. Inside the
engine compartment, the tubing is perforated so the
carbon dioxide can be discharged. [Figure 11-19]
To operate a conventional fire extinguisher system,
a selector valve in the cockpit must be manually set
for the engine compartment that is on fire. Once this
is done, a T-shaped control handle located next to
the selector valve is pulled upward to actuate the
release lever in the CO 2 cylinder valve. Once
released, the compressed carbon dioxide flows in
one rapid burst to the outlets in the distribution line
of the affected engine compartment. Contact with
the air converts the liquid CO2 into a solid which
smother the flames.
Some CO2 systems have multiple bottles giving the
system the capability of delivering extinguishing
agent twice to any of the engine compartments.
Each bank of CO2 bottles is equipped with a red
thermo discharge indicator disk and a yellow system discharge indicator disk. The red thermo discharge disc is set to rupture and discharge the carbon dioxide overboard if the cylinder pressure
becomes excessively high (about 2,650 psi). On the
other hand, the yellow system discharge disk ruptures whenever a bank of bottles has been emptied
by a normal discharge. These disks are mounted so
they are visible on the outside of the fuselage. This
way, during a preflight inspection, the flight crew
can identify the condition of the system.

Figure 11-19. In a fire extinguishing system that utilizes carbon dioxide as an extinguishing agent, a sturdy cylinder
assembly is mounted to the airframe and connected to a
distribution line. In addition, an operating valve that is controlled from the cockpit is installed to hold the carbon dioxide in the cylinder until it's needed.

HIGH-RATE DISCHARGE SYSTEMS

High-rate-of-discharge (HRD) is the term applied to
the fire extinguishing systems found in most modern turbine engine aircraft. A typical HRD system
consists of a container to hold the extinguishing
agent, at least one bonnet assembly, and a series of
high-pressure feed lines.
The containers used in an HRD system are typically
made of steel and spherically shaped. There are four
sizes in common use today, ranging from 224 cubic
inches to 945 cubic inches. The smaller containers
generally have two openings, one for the bonnet
assembly or operating head, and the other for a
fusible safety plug. The larger containers are usually
equipped with two bonnet assemblies.
Each container is partially filled with an extinguishing agent, such as Halon 1301, and sealed with
a frangible disk. Once sealed, the container is pressurized with dry nitrogen. A container pressure
gauge is provided so you can quickly reference the
container pressure. The bonnet assembly contains

7 7-76

Engine Fire Protection

Figure 11-21. A typical extinguishing agent container on a

multi-engine aircraft has two firing bonnets.

Figure 11-20. In a typical HRD container, the extinguishing

agent is released within one to two seconds by an electrically actuated explosive that ruptures a frangible disk. Once
broken, the disk fragments collect in a strainer while the
extinguishing agent is directed to the engine nacelle.

an electrically ignited discharge cartridge, or squib,

which fires a projectile into the frangible disk. Once
the disk breaks, the pressurized nitrogen forces the
extinguishing agent out of the sphere. To prevent
the broken disk fragments from getting into the distribution lines, a strainer is also installed in the bonnet assembly. [Figure 11-20]
As a safety feature, each extinguishing container is
equipped with a thermal fuse that melts and
releases the extinguishing agent if the bottle is subjected to high temperatures. If a bottle is emptied in
this way, the extinguishing agent will blowout a red
indicator disk as it vents to the atmosphere. On the
other hand, if the bottle is discharged normally, a
yellow indicator disk blowns out. Like a conventional system, the indicator disks are visible from
the outside of the fuselage for easy reference.
When installed on a multi-engine aircraft, the fire
extinguishing agent containers are typically
equipped with two firing bonnets. The two discharge ports allow one container to serve both
engines. [Figure 11-21]
On large multi-engine aircraft, two extinguishing
agent containers are generally installed, each with
two firing bonnets. This allows twin-engine aircraft

to have a dedicated container for each engine. In

addition, the two discharge ports on each bottle provide a means of discharging both containers into
one engine compartment. [Figure 11-22]

INSPECTION AND SERVICING

Regular maintenance of fire extinguishing systems
includes inspecting and servicing the fire extinguisher bottles, removing and re-installing discharge
cartridges, testing the discharge tubing for leaks, and
testing electrical wiring for continuity. The following discussion looks at some of these common maintenance procedures to provide an understanding of
the operations involved. However, as an aviation
maintenance technician, you must understand that
fire extinguishing system maintenance procedures
vary substantially, depending on the design and construction of the particular unit being serviced.
Therefore, the detailed procedures outlined by the
airframe or system manufacturer should always be
followed when performing maintenance.
CONTAINER PRESSURE CHECK
A pressure check of fire extinguisher containers is
made periodically to determine that the pressure is
between the minimum and maximum limits prescribed by the manufacturer. Aircraft service manuals contain pressure/temperature curves or charts
that provide the permissible gauge readings corrected for temperature. If the pressure does not fall
within the appropriate limits, the container must be
removed and replaced with a properly charged container. [Figure 11-23]

Engine Fire Protection

11-17

Figure 11-22. A typical high-rate-of-discharge extinguishing system installed on a large multi-engine aircraft utilizes two agent
containers, each with two discharge ports. This permits two applications of extinguishing agent to any one engine.

Figure 11-23. This pressure/temperature chart allows you to determine if a specific fire extinguishing bottle is properly
charged. As an example, assume the ambient temperature is 70 and you must check to see if a fire extinguishing container
is properly charged. To do this, find 70 degrees at the bottom of the chart and follow the line up vertically until it intersects
the minimum gauge reading curve. From here, move left horizontally to find a minimum pressure of about 540 psig. Next, go
back to the 7017 line and follow it up vertically until it intersects the maximum gauge reading curve. From this point, follow the
horizontal line to the left to determine a maximum pressure of approximately 690 psig. As long as the pressure gauge on the
container indicates between 540 psig and 690 psig, the container is properly charged.

11-18

Engine Fire Protection

Once you have determined that a bottle is properly

charged, check to make certain that the glass on the
pressure gauge is not broken. In addition, verify that
the bottle is securely mounted to the airframe.

replacing cartridges and bonnet assemblies. Before

installation on an aircraft, the cartridge must be
properly assembled into the bonnet and the entire
assembly connected to the container. [Figure 11-24]

The only way to determine if the appropriate

amount of extinguishing agent is in a given container is to weigh the container. Therefore, most fire
extinguishing containers require re-weighing at frequent intervals. In addition to the weight check, fire
extinguisher containers must be hydrostatically
tested at five-year intervals.

If a discharge cartridge is removed from a bonnet

assembly, it should not be used in another bonnet
assembly. In addition, since discharge cartridges are
fired electrically, they should be properly grounded
or shorted to prevent accidental firing.

DISCHARGE CARTRIDGES
The discharge cartridges used with HRD containers
are life-limited and the service life is calculated from
the manufacturer's date stamped on the cartridge.
The manufacturer's service life is usually expressed
in terms of hours and is valid as long as the cartridge
has not exceeded a predetermined temperature
limit. Many cartridges are available with a service
life of up to 5,000 hours. To determine a cartridge's
service life, it is necessary to remove the electrical
leads and discharge hose from the bonnet assembly.
Once this is done, the bonnet assembly can be
removed from the extinguisher container so you can
see the date stamped on the cartridge.
Most new extinguisher containers are supplied with
their cartridge and bonnet assembly disassembled.
Therefore, care must be taken in assembling or

727 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

The following discussion is intended to give you an
overview of a typical fire extinguishing system
installed on a transport category aircraft. The fire
protection system used on a Boeing 727 is typical of
those found on several aircraft in service today.
ha the Boeing 727 powerplant fire extinguishing system, all three powerplant areas are protected by two
high-rate-of-discharge bottles. Each of the two agent
bottles has a gauge to indicate its pressure, and an electrical pressure switch is mounted on each bottle to activate a bottle discharge light on the instrument panel
when the pressure on the agent bottle is below limits.
Once the extinguishing agent leaves a bottle, it proceeds to a two-way shuttle valve that channels the
extinguishing agent into the distribution system.
Once in the distribution system, the extinguishing
agent passes through the appropriate engine selec-

Figure 11-24. When assembling a discharge cartridge into a bonnet assembly, it is best to use an exploded view drawing like the
one above. Once assembled, the entire bonnet assembly is attached to the container by means of a swivel nut that tightens
against a packing ring gasket.

Engine Fire Protection

11-19

Figure 11-25. The Boeing 727 aircraft utilizes two fire bottles and three selector valves to provide fire suppression to all three
engines. With this arrangement, the cockpit crew can discharge both bottles to a single engine.

tor valve to a series of discharge nozzles within the

engine compartment. If the fire is not extinguished
after discharging one bottle, the second bottle can be
discharged and the extinguishing agent routed to
the same engine. [Figure 11-25]
The controls for the 727 fire protection system consist of three engine fire warning lights, one wheel
well fire warning light, a bottle transfer switch, a
fire bell cutout switch, a fire detection system test
switch, and a detector inoperative test switch. The
fire warning lights are part of the fire detection system and illuminate whenever one of the fire detectors detects a fire. On the other hand, the bottle
transfer switch allows the pilot to select which bottle of extinguishing agent is discharged. The fire bell
disable switch silences the fire bell after it has been
activated by a fire indication. The fire detection system test switch checks the continuity of the detectors and operation of the warning system. The
detector inoperative test switch tests the circuits

that activate the "Detector mop" lights and, if the

systems are functioning properly, momentarily illuminate the "Detector Inop" lights. [Figure 11-26]
When a fire is sensed, a red warning light inside the
engine fire switch illuminates and the fire bell rings.
When the warning light comes on, the pilot pulls
the appropriate engine fire handle. This arms the
fire extinguisher bottle discharge switch, disconnects the generator field relay, stops the flow of fuel
and hydraulic fluid to the engine, and shuts off the
engine bleed air. It also deactivates the engine-driven hydraulic pump low-pressure lights and uncovers the bottle discharge switch. If the pilot determines that a fire actually exists in the engine compartment, the extinguishing agent is released by
depressing and holding the bottle discharge switch.
When the discharge switch is depressed, electrical
current causes the discharge cartridge to explode
and shatter the frangible disk. With the frangible
disk broken, the extinguishing agent is released into

11-20

Engine Fire Protection

Figure 11-26. A typical Boeing 727 fire control panel provides an indication of wheel well or engine compartment fires, controls fire
bottle discharge, and permits testing of the fire detector system.

the appropriate engine compartment. Once the

extinguishing agent is discharged, the fire warning
light should go out within thirty seconds. If the
warning light does not go out, the pilot can move
the bottle transfer switch to its opposite position to
select the second bottle of extinguishing agent, and
again push the bottle discharge switch. Once the fire
extinguisher bottle has been discharged, or when its
pressure is low, the appropriate bottle discharge
light illuminates.
GROUND FIRE PROTECTION

Since the introduction of large turbine engine aircraft, the problem of ground fires has increased in
seriousness. For this reason, a central ground connection to the aircraft's fire extinguishing system is
incorporated on some aircraft. Such systems provide a more effective means of extinguishing ground
fires and eliminate the necessity of removing and
recharging the aircraft-installed fire extinguisher
cylinders. These systems typically include a means
for operating the entire system from one place on

the ground, such as the cockpit or at the location of

the fire extinguishing agent supply.
On aircraft not equipped with a central ground connection to the aircraft fire extinguishing system,
means are usually provided for rapid access to the
compressor, tailpipe, or burner compartments. The
rapid access is typically by means of a springloaded or pop-out access door in the skin surrounding these compartments.
Internal engine tailpipe fires that take place during
engine shutdown or false starts can be blown out by
motoring the engine with the starter. If the engine is
running, it can be accelerated to its rated speed to
achieve the same result. However, if a tailpipe fire
persists, a fire extinguishing agent can be directed
into the tailpipe. However, keep in mind that excessive use of CO2 or other agents that have a chilling
effect can shrink the turbine housing onto the turbine and cause the engine to disintegrate. Therefore,
exercise prudent judgment when directing fire
extinguishing agents into a hot engine tailpipe.