Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012

Chapter 7 HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULICS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1

GENERAL ...................................................................................................................... 7-1

7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3

7.1.4

7.1.5
7.1.6

7.1.7
7.1.8
7.1.9
7.1.10
7.1.11
7.1.12

7.2

Quick Reference Guide ................................................................................ 7-1

Project Management and Coordination ........................................................ 7-7
Reconnaissance and Scoping ...................................................................... 7-7
7.1.3.1
New vs. Rehabilitated Structures .......................................... 7-8
7.1.3.2
References ............................................................................ 7-9
Risk Considerations...................................................................................... 7-9
7.1.4.1
References .......................................................................... 7-10
7.1.4.2
Qualitative Risk Assessment .............................................. 7-10
7.1.4.3
Quantitative Risk Analysis .................................................. 7-10
Baseline vs. Proposed Conditions .............................................................. 7-10
Design Standards and Criteria ................................................................... 7-11
7.1.6.1
Roadway Classifications ..................................................... 7-11
7.1.6.2
New Structures ................................................................... 7-11
7.1.6.3
Existing and Rehabilitated Structures ................................. 7-11
Capacity vs. Stability Design ...................................................................... 7-12
Design and Check Floods .......................................................................... 7-12
Design Exceptions/Variances ..................................................................... 7-12
Quality Control and Quality Assurance ....................................................... 7-13
Documentation and Deliverables ................................................................ 7-13
Applicable Laws.......................................................................................... 7-14
7.1.12.1
References .......................................................................... 7-14
7.1.12.2
FHWA Policy ....................................................................... 7-14
7.1.12.3
Other Federal Laws ............................................................ 7-15
7.1.12.4
State and Local Laws .......................................................... 7-15

HYDROLOGY .............................................................................................................. 7-17

7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3

7.2.4

7.2.5
Table of Contents

References ................................................................................................. 7-17

Design Standards ....................................................................................... 7-18
Design Guidance ........................................................................................ 7-18
7.2.3.1
Peak Flow vs. Hydrograph .................................................. 7-18
7.2.3.2
Statistical vs. Deterministic ................................................. 7-18
7.2.3.3
Urban vs. Rural ................................................................... 7-19
7.2.3.4
Potential Future Development ............................................ 7-19
7.2.3.5
Local Procedures ................................................................ 7-19
7.2.3.6
Previous Studies ................................................................. 7-19
7.2.3.7
Historical Observations ....................................................... 7-20
7.2.3.8
Special Considerations ....................................................... 7-20
7.2.3.9
Data Sources ...................................................................... 7-20
Recommended Methods for Estimating Peak Flow .................................... 7-22
7.2.4.1
Ungaged Watersheds ......................................................... 7-22
7.2.4.2
Gaged Watersheds ............................................................. 7-23
7.2.4.3
Guidance on Peak Flow Method Selection ......................... 7-24
Recommended Methods for Computing Hydrographs ............................... 7-24
7.2.5.1
Unit Hydrographs ................................................................ 7-24
7-i

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

7.2.6
7.3

ROADWAY HYDRAULICS .......................................................................................... 7-26

7.3.1

7.3.2

7.3.3

7.3.4

7.3.5

7.3.6

7-ii

7.2.5.2
Regional Regression Equations .......................................... 7-25
7.2.5.3
Storage Routing .................................................................. 7-25
Reporting .................................................................................................... 7-25

Culverts ...................................................................................................... 7-26

7.3.1.1
References .......................................................................... 7-26
7.3.1.2
Standard Practices .............................................................. 7-27
7.3.1.3
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-27
7.3.1.4
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-28
7.3.1.5
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-30
7.3.1.6
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-31
7.3.1.7
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-31
7.3.1.8
Plans ................................................................................... 7-32
Ditches........................................................................................................ 7-32
7.3.2.1
References .......................................................................... 7-33
7.3.2.2
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-33
7.3.2.3
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-34
7.3.2.4
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-35
7.3.2.5
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-35
7.3.2.6
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-35
7.3.2.7
Plans ................................................................................... 7-36
Pavement Drainage .................................................................................... 7-36
7.3.3.1
References .......................................................................... 7-36
7.3.3.2
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-37
7.3.3.3
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-37
7.3.3.4
Roadway Design Guidance ................................................ 7-38
7.3.3.5
Bridge Deck Design Guidance ............................................ 7-41
7.3.3.6
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-42
7.3.3.7
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-42
7.3.3.8
Plans ................................................................................... 7-42
Storm Drains............................................................................................... 7-43
7.3.4.1
References .......................................................................... 7-43
7.3.4.2
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-43
7.3.4.3
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-43
7.3.4.4
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-45
7.3.4.5
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-45
7.3.4.6
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-45
7.3.4.7
Plans ................................................................................... 7-45
Outlet Protection ......................................................................................... 7-46
7.3.5.1
References .......................................................................... 7-46
7.3.5.2
Design Standard ................................................................. 7-47
7.3.5.3
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-47
7.3.5.4
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-47
7.3.5.5
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-48
7.3.5.6
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-48
7.3.5.7
Plans ................................................................................... 7-48
Alternative Pipe Materials ........................................................................... 7-48
7.3.6.1
References .......................................................................... 7-48
7.3.6.2
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-49
Table of Contents

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

7.3.6.3
7.3.6.4
7.3.6.5
7.3.6.6
7.4

Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-49

Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-56
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-56
Plans ................................................................................... 7-56

RIVER HYDRAULICS .................................................................................................. 7-57

7.4.1

7.4.2

7.4.3

7.4.4

7.4.5

7.4.6

Table of Contents

Floodplain Encroachments ......................................................................... 7-57

7.4.1.1
References .......................................................................... 7-57
7.4.1.2
Standard Practices .............................................................. 7-58
7.4.1.3
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-58
7.4.1.4
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-59
7.4.1.5
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-59
7.4.1.6
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-60
7.4.1.7
Plans ................................................................................... 7-61
Scour and Stream Stability ......................................................................... 7-61
7.4.2.1
References .......................................................................... 7-61
7.4.2.2
Standard Practices .............................................................. 7-62
7.4.2.3
Design Standards and Criteria ............................................ 7-62
7.4.2.4
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-62
7.4.2.5
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-65
7.4.2.6
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-65
Bridged Waterways .................................................................................... 7-66
7.4.3.1
References .......................................................................... 7-66
7.4.3.2
Standard Practices .............................................................. 7-67
7.4.3.3
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-67
7.4.3.4
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-69
7.4.3.5
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-70
7.4.3.6
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-73
7.4.3.7
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-73
7.4.3.8
Plans ................................................................................... 7-74
Longitudinal Embankments ........................................................................ 7-74
7.4.4.1
References .......................................................................... 7-74
7.4.4.2
Standard Practices .............................................................. 7-75
7.4.4.3
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-75
7.4.4.4
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-76
7.4.4.5
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-76
7.4.4.6
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-77
7.4.4.7
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-77
7.4.4.8
Plans ................................................................................... 7-77
Retaining Walls........................................................................................... 7-78
7.4.5.1
References .......................................................................... 7-78
7.4.5.2
Standard Practices .............................................................. 7-78
7.4.5.3
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-79
7.4.5.4
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-79
7.4.5.5
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-80
7.4.5.6
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-80
7.4.5.7
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-81
7.4.5.8
Plans ................................................................................... 7-81
Low-Water Crossings ................................................................................. 7-81
7.4.6.1
References .......................................................................... 7-81
7-iii

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

7.4.7

7.4.8

7.4.9

7.5

ENVIRONMENTAL HYDRAULICS .............................................................................. 7-96

7.5.1

7.5.2

7.5.3

7-iv

7.4.6.2
Standard Practices .............................................................. 7-82
7.4.6.3
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-82
7.4.6.4
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-83
7.4.6.5
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-83
7.4.6.6
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-85
7.4.6.7
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-85
7.4.6.8
Plans ................................................................................... 7-85
Channel Changes ....................................................................................... 7-86
7.4.7.1
References .......................................................................... 7-86
7.4.7.2
Standard Practices .............................................................. 7-86
7.4.7.3
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-87
7.4.7.4
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-87
7.4.7.5
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-88
7.4.7.6
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-88
7.4.7.7
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-88
7.4.7.8
Plans ................................................................................... 7-89
Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures ......................................... 7-89
7.4.8.1
References .......................................................................... 7-89
7.4.8.2
Standard Practices .............................................................. 7-90
7.4.8.3
Design Standards ............................................................... 7-90
7.4.8.4
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-91
7.4.8.5
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-91
7.4.8.6
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-92
7.4.8.7
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-93
7.4.8.8
Plans ................................................................................... 7-93
Energy Dissipators ..................................................................................... 7-93
7.4.9.1
References .......................................................................... 7-94
7.4.9.2
Design Standard ................................................................. 7-94
7.4.9.3
Design Criteria .................................................................... 7-94
7.4.9.4
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-94
7.4.9.5
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-94
7.4.9.6
Reporting ............................................................................ 7-95
7.4.9.7
Plans ................................................................................... 7-95

Aquatic Organism Passage ........................................................................ 7-96

7.5.1.1
References .......................................................................... 7-96
7.5.1.2
Design Standards and Criteria ............................................ 7-97
7.5.1.3
Design Guidance ................................................................ 7-97
7.5.1.4
Recommended Methods ..................................................... 7-98
Stream Restoration and Rehabilitation ....................................................... 7-98
7.5.2.1
Standard Practice ............................................................... 7-98
7.5.2.2
References .......................................................................... 7-99
7.5.2.3
Design Standards and Criteria ............................................ 7-99
7.5.2.4
Design Guidance .............................................................. 7-100
7.5.2.5
Recommended Methods ................................................... 7-100
Wetlands................................................................................................... 7-100
7.5.3.1
Standard Practice ............................................................. 7-100
7.5.3.2
References ........................................................................ 7-100
7.5.3.3
Design Standards and Criteria .......................................... 7-101
Table of Contents

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

7.5.4

7.6

7.5.3.4
Design Guidance .............................................................. 7-101
Stormwater Management ......................................................................... 7-101
7.5.4.1
Standard Practice ............................................................. 7-101
7.5.4.2
References ........................................................................ 7-101
7.5.4.3
Design Standards and Criteria .......................................... 7-102
7.5.4.4
Recommended Methods ................................................... 7-102

COASTAL HYDRAULICS .......................................................................................... 7-103

7.6.1

7.6.2

7.6.3

7.6.4

7.6.5

7.6.6

Table of Contents

General ..................................................................................................... 7-103

7.6.1.1
Tide Levels and Wave Heights ......................................... 7-103
7.6.1.2
Vertical Datum Reconciliation ........................................... 7-103
Hydrology ................................................................................................. 7-103
7.6.2.1
References ........................................................................ 7-104
7.6.2.2
Standard Practices ............................................................ 7-104
7.6.2.3
Design Guidance .............................................................. 7-105
7.6.2.4
Recommended Methods ................................................... 7-105
7.6.2.5
Reporting .......................................................................... 7-105
Floodplain Encroachments ....................................................................... 7-105
7.6.3.1
References ........................................................................ 7-106
7.6.3.2
Standard Practices ............................................................ 7-106
7.6.3.3
Design Standards ............................................................. 7-106
7.6.3.4
Design Criteria .................................................................. 7-106
7.6.3.5
Design Guidance .............................................................. 7-106
7.6.3.6
Reporting .......................................................................... 7-107
7.6.3.7
Plans ................................................................................. 7-107
Scour and Stream Stability ....................................................................... 7-107
7.6.4.1
References ........................................................................ 7-107
7.6.4.2
Standard Practices ............................................................ 7-108
7.6.4.3
Design Standards and Criteria .......................................... 7-108
7.6.4.4
Design Guidance .............................................................. 7-108
7.6.4.5
Recommended Methods ................................................... 7-109
7.6.4.6
Reporting .......................................................................... 7-109
Bridged Waterways .................................................................................. 7-109
7.6.5.1
References ........................................................................ 7-109
7.6.5.2
Standard Practices ............................................................ 7-110
7.6.5.3
Design Standards ............................................................. 7-110
7.6.5.4
Design Criteria .................................................................. 7-111
7.6.5.5
Design Guidance .............................................................. 7-111
7.6.5.6
Recommended Methods ................................................... 7-111
7.6.5.7
Reporting .......................................................................... 7-111
7.6.5.8
Plans ................................................................................. 7-112
Roadway Embankments ........................................................................... 7-112
7.6.6.1
References ........................................................................ 7-113
7.6.6.2
Standard Practices ............................................................ 7-113
7.6.6.3
Design Standards ............................................................. 7-113
7.6.6.4
Design Criteria .................................................................. 7-114
7.6.6.5
Design Guidance .............................................................. 7-114
7.6.6.6
Recommended Methods ................................................... 7-115
7.6.6.7
Reporting .......................................................................... 7-115
7.6.6.8
Plans ................................................................................. 7-116
7-v

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

7.6.7

7-vi

Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures ....................................... 7-116

7.6.7.1
References ........................................................................ 7-116
7.6.7.2
Standard Practices ............................................................ 7-117
7.6.7.3
Design Standards ............................................................. 7-117
7.6.7.4
Design Criteria .................................................................. 7-117
7.6.7.5
Design Guidance .............................................................. 7-117
7.6.7.6
Recommended Methods ................................................... 7-118
7.6.7.7
Reporting .......................................................................... 7-118
7.6.7.8
Plans ................................................................................. 7-118

Table of Contents

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012

LIST OF EXHIBITS
Exhibit 7.1-A

QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE ....................................................................... 7-2

Exhibit 7.3-A

ACCESS STRUCTURE MAXIMUM SPACING .......................................... 7-44

Exhibit 7.3-B

ESTIMATING STEEL PIPE SERVICES LIFE ............................................ 7-53

Exhibit 7.4-A

CAPACITY DESIGN, SCOUR DESIGN, AND COUNTERMEASURE

DESIGN STANDARDS FOR BRIDGES ..................................................... 7-69

List of Exhibits

7-vii

This page intentionally left blank.

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012

CHAPTER 7
HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULICS
7.1

GENERAL

This chapter identifies the hydrologic and hydraulic related policies, standards, standard
practices, criteria, guidance, and references approved for use in developing highway and bridge
designs in the Federal Lands Highway Programs. Refer to Chapter 1 for definitions of policy,
standards, standard practices, criteria, and guidance. Where appropriate, relevant procedures,
instructional aids, and publications such as engineering manuals, AASHTO guidelines, federal
regulations, and computer programs are referenced. Detailed descriptions and examples of
technical methods or procedures are not included. Users of this chapter are expected to be
knowledgeable in the use of all referenced methods and procedures, and otherwise stay
informed of current, related technologies.
The chapter is organized by topics within broad categories of related work. Policies, standard
practices, standards, criteria, and guidance are condensed and addressed separately for the
user under each topic. In addition, a quick reference guide that summarizes standards and
criteria by topic is provided in Exhibit 7.1-A. Compliance with all policies and standards in this
manual is essential to ensure consistency in project development throughout Federal Lands
Highways projects. Although policy cannot be compromised, flexibility of standards is
sometimes necessary to meet project-specific objectives. (See Section 7.1.9 for exceptions and
variances to standards.)
As changes in policies, standards, or criteria occur, updates to this chapter will be made as
described in Section 1.1.5
The information presented in this section will be applied as Standard Practices to any and all
hydraulic work executed to develop and deliver projects of the Federal Lands Highway
Programs.
Refer to [EFLHD CFLHD WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

7.1.1

QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE

Exhibit 7.1-A provides a quick reference guide for the standards, criteria, and recommended
methods provided in this chapter. Wherever possible, numerical standards and criteria are
listed. Links are provided to applicable sections in this chapter and to recommended methods
outside the PDDM. See Section 7.1.6.1 for the definition of high- and low-standard roadways.

General

7-1

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012

Exhibit 7.1-A
Topic

QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE

Standard

Criteria

Method
Reference

HYDROLOGY
Peak Flow
Methods

HDS 2,
HEC 22,
NEH Part 630,
TR-55,
TM 4-A6,
Bulletin 17B

Hydrograph
Methods

HDS 2,
WinTR-55

ROADWAY HYDRAULICS
Culverts

Capacity Design and

Stability Design:
High-Standard road:
50-year flood
Low-Standard road:
25-year flood
Roadside ditch:
10-year flood
Capacity Check Flood:
Evaluate potential for
adverse impacts for the
overtopping flood

Headwater
New: WSEL bottom of
aggregate base layer

HDS 5,
HEC 14

Existing: WSEL shoulder

hinge point.
HW/D ratio:
48 [1200 mm] or smaller
= 1.5
Larger than 48 [1200 mm]
= 1.2
Other: WSEL limited by
unacceptable hazards to
human life or property.
Minimum Size:
Cross-road culvert =
24 [600 mm]
Parallel culvert =
18 [450 mm]
Slope:
Stream Crossings:
Match streambed
Ditch Relief:
Min. = 2%, Max. = 10%

Exception:
See Floodplain
Encroachments

7-2

Cover
Pipe Anchors:
Concrete > 10% slope,
Metal > 25% slope

General

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012

Exhibit 7.1-A
Topic
Ditches

QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE (Continued)

Standard
Capacity Design:
10-year flood
Stability Design:
Permanent Linings
10-year flood
Temporary Linings:
2-year flood

Criteria
Depth:
New: WSEL bottom of
aggregate base layer
Existing: WSEL shoulder
hinge point

Method
Reference
HDS 3,
HEC 15

Slope:
Min. = 0.5%
Stability:
Permissible shear stress

Pavement
Drainage

Capacity Design:
10-year flood,
50-year in sumps

Spread:
High-Standard road:
3 ft [900 mm] into one
travel lane,
Low-Standard road:
Half of one travel lane

HEC 21,
HEC 22

Depth:
On-grade and Sags:
Allowable spread, not
to exceed curb height,
Sumps and Parking Areas:
6 [150 mm].
Inlet Clogging Factor:
Grate Inlets in sag or
sump, 50%
Storm Drains

Capacity Design:
10-year flood,
50-year in sumps

Outlet Protection
Alternative Pipe
Materials

HEC 22

Minimum Slope:
Pipe-full velocity 3 ft/sec
[0.9 m/s]
HEC 14

Service Life:
50-years
Minimum Pipe
Classification:
RCP: Class II
Metal: 0.064 [1.63 mm]

General

Minimum Size:
15 [375 mm].

FHWA-RD-97140,
Caltrans
Chapter 850

7-3

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012

Exhibit 7.1-A
Topic

QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE (Continued)

Standard

Criteria

Method
Reference

RIVER HYDRAULICS
Floodplain
Encroachment

Design Flood:
100-year
Check Flood:
Overtopping flood, not to
exceed 500-year

FEMA Regulated Base

Floodplain with Detailed
Study:
With floodway defined, no
floodway
encroachment
With no defined floodway
or no detailed study,
rise 1.0 ft [0.3 m]

HEC-RAS

Unregulated Base
Floodplain:
Rise 1.0 ft [0.3 m]
Scour and
Stream Stability
Bridged
Waterways

HDS 6, HEC 18,

HEC 20,HEC 23
Capacity Design:
Design Flood:
50-year
Check Flood:
Greater of overtopping
flood or 100-year, not
to exceed 500-year
Stability Design:
Design Flood:
100-year
Check Flood:
500-year

Longitudinal
Embankments

Capacity Design:
High-Standard road:
50-year flood
Low-Standard road:
25-year flood
Check Flood:
Greater of overtopping
or 100-year

Freeboard:
2.0 ft [0.6 m], greater
where potential for debris
or ice

HEC-RAS,
HEC 18,
HEC 20,
HEC 23

Stability Design:
Design Flood:
Normal geotechnical
and structural safety
factors
Check Flood:
Safety Factor 1.0
Capacity Design:
Freeboard:
2.0 ft [0.6 m]

HEC 14,
HEC 23

Stability Design:
High-Standard road:
50-year flood
Low-Standard road:
25-year flood
7-4

General

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012

Exhibit 7.1-A

QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE (Continued)

Topic

Standard

Retaining Walls

Longitudinal Flow Scour:

Wall height > 6.5 ft [2 m]:
100-year
Wall height 6.5 ft [2 m]
on High-Standard road:
50-year
Wall height 6.5 ft [2 m]
on Low-Standard road:
25-year

Criteria

Method
Reference

Stability Design:
Normal geotechnical and
structural safety factors

HEC 14,
HEC 23

Capacity Design:
Vented:
No overtopping

Low Volume
Roads
Engineering,
HDS 5,
HEC 20,
HEC 23

Pipe Penetrations:
High-Standard road:
50-year
Low-Standard road:
25-year
Low-Water
Crossings

Allowable Uses:
ADT 200 or existing
feature
Capacity Design:
Vented: 10-year
Stability Design:
25-year flood

Channel
Changes

Capacity Design:
Duplicate existing stream
characteristics
Stability Design:
High-Standard road:
50-year
Low-Standard road:
25-year

Stability Design

Capacity Design

Stability Design

Scour and
Stream
Instability
Countermeasures
Energy
Dissipators

General

HDS 6,
HEC 20,
HEC 23

HDS 6,
HEC 11,
HEC 14,
HEC 23
Design Standard:
Range of discharges

Design Guidance:
Natural or stable channel
velocity

HEC 14

7-5

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012

Exhibit 7.1-A
Topic

QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE (Continued)

Standard

Criteria

Method
Reference

COASTAL HYDRAULICS
General

HEC 25

Hydrology

HEC 25,
EM 1110-21100

Scour and
Stream Stability

HDS 6,
HEC 18,
HEC 20,
HEC 23,
HEC 25

Bridged
Waterways

Capacity Design:
50-year storm tide plus
wave height
Stability Design:
Design Flood:
100-year
Check Flood:
500-year

Roadway
Embankments

Capacity Design:
High-Standard road:
50-year storm tide plus
wave height
Low-Standard road:
Highest astronomic
tide plus 25-year wave
height
Stability Design:
High-Standard road:
50-year storm tide plus
wave height
Low-Standard road:
25-year wave

Scour and
Stream
Instability
Countermeasures

7-6

Design Criteria
Same as riverine except
freeboard measurement
reference datum

HDS 6,
HEC 11,
HEC 23,
HEC 25

Capacity Design:
High Standard road
Freeboard: 2.0 ft
[0.6 m]

HEC 14,
HEC 23

Stability Design

HDS 6,
HEC 11,
HEC 14,
HEC 23

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Hydrology and Hydraulics

7.1.2

December 2012

PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND COORDINATION

The identification and definition of project development activities needed to deliver Federal
Lands Highway projects is typically achieved through an interdisciplinary team approach, led by
a project manager. Consequently, to ensure consistency and effectiveness, it is essential that
hydraulic related work be planned and executed in close coordination with the project manager
and the other technical disciplines involved in the project (e.g., environment, roadway design,
bridge design, etc.). Coordination may include the establishment of design standards and
criteria different from those contained in this chapter. Such coordination may require direct
contact with the partner agencies or other stakeholders.

7.1.3

RECONNAISSANCE AND SCOPING

Project reconnaissance and scoping is a combination of conducting field inspections and

gathering existing engineering data needed to identify and quantify a highways deficiencies and
needs. The information is then assessed to identify a course of action for investigating
improvement alternatives and conducting necessary engineering analyses that will ultimately
result in a preferred alternative. Within Federal Lands Highways, these activities are collectively
referred to as a Project Scoping Study as described in Section 4.5.1.
The project scoping study initially identifies the major needs, issues, constraints, scope, and
feasibility of proposed improvements from which the more comprehensive, interdisciplinary
preliminary engineering activities, surveys, investigations, environmental studies, and analysis
can be effectively planned and budgeted. This includes the major elements of hydrologic and
hydraulic work necessary to develop the project. The results of the study are summarized and
documented in a Project Scoping Report as described in Section 4.5.2 and Section 4.5.2.12.9.
The following list includes broad categories of information that would be expected to be sought,
collected, and used, as a standard practice for the reconnaissance and scoping, whenever
available and applicable.

Previous Hydrology/Hydraulic Studies and Reports

Hydrological Data (rainfall, gage data, flood history, etc.)
Aerial/Site Photography
Survey and Mapping
Land use, Ground cover, Soils information
Fluvial Geomorphic data (plan forms, bed and bank sediment characteristics, etc.)
As-Built Plans
Bridge Inspection Reports
Maintenance Reports

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Hydrology and Hydraulics

7.1.3.1

December 2012

New vs. Rehabilitated Structures

The type of work proposed for drainage structures will affect the level of hydrologic and
hydraulic analysis and the applicability of the standards and criteria presented in this chapter.
This chapter defines rehabilitated structures as existing structures that are not to be replaced,
but may be substantially repaired, modified, or extended as part of the project. Common
examples of rehabilitated structures include, but are not limited to:

A culvert that is to be extended to accommodate roadway widening

A culvert needing repair due to heavy corrosion
A bridge deck to be reconstructed or widened
A cross drainage structure beneath a road that is to be reconstructed
A structure being retrofitted for fish passage
Pavement drainage improvements

Include an appropriate assessment of the existing physical condition and the hydraulic
performance of all cross-drainage structures in the scoping and reconnaissance efforts. The
findings of the assessment will lead to recommendations as to whether existing structures are to
be replaced, rehabilitated, modified, abandoned, or left undisturbed.

7.1.3.1.1

Assessment of Existing Cross-Drainage Structures

Structures Spanning less than 20 feet

Unless otherwise documented in the Project Agreement, apply the following guidelines for
assessing condition and performance of such structures on all projects qualifying for 3R or
broader scope of work:

Assess all structures with known condition or performance problems

Assess all structures when access is unimpeded
Assess the following when access is impeded:

All known structures with a 48-inch vertical opening or greater

All structures spanning blue-line streams as shown on applicable USGS 7.5
Quad maps
All structures spanning live streams, as identified in the field
A minimum of two structures per project mile (or total for projects less than one
mile in length)

Assess drainage structures that do not cross the roadway (i.e. parallel structures) as
directed by the Cross-Functional Team (CFT)

When assessments identify condition or performance problems and all structures within the
project limits have not been assessed, assess additional structures, as directed by the CFT or
Hydraulic Engineer, in order to fully define the scope of work.

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December 2012

The guidance in Culvert Assessment and Decision-Making Procedures Manual, September

2010 (Publication No. FHWA-CFL/TD-10-005) is recommended for assessing the condition and
performance of such structures.
Structures Spanning 20 feet or greater
Assess all structures according to the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS). Such
structures are defined as bridges by regulation and receive routine inspections and appraisals of
condition and performance.

7.1.3.2

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
Reference

Description

1.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. I

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume I Hydraulic

Considerations in Highway Planning and Location

2.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. VIII

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume VIII Hydraulic

Aspects in Restoration and Upgrading of Highways

7.1.4

RISK CONSIDERATIONS

This chapter presents policy, standards, criteria, and guidance for general application on
projects undertaken by the Federal Lands Highway Divisions. These standards and criteria
represent the minimum for most projects. Consequently, conformance with these standards
and criteria may not ensure that all risks have been fully addressed. A project can be fully
compliant with the policy, standards, and criteria described within this chapter, yet still incur an
inappropriate level of risk. Consequently, all sources of potential risk will be considered as part
of the hydrology/hydraulic investigation for all hydraulic structures on all projects in order to
determine whether modified site-specific standards or criteria are appropriate.
The
consideration of risk will typically begin with the evaluation of an applicable check flood, as
defined in Section 7.1.7.
For the purposes of this chapter, risk is defined as the consequences associated with the
probability of flooding attributable to the project, including the potential for property loss and
hazard to life during the service life of the highway. If the consideration of risks appears to
warrant design standards or criteria other than those outlined in this chapter, a risk assessment
will be conducted. As described below, the assessment of risk can either be qualitative or
quantitative in nature. If the results of the assessment confirm that lower standards are
warranted, the assessment will be documented through the design exception process (see
Section 7.1.9) and coordinated with project management.

General

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Hydrology and Hydraulics

7.1.4.1

December 2012

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

23 CFR 650A

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 23, Part 650 Subpart A,

Location and Hydraulic Design of Encroachments on Flood
Plains

2.

NS 23

Federal-Aid Policy Guide, Non-regulatory Supplements to

Title 23

3.

HEC 17

FHWA HEC 17, Design of Encroachments on Flood Plains Using

Risk Analysis, 1981

7.1.4.2

Qualitative Risk Assessment

When necessary, most projects will require only a qualitative risk assessment. A qualitative risk
assessment may determine that the standards and criteria of this chapter are appropriate or
inappropriate based on such considerations as the presence or absence of upstream structures
that could be impacted by the project, the perceived economic impact of temporary road
closures, the environmental impact, or the cost of the roadway facility itself.

7.1.4.3

Quantitative Risk Analysis

Highly complex or expensive projects or those with particularly high levels of risk may justify
detailed and quantitative risk analyses. A quantitative risk analysis provides a detailed
economic comparison of design alternatives using expected total costs (construction costs plus
risk costs) to determine the alternative with the least total expected cost to the public. This type
of analysis supports the appropriate design discharge and criteria based on the economic
comparison of alternatives rather than a set of predetermined design frequencies and criteria
such as those presented in this chapter. Federal Lands Highway projects will rarely require
quantitative risk analyses.

7.1.5

BASELINE VS. PROPOSED CONDITIONS

The hydrologic and hydraulic analysis will include a comparison of proposed conditions (postproject) to baseline conditions when the project includes one or more of the following:

An encroachment onto a floodplain designated by FEMA

A structure that is defined as a bridge (total span greater than or equal to 20 ft [6.1 m]

Projects that do not include either item listed above may require a comparison of proposed
conditions to baseline conditions based on site-specific risk.
Baseline conditions may represent either existing, pre-project conditions, or some pre-existing
state, depending on project and partner agency requirements. Comparing the post-project
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December 2012

conditions to baseline conditions allows an accurate assessment and documentation of the

impacts of the project and the associated risks to neighboring properties and facilities. Bases
for comparison may include, but will not necessarily be limited to:

The water-surface profile for floods of various frequencies

The average and maximum channel velocities
The waterways capacity to entrain and transport sediment
The long-term and flood-event stability of the channel in the project vicinity

The comparison between baseline and proposed conditions may refer to more than one
alternative proposed condition, depending on the needs of the project.

7.1.6

DESIGN STANDARDS AND CRITERIA

7.1.6.1

Roadway Classifications

For the design of roadway hydraulic structures, the design standards and criteria will vary based
on the roadway classification. There are two roadway classifications used in this chapter,
defined below:

High-Standard Road A roadway will be classified as a high-standard road if any of the

following conditions apply to any section of the project:

Design speed > 45 mph [70 km/hr]

Design Average Daily Traffic (ADT) > 1500
Designated as a critical access road

Examples of critical access roads are emergency evacuation routes, sole access to a
community, or sole access to critical facilities, such as hospitals, power plants, water
supply and wastewater treatment facilities.

Low-Standard Road All others.

7.1.6.2

New Structures

The standards and criteria presented in this chapter represent the minimum acceptable for
projects involving new drainage structures or replacements of existing structures. Exceptions to
standards may be justified by a qualitative risk assessment or a detailed risk analysis.

7.1.6.3

Existing and Rehabilitated Structures

The design standards and criteria of this chapter need not be considered minimum for existing
structures to be retained or rehabilitated. However, where condition or performance problems
are evident, existing structures will be evaluated against the standards and criteria contained in
this chapter. Where problems are not evident, consider the estimated service life and future
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Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012

performance of the existing structure in relation to the design standards and criteria, the overall
roadway facility and scope of other roadway improvements when deciding to retain, rehabilitate
or replace existing structures.
The goal of a rehabilitation design should be to increase the hydraulic performance toward
those standards if appropriate and cost effective. A rehabilitation design should not decrease
the safety characteristics of the existing facility. As with all projects, the needs, desires, and
regulations of partner agencies and local authorities must be considered when establishing
project-specific standards and criteria.

7.1.7

CAPACITY VS. STABILITY DESIGN

The capacity standards relate to the ability of the structure to convey the discharge rate
anticipated for the design event. Stability standards relate to the ability of the structure or facility
to withstand the discharge, velocity, shear stress, and scour induced by the design event
without collapsing or sustaining substantial damage. Where appropriate, the later sections of
this chapter define design and check flood standards separately for the capacity of the structure
and the stability of the structure.

7.1.8

DESIGN AND CHECK FLOODS

The design of a drainage system begins with the selection of an appropriate design flood
frequency. The later sections of this chapter define the standards for determining the design
flood for various drainage structures or features on Federal Lands Highway projects. Where
appropriate, the chapter also defines check flood standards. The purpose of evaluating a check
flood is to assess the potential consequences or risks associated with floods exceeding the
design flood. A flood that exceeds the capacity design may cause road overtopping, for
example, and extensive damage to structures in the floodplain. A flood that exceeds the
stability design flood for a bridge may undermine a foundation and lead to failure of the
structure.
If evaluation of the check flood indicates undue risk, then an increase of the design flood above
the normal standard should be considered for that structure, or the design should incorporate
other measures to reduce the level of risk. Small structures, such as small-diameter culverts,
will seldom require a formal check flood evaluation. Risk potential will be quickly assessed by
evaluating impacts associated with roadway or structure overtopping elevation.

7.1.9

DESIGN EXCEPTIONS/VARIANCES

Deviation from standards cited within this chapter will require formal justification and approval by
project management and the facility owner. (See Section 9.1.3 for a description of the Design
Exception process). Significant deviations from the criteria cited within this chapter will be

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December 2012

justified, approved by the local Federal Lands Hydraulics Office, and documented in the project
file.

7.1.10

QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

Quality control and assurance procedures (QC/QA) will be incorporated and executed in all
hydrology and hydraulics investigations, evaluations, and designs. Those responsible for
hydrology and hydraulics activities will define the QC/QA procedures early in the project and
provide signed documentation as evidence of conforming to the procedures throughout the
duration of the hydrologic and hydraulics activities.

7.1.11

DOCUMENTATION AND DELIVERABLES

The type and nature of documentation and deliverables required will vary depending upon the
project. The later sections of this chapter define the documentation required for each type of
hydraulic element of the project. Typical hydraulic design projects will include the following
submittal requirements:

Hydraulics Reconnaissance Documentation. Summarize the following hydrologic/

hydraulic tasks:

Data collection
Needed hydrologic and hydraulic analyses
Definition of baseline hydraulic conditions, as required

Also incorporate this documentation into the Project Scoping Report described in
Section 4.5.2.

Preliminary Hydraulics Documentation. Summarize the following commensurate with the

potential risks and adverse impacts:

Applicable design standards and criteria

Alternatives considered and evaluated and the results of the evaluations
Required risk assessment or analysis
Preliminary design recommendations

This documentation represents the Location Hydraulic Study required by 23 CFR 650A.
Also incorporate this documentation into the Preliminary Engineering Study Report
described in Section 4.10.1. Information developed during this phase of development
may be incorporated into the project environmental document, as appropriate.
Therefore, close coordination with the local Federal Lands Environmental Office may be
required.

Final Hydraulics Documentation. Support the final design of the selected alternative.
Fully document, to a level commensurate with project complexity and risk, the following:

General

Project description
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December 2012

Base data and sources

Analytical approaches, methods, and results
Design approaches and methods
Final design recommendations
Supporting information

Documentation will typically include the following support information when applicable and
appropriate:

Annotated maps and aerial photographs

Drainage area data
Field survey data
Field photographs
Floodplain mapping with cross-section locations/orientation
Manual and electronic calculations
Flood history data
Applicable correspondence
Required QC/QA documentation

7.1.12

APPLICABLE LAWS

This section presents the federal laws and regulations relating to hydrology and hydraulics.

7.1.12.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. V

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume V Legal

Aspects of Highway Drainage

2.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 2

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 2 Legal Aspects

7.1.12.2

FHWA Policy

Certain federal regulations comprise FHWA policy. All Federal Lands projects will conform to
FHWA policy. The policy statements of particular interest in hydrology and hydraulics include:
1.

7-14

23 CFR 650A

FHWA Policy 23 CFR 650 Subpart A Location and Hydraulic

Design of Encroachments on Floodplains. This federal law
establishes policy affecting any project that includes an
encroachment on a base floodplain. See Section 7.4.1 for a detailed
discussion of this policy

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December 2012

2.

23 CFR 650C

FHWA Policy 23 CFR 650 Subpart C National Bridge Inspection

Standards. This federal law defines the national standards for the
proper safety inspection and evaluation of all highway bridges
including the evaluation of bridges for scour susceptibility in
accordance with the guidance outlined in Technical Advisory
T 5140.23.

3.

23 CFR 650H

FHWA Policy 23 CFR 650 Subpart H Navigational Clearances for

Bridges. This federal law requires coordination with the United
States Coast Guard (USCG) and United States Army Corps of
Engineers (USACE) in providing adequate vertical and horizontal
clearance for navigation on navigable waterways.

4.

23 CFR 635D

FHWA Policy 23 CFR 635 Subpart D General Material

Requirements,

7.1.12.3

Other Federal Laws

Other federal laws may affect hydraulic tasks, analyses, design, or construction of Federal
Lands Highway projects. These laws are formulated under the following legislative acts:

The National Environmental Policy Act (1969)

The Flood Disaster Protection Act (1973)
The Rivers and Harbors Act (1899)
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972)
The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (1956)
The Tennessee Valley Authority Act (1933)
The Coastal Zone Management Act (1972)
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (1968)

7.1.12.4

State and Local Laws

At the state and local levels, the most common water-related legal concerns involve diversion,
collection, concentration, quality, obstruction, erosion, and sedimentation. The reconnaissance
and scoping effort should identify the state and local laws affecting the design of the project and
the appropriate agencies to be contacted for coordination relating to those laws. Since laws
related to these problems vary from state to state, the following is a brief generalization of each
topic as it relates to this chapter:

7.1.12.4.1

Diversion

Diversion relates to the detention, or changing the course, of a stream or drainage way from its
natural or existing condition. Depending on the type of resource system (human or natural) that
the diversion affects, the state laws will vary in their scope of jurisdiction. Water diversions
should be evaluated for their impact on property owners upstream, downstream, and adjacent to
the project. Changes in the flow characteristics due to the diversion may require mitigation with
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December 2012

the affected property owners. Diversions should be evaluated for their impact upon fish and
wildlife habitat. The state fish and wildlife agencies should be contacted for questions of
jurisdiction and possible mitigations. Design diversions of streams or drainage ways to preserve
flow conditions that are as similar as possible to those that existed before the diversion while
still accomplishing the highway design objectives. A comparison of baseline versus proposed
conditions will allow for identification, quantification, and mitigation of impacts related to
diversions.

7.1.12.4.2

Storm Water Management

A highway drainage system can collect or concentrate floodwaters, causing discharge rates at
the point of discharge to exceed those discharge rates that would naturally occur without the
project. A comparison of baseline versus proposed conditions will allow for identification,
quantification, and mitigation of impacts related to collection and concentration, including
potential water quality concerns.

7.1.12.4.3

Obstruction

Drainage structures form partial obstructions that can cause backwater upstream, increase
velocities in the structure area, and cause other hydraulic impacts. A comparison of baseline
versus proposed conditions will allow identification, quantification, and mitigation of impacts
related to the obstructions caused by drainage structures.

7.1.12.4.4

Stream Erosion and Sedimentation

Highways and their structures can have pronounced impacts on erosion and sedimentation
characteristics of a water resource system. If the flow characteristics of rivers and streams are
significantly changed, then the erosion and sedimentation characteristics will also be changed.

7.1.12.4.5

Floodplain Management and Administration

Local and state agencies are responsible for managing development within base floodplains.
Compliance with FHWA Policy 23 CFR 650A will normally ensure that the local and state
floodplain ordinances and statutes are satisfied.

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7.2

December 2012

HYDROLOGY

The hydrologic analysis is a necessary component to the design and evaluation of highway
hydraulic structures. The calculation of the design flood is contingent on several factors, the
primary two being selection of a design flood standard and an appropriate hydrologic method.
For any given site, there may be several methods available for estimating flows and their return
periods. No single method is applicable to all watersheds. Engineering judgment and a good
understanding of hydrology are essential in selecting the method to be used in a particular
design or for a given watershed. The method chosen should be a function of drainage area
(i.e., size and type), availability of data, the validity of the method for the site, land use, and the
degree of accuracy desired. When applicable, several methods should be used and the results
compared before selecting the most appropriate method.

7.2.1

REFERENCES

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HDS 2

FHWA HDS 2, Highway Hydrology, NHI-02-001, 2002

2.

HEC 22

FHWA HEC 22, Urban Drainage Design Manual, Third Edition,

FHWA NHI-10-009, 2009

3.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 7

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 7 Hydrology

4.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. II

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume II Hydrology

5.

NEH Part 630

NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Part 630 Hydrology

6.

TR-55

NRCS TR-55, Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, 1986.

7.

WinTR-55

NRCS WinTR-55, Windows version if TR-55 program

8.

TM 4-A6

USGS TM 4-A6, The National Streamflow Statistics Program: A

Computer Program for Estimating Streamflow Statistics for
Ungaged Sites

9.

NSS

USGS National Streamflow Statistics (NSS) computer program

Bulletin 17B

Bulletin 17B of the Hydrology Subcommittee, Guidelines for

Determining Flood Flow Frequency, 1982.

10.

Hydrology

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Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012

11.

PFDS

Precipitation Frequency Data Server, National Weather Service

12.

National Map

USGS National Map

7.2.2

DESIGN STANDARDS

The selection of a design flood standard is the first step in the design of highway hydraulic
structures. The minimum design flood standards for each type of hydraulic analysis or design
are provided in this chapter, and summarized in the quick reference guide in Exhibit 7.1-A.

7.2.3

7.2.3.1

DESIGN GUIDANCE

Peak Flow vs. Hydrograph

Depending on the type of hydraulic investigation, either a peak discharge will be computed or a
hydrograph will be developed. The majority of highway drainage structures are analyzed and
designed using only the peak discharge for a given design flood. A hydrograph (time
distribution of discharge) may be required where either the volume of runoff or the storm
duration is needed.
Hydrographs will be used for the design or evaluation of highway hydraulic structures where
roadway overtopping duration, storage routing, sediment routing, or unsteady flow modeling are
required.

7.2.3.2

Statistical vs. Deterministic

All analytical methods can be grouped into two broad categories of deterministic and statistical
models. Deterministic methods model the physical aspects of the rainfall-runoff process, where
each element of the runoff process is accounted for, generally based on empirical equations.
Statistical methods utilize measured gage data and procedures of statistical analysis to
determine flood-frequency relationships.
Simple statistical or deterministic methods are often sufficient for applications within this
chapter. More sophisticated models, such as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers HEC-HMS and
the NRCS TR-20 programs, which use deterministic unit hydrograph methods, may be required
and are acceptable for both peak flow and hydrograph needs.

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7.2.3.3

December 2012

Urban vs. Rural

Land use changes affect watershed hydrology and also impact the applicability of hydrologic
methods used for design. Urbanization, channelization, and other land use changes (e.g.,
logging) result in a decrease in infiltration and depression storage, a decrease in travel time,
and an increase in runoff volume, resulting in an increase to the peak discharge. The engineer
should be aware of past and proposed changes in the watershed land use when selecting a
hydrologic method and performing the hydrologic calculations.
Urbanization can also have an adverse impact on stream morphology. There can be a
temporary increase in sediment supply due to construction-site erosion, and a long-term
reduction in sediment production. Urbanization also typically increases the normal base flow in
stream channels. These changes can result in channel stability problems, both lateral and
vertical, that may impact highway structures.
Regional regression equations are primarily for natural, undeveloped watersheds.
Development should be accounted for using urban regression equations, where available. For
regions where urban regression equations have not been specifically developed, both the NSS
program and HDS 2 provide methods and procedures for calculating a peak discharge for urban
areas, based on the drainage area, the peak discharge for the same watershed in a natural
condition, and a basin development factor, which measures the degree of urbanization in the
watershed.

7.2.3.4

Potential Future Development

In general, the hydrologic investigations will only account for existing land use conditions, which
includes planned development that is funded and has received approval from the local land use
permitting authority. Future development may be accounted for in circumstances where the
partner agency has a cooperative agreement with the land developer or local community.

7.2.3.5

Local Procedures

There are many local hydrologic procedures or regional modifications to general hydrologic
procedures. The engineer may use local procedures within their limits of applicability, with
advanced approval of Federal Lands Highway Hydraulics and concurrence of the partner
agency. Local procedures are encouraged for use as a check method when available and
applicable.

7.2.3.6

Previous Studies

Results of previously documented hydrologic studies may be used with advanced approval of
the local Federal Lands Hydraulics Office, if the engineer is confident in the applicability of the
hydrologic method and correctness of the calculations.

Hydrology

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7.2.3.7

December 2012

Historical Observations

Field data can sometimes be obtained that can be used to estimate the discharge of historical
floods through stage-discharge relationships or open-channel flow calculations. Useful
information might include high water marks, bridge inspection reports, and eyewitness reports of
overtopping depths of highways and bridges.
Flows determined by historical observations should be used when available as a check on other
methods. Flood-frequency magnitudes should not be developed solely from this method
because of the small number of observations and inherent inaccuracies.

7.2.3.8

Special Considerations

The standard hydrologic procedures are appropriate for the majority of highway design projects.
Conditions that may require special hydrologic investigation and represent hydrological design
challenges not anticipated by standard hydrologic procedures include:

Wetland mitigation analysis and design

Snowmelt flood hydrology
Arid lands runoff

Chapter 9 of HDS 2 addresses hydrologic methods and procedures that are associated with
such conditions.

7.2.3.9

Data Sources

Data needs frequently include information on the watershed (maps, topography, soils, and land
use), stream flow records, and precipitation records. Data must be reliable, accurate, and as
current as possible. The sources for the required data may be the partner agency, federal
agencies, or state, and local agencies. The geoSpatial Data Acquisition (GSDA) website
provides a clearinghouse for much of the publicly available digital data. Acceptable sources of
commonly needed data are described below.
In addition to the data sources described in the following sections, hydrologic modeling data
may be compiled by state departments of transportation or local flood control agencies (typically
in a drainage manual or criteria and procedures manual). Reference Chapter 3 of HDS 2 for
information on required data and acceptable sources.

7.2.3.9.1

Stream Flow

The major source of stream flow information is the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The USGS
stream flow database, including daily, monthly, and annual stream flow statistics is available on
the Internet. Also, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Bureau of Reclamation, and
U.S. Forest Service collect stream flow data. Other potential sources of data are state and local
governments, utility companies, water-intensive industries, and academic institutions.

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7.2.3.9.2

December 2012

Rainfall

The major source of precipitation data is the National Weather Service (NWS), an agency of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Historically, NWS publications have
been the primary source for precipitation depth-duration-frequency data across the United
States. The following NWS publications can be accessed from the Internet:

Technical Paper 40 Rainfall Frequency Atlas of the United States for Durations from
30 minutes to 24 hours and Return Periods from 1 to 100 Years (1961)

Technical Paper 42 Generalized Estimates of Probable Maximum Precipitation and

Rainfall-Frequency Data for Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands

Technical Paper 43 Rainfall-Frequency Atlas of the Hawaiian Islands for Areas to 200
Square Miles, Durations to 24 Hours, and Return Periods from 1 to 100 Years

HYDRO 35 Five to 60-minutes Precipitation Frequency for Eastern and Central United
States (1977)

NOAA Atlas 2 Precipitation Frequency Atlas of the Western United States (1973)

Short Duration Rainfall Relations for the Western United States (1986)

NOAA Atlas 14 Precipitation Frequency Atlas of the United States (Vol. 1 and 2, 2004)

The PFDS should be referenced to ensure that the most up-to-date publication is used for the
hydrologic design calculations. For raw rainfall data, NOAAs National Climatic Data Center
(NCDC) can be referenced.
Other sources of rainfall data may include state and local agencies. Specifically, many state
departments of transportation and local flood control agencies have developed IntensityDuration-Frequency (IDF) curves and rainfall hyetographs that may be of use to the engineer.

7.2.3.9.3

Land Use

Land use data are available in different forms, including aerial photographs and zoning maps.
Data can be obtained from a broad variety of sources, such as state and local planning
organizations. The USGS has a nationwide network of maps (1:100,000 and 1:24,000 scale)
and aerial photographs. The USGS maps can be obtained in print. The USGS maps and aerial
photographs can be accessed from the USGS National Map.

7.2.3.9.4

Soil Type

Information on soil type is needed for some hydrologic methods, primarily NRCS methods,
including TR-55. The major source of information on soil types is the NRCS, which has
prepared soil maps for most of the counties in the country. The NRCS Soil Survey publications
can be obtained from the NRCS or county extension service. The NRCS also has a website
that allows online viewing of soil survey maps and reports. The TR-55 publication and
Chapter 7 of NEH Part 630 of the NRCS National Engineering Handbook give a correlation

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December 2012

between NRCS soil type and hydrologic soil group. For soil types not identified in those
publications, a correlation can be found in the NRCS Soil Survey for the county.

7.2.3.9.5

Topographic Maps

Topographic mapping can be obtained from a broad variety of sources, such as state and local
planning organizations. The USGS has a nationwide network of maps (1:100,000 and 1:24,000
scale) that can be obtained in print and digital formats. The USGS maps can be accessed from
the USGS National Map.

7.2.4

RECOMMENDED METHODS FOR ESTIMATING PEAK FLOW

Peak flow estimates obtained by one method should be compared to estimates obtained by
other applicable methods. Significant differences may indicate the need to review data from
other comparable watersheds or the need to obtain historical data.

7.2.4.1

Ungaged Watersheds

There are many methods available for estimating peak flows at sites without gages. These
methods include the Rational Method, Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS, formerly
SCS) methods, US Geological Survey (USGS) regression equations, and other local methods.
Following are brief descriptions of the most frequently used methods:

7.2.4.1.1

Rational Method

The Rational Method is the most commonly used procedure for estimating peak flows from
urban, rural, or combined areas for watersheds smaller than 200 acres [80 hectares]. Perform
hydrologic calculations using the Rational Method in accordance with the methods presented in
HDS 2 Highway Hydrology. Additional guidance for the usage of the Rational Method in the
design or evaluation of urban storm drain systems is given in HEC 22 Urban Drainage Design
Manual.
The rainfall intensity is determined using the time of concentration and an Intensity-DurationFrequency (IDF) curve. IDF curves may be available from state departments of transportation
or local flood control agencies. For states that are included in the NOAA Atlas 14, an IDF curve
can be obtained directly from the NWS PFDS. For states not yet covered by NOAA Atlas 14,
follow the procedures given in Appendix A of HEC 12.

7.2.4.1.2

NRCS Methods

The NRCS Technical Release 55, Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, commonly referred
to as TR-55, provides a graphical peak discharge method that is applicable for small drainage
areas (time of concentration between 0.1 and 10 hours).

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December 2012

The NRCS has also released the WinTR-55 computer software package, which will calculate
peak flows for watersheds with areas smaller than 25 square miles [6,500 hectares].
Further background information on TR-55 and NRCS hydrologic methods in general, can be
found in NEH Part 630 of the NRCS National Engineering Handbook. The NRCS method was
developed for rolling agricultural and rolling undeveloped land, but is applicable to urbanized
areas. Specific application of the NRCS methods to the design of highway drainage structures
can be found in Chapter 5 of HDS 2 and Chapter 3 of HEC 22.

7.2.4.1.3

Regional Regression Equations

Regression equations are one of the most commonly accepted methods for estimating peak
flows for watersheds without gages or sites with insufficient gage data. Regional regression
equations are an extrapolation of data from nearby watersheds with similar hydrologic,
physiographic, and climatological characteristics. The USGS, in cooperation with the States,
has developed a comprehensive series of regional regression equations for most of the United
States into the National Streamflow Statistics (NSS) computer program. The USGS has also
published documentation for the NSS program and for each of the States. These regression
equations permit peak flows to be estimated for recurrence intervals ranging from 2 to 500 years
for natural streams. Regression equations are developed using independent variables (i.e.,
basin characteristics) within given ranges for each state and hydrologic region. To ensure the
stated accuracy of the estimated discharges, the equations should only be applied within the
range of independent variables utilized in their development.
The regional regression equations used in the NSS program are primarily for natural,
undeveloped watersheds, although some urban regression equations have been developed.
For regions where urban regression equations have not been specifically developed, both the
NSS program and HDS 2 provide methods and procedures for calculating a peak discharge for
urban areas, based on the drainage area, the peak discharge for the same watershed in a
natural condition, and a basin development factor, which measures the degree of urbanization
in the watershed.

7.2.4.2

Gaged Watersheds

When a sufficient period of record is available, a desirable method for determining the peak flow
is a flood-frequency analysis of flows that have occurred at or near the site. Analyzing floodfrequency relationships from actual streamflow data uses records of past events and statistical
relationships to predict future flow occurrences. The best circumstance for estimating peak
flows is to have a stream gage near the site for a large number of years. The more years of
record, the more accurate the estimate will be. It is recommended that the period of record
should be at least 10 years. Where the site being studied is on the same stream and near a
gaging station, peak discharges can be adjusted to the site by drainage area ratios using
drainage area to some power. For this method to be valid, the gage data used must be
homogeneous, i.e., no significant changes in the characteristics of the drainage basin or
climatological patterns have occurred over the period of record.

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December 2012

Several of the more popular analysis techniques include Log-Pearson Type III, Normal and LogNormal, and Gumbel Extreme Value Distributions. Log-Pearson Type III will be used unless it
can be shown that the data does not fit this distribution function. Refer to Chapter 4 of HDS 2
and Bulletin 17B for analysis methods of gaged data. The USGS PeakFQ computer program is
a method for performing Log-Pearson Type III analyses on raw gaging data. Regional
equations may improve peak flow estimate at gaged sites by weighting the statistical analysis
estimate with the regression estimate.

7.2.4.3

Guidance on Peak Flow Method Selection

Select methods for calculating the peak flow appropriate for the size and hydrologic
characteristics of the tributary watershed. Discretion in the selection of the most appropriate
method is given to the engineer. General guidance on the applicability of peak flow methods is
given as follows:

For streams with gaging data, with a sufficient period of record (a minimum of 10 years,
refer to Chapter 4 of HDS 2), it is recommended that the engineer perform an
appropriate statistical analysis of the flood frequency.

In ungaged watersheds less than 200 acres [80 hectares], Rational Method is applicable

In ungaged watersheds greater than 200 acres [80 hectares], regional regression
equations or the NRCS TR-55 method are typically applicable.

7.2.5

7.2.5.1

RECOMMENDED METHODS FOR COMPUTING HYDROGRAPHS

Unit Hydrographs

Unit hydrograph techniques are used to approximate the rainfall-runoff response from a
watershed. A unit hydrograph is defined as the direct runoff resulting from an excess rainfall
event that falls uniformly over the watershed at a constant intensity and has a volume equal to
one unit of depth over the watershed. Unit hydrographs are either determined from gaged data
or are derived using empirically based synthetic unit hydrograph procedures.
Unit hydrographs are most accurate when based on continuous readings from stream and
rainfall gages. When gage data is not available for stream crossings, the NRCS, Snyder, or
Clark synthetic unit hydrographs methods may be used. Documentation for unit hydrograph
methods can be found in Chapter 6 of HDS 2.
The most common unit hydrograph method for computing a discharge hydrograph for highway
drainage structures is the NRCS procedure documented in NEH Part 630 of the NRCS National
Engineering Handbook. The WinTR-55 computer program is generally applicable for areas less
than 25 square miles [6,500 hectares], with additional limitations set by the time of concentration
for the watershed. Specific application of the NRCS methods to the design of highway drainage
structures can be found in Chapter 6 of HDS 2

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7.2.5.2

December 2012

Regional Regression Equations

The National Streamflow Statistics program contains a procedure for computing a

dimensionless hydrograph, representing the average runoff for a given peak discharge. The
hydrograph is not representative of any rainfall distribution. Runoff calculations performed using
regional regression equations should be done in accordance with the methods and procedures
documented for the NSS computer program. Specific application of the USGS regression
equations to the design of highway drainage structures can be found in Chapter 6 of HDS 2.

7.2.5.3

Storage Routing

Where detention ponds are required for Federal Lands Highway projects, such as for storm
water management applications, storage routing can be performed using the Storage-Indication
method as documented in Chapters 7 and 8 of HDS 2 and Chapter 8 of HEC 22.
Storage routing may also be used to evaluate existing or rehabilitated culverts that do not have
the capacity to convey the peak discharge prescribed by the applicable standard.

7.2.6

REPORTING

All hydrologic analyses will be supported by appropriate documentation, which at a minimum will
include:

Data and data sources

Reference for methods used
Assumptions
Conclusions
Recommendations

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7.3

December 2012

ROADWAY HYDRAULICS

7.3.1

CULVERTS

Culverts are physically simple structures used to convey surface runoff through, around, and
away from roadways and associated facilities. They typically consist of a pipe barrel with an
inlet and outlet structure. Although simple structurally, the hydraulic design of culverts requires
the investigation of numerous physical, operational, and regulatory elements during the data
collection phase, which must then be applied, as appropriate, during project development.
Examples of physical elements include geometrics (e.g. size, shape, length, alignment, material
roughness, slope, and entrance treatments); and hydraulic characteristics (outlet tailwater
depth, outlet velocity, headwater depth, scour/erosion potential, sediment transport, debris
production). Operational elements include frequency of maintenance and vehicular safety.
Regulatory elements may include federal and state hydraulic criteria such as the requirements
of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) administered by the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA). Other federal laws/regulations that may impact culvert design
include: NEPA, Fish and Wildlife Act, TVA, Coastal Zone Management Act, and Wild and
Scenic Rivers Act.
Refer to [EFLHD CFLHD WFLHD] Division Supplements for more information.

7.3.1.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HDS 5

FHWA HDS 5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts, FHWA

NHI-01-020, 2005

2.

HEC 14

FHWA HEC 14, Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for

Culverts and Channels, FHWA NHI-06-086, 2006

3.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 9

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 9 Culverts

4.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. IV

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume IV Hydraulic

Design of Culverts

5.

FLH Standard
Drawings

Federal Lands Highway Standard Drawings, current edition.

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7.3.1.2

December 2012

Standard Practices

7.3.1.2.1

Floodplain Encroachment

If a waterway crossing constitutes a new or expanded encroachment on a base (100-year)

floodplain that is regulated by FEMA or potentially creates an adverse impact to private property
or insurable buildings, reference Section 7.4.1 for details on appropriate design policy,
standards, and criteria, as well as guidance on FEMA coordination, if required.

7.3.1.2.2

New vs. Rehabilitation

All existing culverts identified to be retained as part of a roadway rehabilitation project will
receive an appropriate evaluation of condition, hydraulic performance and long term risk to
determine whether replacement or rehabilitation is necessary. Inform partner agency of all
condition and performance problems if correction is not included within the project scope.

7.3.1.3

Design Standards

7.3.1.3.1

Capacity Design

Design Flood
The design flood standards for culverts are based on two roadway classifications High
Standard and Low Standard (reference Section 7.1.6).

High Standard: Design cross culverts using the following standards:

Culverts will convey runoff from the 50-year flood

Culverts for temporary detours will convey runoff from the 10-year flood, unless
seasonal construction justifies a lower standard

Low Standard: Design cross culverts using the following standards:

Culverts will convey runoff from the 25-year flood

Culverts for temporary detours will convey runoff from the 2-year flood, unless
seasonal construction justifies a lower standard

Roadside Ditches: Culverts required for roadside ditches should be designed to convey
the runoff from the 10-year flood for both High- and Low-Standard roadways. Refer to
the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

Check Flood
Evaluate the potential for adverse impacts to private property or insurable buildings upstream of
the roadway at the roadway overtopping elevation. If such adverse impacts can occur, refer to
Section 7.4.1 for direction on applicable design policy, standards, criteria, and guidance.

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7.3.1.3.2

December 2012

Stability Design

Design Flood
The stability design flood standards for culverts are based on two roadway classifications
High-Standard and Low-Standard (reference Section 7.1.6).

High-Standard: roadway culverts and embankments at culvert locations will be stable

for the 50-year flood

Low-Standard: roadway culverts and embankments at culvert locations will be stable for
the 25-year flood

7.3.1.3.3

Surveying and Mapping

When survey is needed to quantify hydraulic impacts, refer to Chapter 5 for standards on survey
and mapping for culverts.

7.3.1.4
7.3.1.4.1

Design Criteria
Headwater Elevation

The headwater elevation is defined as the water-surface elevation (WSEL) at the culvert
entrance. There are three sets of criteria used to determine the allowable headwater elevation:
1) new vs. existing culvert, 2) ratio of headwater depth to culvert diameter or rise (HW/D), where
depth is measured from the water surface to the inlet invert, and 3) site-specific reference
elevations. The criterion that results in the lowest headwater elevation will govern the design.
New vs. Existing

New Culverts: Headwater elevation will not be greater than the bottom of the aggregate
base layer for the roadway pavement structure at the local roadway low point.

Existing Culverts: Headwater elevation will not be greater than the shoulder hinge point
at the local roadway low point (i.e. ponding will not be allowed to spread onto the
shoulder of the roadway).

Temporary Culverts: Headwater elevation will not be greater than the shoulder hinge
point at the local roadway low point (i.e. ponding will not be allowed to spread onto the
shoulder of the roadway).

HW/D Ratio

48 [1200 mm] equivalent and smaller culverts: Limit ratio to 1.5.

Larger than 48 [1200 mm] equivalent culverts: Limit ratio to 1.2.

Debris or Sediment: A ratio range of 0.8 to 1.0, depending on severity, is suggested

where the potential for heavy debris or sediment bed loads are a concern.

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December 2012

Reference Elevations
Elevations that represent unacceptable hazards to human life or private property, or exceed
local sub-basin divides such as ditch invert elevations that would allow runoff to flow away from
the desired crossing point.

7.3.1.4.2

Minimum Size

To limit maintenance problems due to debris or sedimentation and to facilitate inside access to
culverts, minimum pipe size criteria are:

24 [600 mm] or equivalent for cross-road culverts

18 [450 mm] or equivalent for parallel culverts in roadside ditches and channels

7.3.1.4.3

Slope

Site conditions determine the slope for a particular cross culvert. For determining appropriate
slope, cross culverts can be divided into two categories:
Ditch Relief
For culverts used as cross-drains to carry away intermittent roadside ditch water, the pipe slope
should not be flatter than 2% whenever possible, with 0.5% being the minimum. Where
practical, the pipe slope should equal or exceed the roadside ditch grade. The maximum slope
should not exceed 10% for concrete pipe, or 25% for metal pipes, without using pipe anchors.
Stream Crossings
These culverts are individually designed to carry the design discharge from a basin without
exceeding the allowable headwater criteria. The pipe slope will generally conform to the
average streambed flow line and should match the channel elevations on both the upstream
and downstream sides.

7.3.1.4.4

Cover

Refer to FLH Standard Drawings for the minimum and maximum cover on pipes.

7.3.1.4.5

Pipe Anchors

Pipe anchors are required for any exposed pipe (i.e., laid on embankment fill or natural ground).
Additionally, because culverts placed on very steep slopes can experience joint separation,
incorporate pipe anchors for concrete pipe on a slope of 10% or greater and for corrugated
metal pipes on a slope of 25% or greater.

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7.3.1.4.6

December 2012

Materials

Refer to Section 7.3.6 for standards and guidance regarding the selection of alternative
materials. All proposed culvert installations will meet the selected design criteria regardless of
which alternative material is selected.

7.3.1.5
7.3.1.5.1

Design Guidance
Alignment

The recommended maximum culvert skew, relative to the roadway centerline, is 45 degrees.

7.3.1.5.2

Entrance Treatments

The culvert end treatments affect hydraulic efficiency, embankment stability, aesthetics, and
safety for run-off-the-road vehicles. There are several types of entrance treatments for culverts:

Thin edge projecting

Mitered to conform to slope
Flared end section
Square edge in a headwall (with or without wingwalls)
Beveled edge in a headwall (with or without wingwalls)
Grooved end projecting
Side-tapered and slope-tapered inlets

For the design of new structures, flared end sections are recommended for 48 [1200 mm]
equivalent and smaller pipes. For larger pipes, a headwall end treatment is recommended to
offset buoyant forces. Headwalls are also recommended for multiple pipe installations. Beveled
edges should be used on all headwalls. For long culverts operating under inlet control
conditions, tapered inlets, also known as improved inlets, may be used to increase hydraulic
efficiency and allow the designer to reduce the pipe size.
For existing, lengthened, or rehabilitated structures with insufficient capacity to convey the
design discharge, the designer should consider adding a more efficient entrance treatment.

7.3.1.5.3

Outlet Treatments

End sections and headwall/wing-wall treatments are typically used at culvert outlets using the
same criteria as for inlets. The diverging geometry of these end treatments helps redistribute
the outlet discharge and associated velocities to the natural channel width. Culvert outlets will
be stable for the design discharge. Reference Section 7.3.5 for design of outlet protection,
when required.

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7.3.1.5.4

December 2012

Fish Passage

At some culvert locations, the ability of the structure to accommodate migrating fish is an
important design consideration. For these sites, consult state fish and wildlife agencies early in
the roadway planning process. For existing culverts that obstruct fish passage, modifications
can often meet the fish and wildlife agencies design criteria. Design standards, criteria, and
guidance for fish passage are provided in Section 7.5.1 of this document.

7.3.1.5.5

Camber

Under high fill conditions, the engineer should incorporate sufficient camber to allow for
settlement. Refer to FLH Standard Drawings for the recommended camber.

7.3.1.5.6

Open-Bottom Culverts

Open-bottom culverts, either concrete or metal, are sometimes designed for fish passage,
environmental, aesthetic, or economic reasons. These structures have a natural bottom and
must be supported on both sides by a foundation. Because of the likelihood of local scour,
evaluate and design the foundations using bridge criteria, unless they can be founded on
bedrock. Refer to Section 7.4.3 for information on foundation design.

7.3.1.5.7

Box Culverts

Use standard drawings from the applicable State, unless a custom design is required. If a
custom design is required, consult the Bridge Design Group.

7.3.1.6

Recommended Methods

Design and evaluate culverts for hydraulic performance according to the methods and
procedures presented in HDS 5 Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts.
For standard riprap outlet protection, refer to FLH Standard Drawings or the methods in
HEC 14. For outlets requiring energy dissipators, refer to Section 7.4.9.

7.3.1.7

Reporting

Documentation on the design of culverts should contain, at a minimum, the following data, as
applicable:

Project identification
Location of proposed installations
Drainage area map and site topography
Stream profile and cross sections
Information on existing structures
Historical high water data
Site investigation data (e.g., stream stability information)

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December 2012

Hydrologic design computations

Hydraulic design calculations and culvert performance curves
Economic analysis

7.3.1.8

Plans

In the plans for culvert installations, include the following for each culvert location:

Size
Alignment
Length
Acceptable materials, including class, gauge, and any special coatings
Joint gasket treatments, if any
End treatment
Cover depth
Camber, if any

For the location and design of simple riprap outlet protection, include the following for each
culvert location:

Dimensions and extent of riprap

Gradation
Bedding and Filter Material
Grading or slope details, if needed

In addition, culvert pipe 48 [1200 mm] or equivalent and larger will include individual cross
sections showing slope, inlet/outlet invert elevations, design headwater or headwater/diameter
ratio, design discharge, drainage area, and any special foundation work or end treatment.
Headwalls, energy dissipators, or riprap must be shown. Also include any necessary FLH
Standard Drawings or special detail drawings.
Include a Drainage Summary Sheet in the plans for all culverts. Show maximum pipe cover,
structure excavation, type of pipe (e.g., wall thickness, size, length), and acceptable alternative
pipe materials. See Division Supplements for an example Drainage Summary Sheet.

7.3.2

DITCHES

Ditches are engineered channels, such as roadside ditches in cut sections, toe-of-slope ditches,
and interceptor ditches placed at the top of cut slopes. Capacities will be less than 50 cfs
[1.5 cms]. This section addresses the design of ditches, including selecting the appropriate
design frequency, and evaluating the physical geometry (shape, slope, side slopes, roughness,
depth, and freeboard) and channel stability (velocity, shear stress, and channel lining).
For the design or evaluation of channels with capacities of 50 cfs [1.5 cms] or greater, refer to
the River Hydraulics Section 7.4.

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7.3.2.1

December 2012

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HDS 3

FHWA HDS 3, Design Charts for Open Channel Flow, 1961

2.

HDS 4

FHWA HDS 4, Introduction to Highway Hydraulics, FHWA

NHI-08-090, 2008

3.

HEC 15

FHWA HEC 15, Design of Roadside Channels with Flexible

Linings, FHWA IF-05-114, 2005

4.

HEC 22

FHWA HEC 22, Urban Drainage Design Manual

5.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 8

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 8 Channels

6.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. VI

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume VI Hydraulic

Analysis and Design of Open Channels

7.3.2.2

Design Standards

7.3.2.2.1

Capacity Design

Design Flood
Design roadside ditches for the 10-year flood for both High- and Low-Standard roadways. Refer
to the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

7.3.2.2.2

Stability Design

Design Flood
Design roadside ditches for stability for the 10-year flood for both High- and Low-Standard
roadways. (Refer to the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.)
Temporary Linings
Temporary linings may be needed to protect ditches from erosion over the transitional period
before permanent protective vegetation can become established. Design temporary channel
linings to be stable for the 2-year flood.

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7.3.2.3

December 2012

Design Criteria

7.3.2.3.1

Depth

Depth is defined as the allowable depth of flow relative to the ditch invert.
New Ditches
Limit the design depth to the elevation of the bottom of the aggregate base layer for the
roadway pavement structure.
Existing Ditches
When evaluating capacity of existing ditches, limit the depth to the elevation of the shoulder
hinge point on the roadway (i.e. flow should not spread onto the shoulder of the roadway).

7.3.2.3.2

Slope

Minimum ditch slope is 0.5% where possible. Where practical, provide a desired 1.0% minimum
ditch slope.

7.3.2.3.3

Stability

Design all engineered channels to be stable for the prescribed stability discharge based on
permissible shear. The shear stress approach focuses on stresses developed at the interface
between the channel boundary and flowing water. The permissible shear stress is the
maximum that will not cause serious soil erosion from the channel bed or banks. Acceptable
channel linings are outlined in HEC 15 and identified in the FLH Standard Specifications for
Construction of Roads and Bridges on Federal Highway Projects (FP).

7.3.2.3.4

Ditch Relief

Design permanent ditch relief (culverts, spillways, or inlets), as necessary, to meet conveyance
or stability criteria.

7.3.2.3.5

Outlet Protection

Ditch outlets will be stable for the stability design discharge. Scour at ditch outlets is a common
occurrence that can undermine and cause embankment failure. For most outlets, properly
designed riprap outlet protection is sufficient. Reference Section 7.4.9 for discussion on
applications where the outlet velocity, relative to soil erodibility, dictates the use of an energy
dissipator to prevent excessive outlet scour.

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7.3.2.4
7.3.2.4.1

December 2012

Design Guidance
Cross Section Shape

Ditch cross sections are typically designed based on minimum standard dimensions that permit
easy construction and maintenance with highway equipment. Minor drainage channels may
have vee, trapezoidal, rectangular, parabolic, or triangular shapes.

7.3.2.4.2

Slope

The ditch slope need not follow that of the roadbed. Although preferred, the roadside ditch
geometry need not be standardized for any length of highway. Wider, deeper, or flat-bottom
ditches may be used as required to meet different amounts of runoff, channel slopes, lining
types, and distances between points of discharge. Ditch relief structures should be provided,
where necessary, to maintain the standard ditch section to the extent possible.

7.3.2.4.3

Erosion Protection

Various types of vegetation, rolled erosion control products, rock, and rigid linings are available
to provide erosion protection for ditches. Temporary linings are often required to allow
protective vegetation time to establish. Temporary lining options should be included and
incorporated into the project Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP). In cases where
vegetation will not provide adequate erosion protection, ditches may be lined with rock or stone
of suitable size, or with asphalt or concrete. Smooth linings, such as asphalt and concrete,
generate higher velocities than rougher vegetation and rock linings and may require energy
dissipation devices at ditch outlets.

7.3.2.5

Recommended Methods

Design roadside channels using methods given in HEC 15, Design of Roadside Channels with
Flexible Linings. Evaluate the channel stability for the immediate post-construction condition
and for the final condition using the permissible shear stress, as documented in HEC 15. The
values for permissible shear stress are given in HEC 15.
The permissible shear stress values for many temporary and permanent erosion control
blankets have been determined in laboratory studies by manufacturers. The engineer may use
a manufacturer-specified permissible shear stress, if developed according to ASTM D6460,
Standard Test Method for Determination of Erosion Control Blanket (ECB) Performance in
Protecting Earthen Channels from Stormwater-Induced Erosion.

7.3.2.6

Reporting

Documentation on the design of roadside channels should contain the following minimum data:

Project identification
Location of proposed work

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December 2012

Design discharge and frequency

Hydrologic calculations
Channel cross section and gradient
Type of lining
Design calculations

7.3.2.7

Plans

The plans will show all details necessary to construct the channel according to the hydraulic
design. The following information should be included, at a minimum:

Location
Alignment
Slope and elevations
Cross section (bottom width, side slope, depth)
Channel linings (both temporary and permanent)
Special structure details, if any

7.3.3

PAVEMENT DRAINAGE

Pavement drainage refers to the above-ground hydraulic considerations associated with the
design of systems to collect and drain runoff from roadways with curb and gutter. Design
considerations include selecting the storm event, defining surface drainage patterns, limiting the
allowable spread (extent of water on the road surface), locating and spacing inlets, and special
considerations associated with sag locations. This section provides design discussion and
guidance on all areas of roadway surface drainage, including bridge deck drainage.

7.3.3.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HEC 21

FHWA HEC 21, Bridge Deck Drainage, FHWA SA-92-010, 1993

2.

HEC 22

FHWA HEC 22, Urban Drainage Design Manual

3.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 13

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual Chapter 13 Storm Drainage

Systems

4.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. IX

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines Volume IX Storm Drain

Systems

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7.3.3.2

December 2012

Design Standards

7.3.3.2.1

Capacity Design

Design Flood
These standards apply to both High- and Low-Standard roadways. Refer to the definitions of
High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

On-grade, Sags, and Parking Areas: Design the roadway conveyance and collection
systems (i.e. gutter flow and inlet design) for the 10-year flood.

Sumps: Roadway sumps are defined as deep roadway sags that must have storm drain
systems to outlet runoff and limit gutter depths. In roadway sump locations where a
storm drain system is the only outlet, design the drainage inlet system to accommodate
the 50-year flood.

7.3.3.3
7.3.3.3.1

Design Criteria
Spread

Spread refers to the allowable width of flow encroachment onto the pavement section during
storm events. Refer to the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

High-Standard Roadways: Limit the spread to 3 ft [900 mm] of one travel lane for gutter
flow, both on-grade and in roadway sags.

Low-Standard Roadways: Limit the spread to half of one travel lane for gutter flow, both
on-grade and in roadway sags.

Roadways with less than 3 ft [900 mm] of pavement width outside the travel lane: Limit
spread to half of one travel lane for gutter flow, both on-grade and in roadway sags.

7.3.3.3.2

Depth

Applies to High- and Low-Standard roadways.

Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

Refer to the definitions of High- and Low-

On-grade and Sags

Flow depth at the curb should not exceed the curb height or the allowable spread for the design
discharge.
Sumps
Limit the depth of flow at the gutter flow line to 6 [150 mm].

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December 2012

Parking Areas
For inlets adjacent to curbs, flow depth should not exceed the curb height. For sags limit the
depth of flow at the gutter flow line to 6 [150 mm].

7.3.3.3.3

Inlet Clogging Factor

Applies to High- and Low-Standard roadways.

Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

Refer to the definitions of High- and Low-

On-grade
Assume that on-grade inlets are not subject to debris clogging, unless clogging is a known
problem.
Sumps and Sags

Grate Inlets: Design grate inlets in roadway sags and parking areas using an inlet
clogging factor of 50 percent. In other words, reduce the grate perimeter or open area
parameters by 50 percent of the actual values.

Curb-opening Inlets: Assume that curb-opening inlets are not subject to debris clogging,
unless clogging is a known problem

Rehabilitation Projects: Assume all inlets are not subject to clogging, unless clogging is a
known problem.

7.3.3.4

Roadway Design Guidance

The roadway pavement and geometry should be designed for the efficient removal of rainfall
from the traveled lanes of the roadway. The roadway pavement materials and finishes, crossslope, and longitudinal slope should be designed to promote the removal of water from the
traveled lanes.
In rural areas, avoid the use of curbed sections whenever possible to avoid runoff concentration
and potential erosion.

7.3.3.4.1

Gutter Flow

A gutter is defined as the section of roadway next to the curb that conveys water during a storm
runoff event. Gutter cross sections have a triangular shape with the curb forming the nearvertical leg of the triangle. The gutter may have a uniform cross slope or a composite cross
slope. Composite gutter sections are encouraged, where possible, because of the associated
increase in gutter capacity and inlet efficiency.

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7.3.3.4.2

December 2012

Inlet Location

There are numerous locations where inlets are required based on the geometry of the roadway.
The following list includes locations where inlets are recommended based solely on roadway
geometry:

At all low points in the gutter grade

Immediately upstream of median breaks, entrance/exit ramp gores, cross walks, and
street intersections, i.e., at any location where a concentrated flow path could flow onto
the travel lanes

Immediately upgrade of bridges (to prevent water from flowing onto bridge decks)

Immediately downstream of bridges (to intercept bridge deck drainage)

Immediately upgrade of cross-slope reversals

Immediately upgrade from pedestrian cross walks

On side streets immediately upgrade from intersections

At the end of channels in cut sections

Behind curbs, shoulders, or sidewalks to drain low areas

Additional on-grade inlets will be spaced to meet the allowable spread criteria. The minimum
recommended capture efficiency for on-grade inlets is 70%.
Where curbs are used, runoff from cut slopes and areas off the right-of-way should, wherever
possible, be intercepted by ditches at the top of slopes or in a swale behind the curb. This
reduces the amount of water that has to be picked up by the inlets and the amount of mud and
debris carried onto the pavement.

7.3.3.4.3

Inlet Type

Select the type of inlet to best meet the design criteria, considering cost, hydraulic efficiency,
interference with traffic, pedestrian and bicycle safety, and debris clogging. Grate inlets, curbopening inlets, slotted drain pipe inlets, or a combination of curb opening and grate inlets may
be used for intercepting runoff. Some of the major operational characteristics for each inlet type
are provided below. Refer to the following FLH Standard Drawings list for general application of
Federal Lands inlets:

Type 1 Catch Basin Grate Inlet with a tilt-bar grate (Type A or B), intended for use ongrade in a curb and gutter section or in a ditch flow line

Type 2 Catch Basin with Down Drain Grate Inlet with a tilt-bar grate (Type A or B),
intended for use on-grade in a curb and gutter section, roadway in fill

Type 5A Inlet Grate Inlet with a P 2.5 x 4.25 [P 64 x 108] grate, for use on-grade or in
sags

Type 6B Inlet Grate inlet with a cast iron grate, for use in valley gutters or parabolic
ditches

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December 2012

Type 7A/B Inlet Grate inlet with wide bar-spacing, for use in a ditch flow line

Grate Inlets
Grate inlets consist of a collection box below the gutter, covered with a grate.

Continuous Grade

Grate inlets on a continuous grade will intercept all or nearly all of the gutter flow
passing over the grate, or the frontal flow. A portion of the flow along the side of
the grate will be intercepted, depending on the cross slope of the pavement, the
length of the grate and flow velocity.

On-grade grate inlets maintain interception capacity on steeper slopes.

Interception capacity of grate inlets is reduced by debris clogging.

The length of grate inlets is relatively inflexible. Increased length typically does
not significantly affect interception capacity

Sag Locations

A grate inlet in a sag location operates as a weir at shallow depths and as an

orifice at greater depths.

In a sag the length of the grate inlet can be varied to increase interception
capacity.

Interception capacity of grate inlets is reduced by debris clogging.

Curb-opening Inlets
Curb-opening inlets are vertical openings in the curb, covered by a top slab.

Curb-opening inlets are relatively free of clogging tendencies and offer little interference
to traffic operation.

Curb-opening inlets may be preferred over grate inlets in locations where grates would
be in traffic lanes or would be hazardous for pedestrians or bicyclists.

Curb-opening inlets are preferred on longitudinal grades 3 percent or less because of

decreasing capture capacity and efficiency at steeper grades.

Slotted Inlets
Slotted inlets consist of a pipe cut along its longitudinal axis with perpendicular bars used to
maintain a continuous opening.

Slotted inlets function in essentially the same manner as curb opening inlets on a
continuous grade.

Slotted drains are susceptible to clogging and can be difficult to maintain.

Due to the high potential for debris clogging, the use of slotted drain inlets located in
sags is discouraged.

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December 2012

Combination Inlets
Combinations of grate and curb-opening inlets can be used. Combination inlets can either be
equal-length or sweeper inlets, where the curb opening extends upstream of the grate.

Equal-length Combination Inlets

Equal-length combination inlets have both a grate and a curb opening, with the
same length.

Equal-length combination inlets on a continuous grade are not recommended

because the capacity is not appreciably greater than with the grate inlet alone.

Equal-length combination inlets are recommended in sag locations because of

increased capacity and the fact that the curb opening provides relief should the
grate inlet become clogged.

Sweeper Inlets

Sweeper inlets have both a grate and a curb opening, with the curb opening
being longer than the grate in the upstream direction.

Sweeper inlets on a continuous grade are relatively free of debris clogging

tendencies and can be used where increased interception efficiency is required.

Median and Roadside Ditch Inlets

Grate inlets similar to those used for pavement drainage may be used to drain medians
and roadside ditches. Additionally, since bicycle safety is typically not a factor at these
locations, these inlets/grates should provide maximum open area to minimize clogging
potential.

Grate inlets should be flush with the ditch bottom and cross drainage structures should
be continuous across the median unless the median width makes this impractical.

Ditches tend to erode at grate inlets. Paving around the inlets may help prevent erosion
and may increase the interception capacity of the inlet marginally by reducing bypass
flow.

Small dikes placed immediately downstream of median or ditch inlets can ensure
complete interception of the flow.

7.3.3.5

Bridge Deck Design Guidance

The hydraulic principles of bridge deck drainage are similar to roadway drainage principles. The
surface drainage, gutter flow and inlet design standards, criteria, and guidance provided in the
previous sections all apply to bridge deck drainage, but are complicated by the structural and
architectural requirements of bridges. The bridge deck inlets tend to be small to conform to
structural requirements and, as such, tend to clog easily. Down-drain pipes can detract from the
bridge aesthetics, and encased piping has serious maintenance considerations.
Wherever possible, do not design bridge deck profiles with sags or low points because small
inlet sizes and potential for debris clogging make them difficult to drain.
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December 2012

Wherever possible, design bridges to meet roadway drainage criteria without the use of bridge
deck inlets. Typically, bridges are built with uniform gutter geometry, as opposed to the more
effective composite gutter section. Where required by criteria, on-grade inlet spacing may be
determined both by allowable spread criteria and bridge pier spacing.
Roadway inlets should be placed up-gradient of bridges to reduce or eliminate runoff onto the
bridge deck.
Roadway inlets should also be placed down-gradient of bridges to capture runoff from the
bridge deck. This is especially critical where a curbed gutter section does not extend beyond
the bridge abutment. Concentrated runoff from the bridge deck in these situations could
precipitate erosion, which could cause damage to the abutment fill.

7.3.3.6

Recommended Methods

Design and evaluate the pavement drainage system performance according to the methods and
procedures presented in HEC 22 Urban Drainage Design Manual. For bridge deck drainage
design, HEC 21 Design of Bridge Deck Drainage is the recommended reference for information
on detailed design methods and procedures.

7.3.3.7

Reporting

The design of a roadway drainage facility should be supported by documentation containing, at

a minimum, the following information:

Project identification
Location of proposed installation
Roadway gradient and applicable cross section
Design discharge and frequency
Gutter discharge and spread calculations
Type and size of inlets
Inlet efficiency calculations
Data on intercepted and bypass flows

7.3.3.8

Plans

Design roadway drainage improvements to reflect the roadway gradient and cross sections
given on the plans. For the location and design of inlets, prepare plans showing all details
necessary to construct the improvements according to the hydraulic design, including the
following:

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Location
Type and size of inlets
Special structure details, if any
Drainage Summary Sheet

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Hydrology and Hydraulics

7.3.4

December 2012

STORM DRAINS

A storm drain is the portion of the roadway drainage system that receives runoff from multiple
inlets and conveys it through a series of pipes to an outfall. The design of storm drain systems
includes selecting the proper hydrologic method and recurrence interval, sizing the pipe,
locating access structures, determining energy losses, and computing the hydraulic gradeline to
determine free surface flow versus pressure flow.

7.3.4.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HEC 22

FHWA HEC 22, Urban Drainage Design Manual

2.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 13

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 13 Storm Drainage

Systems

3.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. IX

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume IX Storm

Drain Systems

4.

AISI Sewer Design

American Iron and Steel Institute, Modern Sewer Design

7.3.4.2

Design Standards

7.3.4.2.1

Capacity Design

Design Flood
The following design flood standards apply to both High- and Low-Standard roadways. Refer to
the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

On-Grade: 10-year flood

Sumps: 50-year flood

Roadway sumps are defined as deep roadway sags that must have storm drain systems to
outlet collected runoff and limit gutter depths.

7.3.4.3

Design Criteria

Design storm drains to flow full (i.e., no pressure) for the design event whenever possible.

7.3.4.3.1

Minimum Size

The minimum size for storm drain pipe is 15 [375 mm] or equivalent.
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7.3.4.3.2

December 2012

Minimum Slope

Design storm drains with slope sufficient to develop a self-cleaning velocity of 3 ft/s [0.9 m/s]
when flowing full (reference Table 7-7 in HEC 22). Slope less than 0.5% should be avoided for
constructability reasons.

7.3.4.3.3

Hydraulic Gradeline

Compute the hydraulic gradeline (HGL) over the full length of storm drains with four or more
inlets connected in series.
In storm drain sections where the hydraulic gradeline for the design flood must exceed the pipe
soffit (i.e., the pipe flows under pressure), the hydraulic gradeline for the design flood will remain
below the ground elevation at all inlets and access structures, and watertight gaskets should be
specified for the pipe joints.

7.3.4.3.4

Access Structures

Locate access structures to provide access for inspection and maintenance. Inlet structures are
considered access structures and should be designed accordingly. Access structures are
typically located based on maintenance requirements and at changes to the storm drain
alignment or profile, including locations where:

Two or more storm drains converge

Pipe size changes
Abrupt change in alignment occurs
Abrupt change in slope occurs
At intermediate points according to spacing given in Exhibit 7.3-A
Exhibit 7.3-A ACCESS STRUCTURE MAXIMUM SPACING

7.3.4.3.5

Pipe Size, in [mm]

Maximum Spacing, ft [m]

15 24 [375 600]

300 [90]

27 36 [675 900]

400 [120]

42 54 [1050 1350]

600 [180]

60 and up [1500 and up]

1000 [300]

Materials

Refer to Section 7.3.6 for standards and guidance regarding the selection of alternative
materials. All proposed storm drain installations will meet the selected design criteria regardless
of which alternative material is selected.

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7.3.4.4
7.3.4.4.1

December 2012

Design Guidance
Storm Drain Profile

Where practical, match the pipe soffit elevations (high point inside pipe) at all junctions, rather
than the pipe invert elevation. Invert elevations for same size pipes should be offset to account
for losses in access structures. This technique will help prevent backwater profiles from rising
and upstream velocities from decreasing.
Where possible, the pipe size should not decrease in the downstream direction, even though
the capacity of the smaller pipe may be greater due to a steep slope. Exceptions are to be
considered when tying into an existing system.
The storm drain profile should be designed as close to the surface as possible, taking minimum
cover depths and utility conflicts into consideration.

7.3.4.4.2

Hydraulic Gradeline

If the computed hydraulic gradeline is higher than allowed by criteria, energy losses can be
reduced by increasing the pipe size or designing more hydraulically efficient access structures.

7.3.4.4.3

Outlet Treatment

Use standard headwall/wing wall outlet treatment where applicable. Storm drain outlets will be
stable for the design discharge. Reference Section 7.3.5 for design of outlet protection, when
required.

7.3.4.5

Recommended Methods

Design and evaluate the storm drain system performance according to the methods presented
in HEC 22 Urban Drainage Design Manual, or approved equivalent.

7.3.4.6

Reporting

The design of the storm drain and evaluation of the hydraulic gradeline should be supported by
documentation containing, at a minimum, the following information:

Project identification
Location of proposed installation
Hydrologic design computations
Hydraulic design calculations

7.3.4.7

Plans

For the location and design of storm drains, prepare plans showing all details necessary to
construct the improvements according to the hydraulic design, including the following:
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December 2012

Size
Alignment
Length
Slope and inlet/outlet invert elevations
Inlet, access structure locations
Acceptable materials, including class, gauge, and any special coatings
Joint gasket treatments, if any
Outlet treatment

Information placed on the plans will include individual profile sheets showing design discharge,
drainage area, hydraulic gradeline, and any special access structure details. Show maximum
pipe cover, structure excavation, type of pipe (e.g., wall thickness, size, length), and acceptable
alternative pipe materials on Drainage Summary Sheet. End Treatments, energy dissipators, or
riprap must be shown. Include any necessary FLH Standard Drawings or special detail
drawings.

7.3.5

OUTLET PROTECTION

Local scour at culvert, ditch, and storm drain outlets is a common occurrence. The natural
runoff is usually confined to a lesser width and greater depth as it passes through a conveyance
system. An increased velocity results with potentially erosive capabilities at the conveyance
outlet. Turbulence and erosive eddies form also as the flow expands to conform to the natural
channel. In addition to the hydraulic characteristics of the flow at the outlet, the erosive
characteristics of the outlet channel bed and bank material, and the amount of sediment and
other debris in the flow are contributing factors to scour potential.
For most small outlets, riprap protection is sufficient to protect the structure and adjacent
property from being undermined by the scouring action of the expanding flow. The focus of this
section is on the design requirements for riprap outlet protection. If riprap protection is not
expected to contain the potential scour, or the outlet velocity is very high, an energy dissipator
may be appropriate. Refer to Section 7.4.9 for guidance on energy dissipators.

7.3.5.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HEC 14

FHWA HEC 14, Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators

for Culverts and Channels

2.

AASHTO HDG Vol. IV

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume IV

Hydraulic Design of Culverts

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7.3.5.2

December 2012

Design Standard

7.3.5.2.1

Stability Design

Outlet protection will be designed to meet the appropriate stability standards for the structures
they are intended to protect. Specific references to appropriate standards are provided below:
Culvert Outlets
Refer to Section 7.3.1.3.2.
Ditch Outlets
Refer to Section 7.3.2.2.2.
Storm Drain Outlets
Refer to Section 7.3.4.4.3.

7.3.5.3

Design Criteria

The general design criteria for riprap outlet protection are as follows:
Demonstrate that the riprap is reasonably expected to remain stable and to protect the facility
under worst-case conditions up through the stability design flood throughout its intended service
life.
Provide appropriate termination details to prevent undermining or flanking of the riprap by scour
and erosion processes beyond the protection itself. Riprap intended to prevent local scour, for
instance, must be protected from undermining by long-term degradation.

7.3.5.4

Design Guidance

In order to release storm water discharge to a stable outlet, there are several alternatives for
outlet protection:

no protection required (no scour potential or expected scour can be tolerated)

riprap outlet protection (standard outlet treatment)
minimal outlet protection with performance monitoring
formal energy dissipator

Riprap protection at culvert, ditch, and storm drain outlets is appropriate where moderate outlet
velocities exist. At some locations, the use of a roughened perimeter within the conveyance
structure, upstream of the outlet, may alleviate the need for special outlet protection.

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7.3.5.5

December 2012

Recommended Methods

Design and evaluate the performance of energy dissipators according to the methods presented
in HEC 14. HEC 14 also contains procedures for estimating scour hole dimensions at pipe
outlets.

7.3.5.6

Reporting

The design of outlet protection for culvert, ditch, or storm drain outlets should be supported by
documentation containing, at a minimum, the following information:

Project identification
Location of proposed installation
Hydraulic design calculations

7.3.5.7

Plans

For the location and design of riprap outlet protection, prepare plans showing all details
necessary to construct the improvements according to the hydraulic design, including the
following:

Location
Dimensions and extent of riprap
Gradation
Bedding and Filter Material or Geotextile
Grading or slope details

7.3.6

ALTERNATIVE PIPE MATERIALS

It is Federal Lands Highway policy to specify alternative drainage pipe materials on all projects
where feasible and to comply with the provisions of 23 CFR 635.411. All suitable pipe
materials, including reinforced concrete, steel, aluminum, and plastic will be considered as
alternatives for all new cross culverts and storm drain pipes on Federal Lands Highway projects.
Not all pipe materials are appropriate or applicable for all storm drain applications. The design
of alternative drainage pipe materials should consider functionally equivalent performance in
three areas: structural capacity, durability and service life, and hydraulic capacity. The service
life and hydraulic capacity issues are addressed in this section.

7.3.6.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

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23 CFR 635.411

Title 23 CFR 635.411 in 23 CFR 635D, General Material

Requirements
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December 2012

2.

FHWA-FLP-91-006

FHWA, Durability of Special Coatings for Corrugated Steel Pipe,

FHWA FLP-91-006

3.

FHWA-RD-97-140

FHWA, Durability Analysis of Aluminized Type 2 Corrugated

Metal Pipe, FHWA RD-97-140, 2000.

4.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. IV

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume IV Hydraulic

Design of Culverts

5.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. XIV

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume XIV Culvert

Inspection and Rehabilitation

6.

Caltrans Chapter
850

California Department of Transportation Highway Design Manual,

Chapter 850 Physical Standards

7.3.6.2
7.3.6.2.1

Design Standards
Service Life

Design cross culvert and storm drain pipes with a minimum maintenance-free service life of 50years, regardless of pipe material selection. A shorter service life may be used for temporary
installations, and a longer service life may be considered in unusual situations.

7.3.6.2.2

Minimum Pipe Classification

Use Class II as the minimum for all reinforced concrete pipes. Determine appropriate pipe class
from FLH fill height FLH Standard Drawings.
Use a minimum wall thickness of 0.0625 [1.63 mm] for all steel and aluminum pipes. The
appropriate minimum structural metal thickness will be determined from approved FLH fill height
tables.

7.3.6.3
7.3.6.3.1

Design Guidance
Service Life

The durability and service life of a storm drain pipe is directly related to the environmental
conditions encountered at the site and the type of materials and coatings from which the pipe
was fabricated. The two primary causes of early failure in drainage pipe materials are corrosion
and abrasion.
Corrosion gradually wears away at the pipe walls by chemical action, and can occur from both
the soil and water sides of the pipe. Abrasion wears away at the interior pipe wall by friction
from suspended or bed-load sediment.

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7.3.6.3.2

December 2012

Data Collection

Corrosion
Representative pH and resistivity determinations are required in order to specify pipe materials
capable of providing a maintenance-free service life. Samples are taken in accordance with the
procedures described in AASHTO T 288 and T 289. Samples should be taken from both the
soil and water side environments to ensure that the most severe environmental conditions are
selected for determining the service life of the drainage pipe. Soil samples should be
representative of backfill material anticipated at the drainage site. Avoid taking water samples
during flood flows or for two days following flood flows to ensure more typical readings. In
locations where streams are dry much of the year, water samples may not be possible or
necessary. In areas of known uniform pH and resistivity readings, a random sampling plan may
be developed to obtain the needed information.
In corrosive soil conditions where water side corrosion is not a factor, consider specifying less
corrosive backfill material to modify the soil side environment. The mitigating effect of the
specified backfill should be taken into account in making alternative pipe materials selections in
situations where the soil side conditions control the design.
Abrasion
An estimate of the potential for abrasion is required in order to determine the need for invert
protection. Four levels of abrasion are referred to in this guidance and the following guidelines
are established for each level:

Level 1. Nonabrasive conditions exist in areas of no bed load and very low velocities.
This is the condition assumed for the soil side of drainage pipes.

Level 2. Low abrasive conditions exist in areas of minor bed loads of sand and
velocities of 5 ft/s [1.5 m/s] or less.

Level 3. Moderate abrasive conditions exist in areas of moderate bed loads of sand and
gravel and velocities between 5 ft/s and 15 ft/s [1.5 m/s and 4.5 m/s].

Level 4. Severe abrasive conditions exist in areas of heavy bed loads of sand, gravel,
and rock and velocities exceeding 15 ft/s [4.5 m/s].

Abrasion levels are intended as guidance to help the engineer consider the impacts of bed-load
wear on the invert of pipe materials. Sampling of the streambed materials is not required, but
visual examination and documentation of the size of the materials in the stream bed and the
average slope of the channel will give the designer guidance on the expected level of abrasion.
Where existing culverts are in place in the same drainage, the conditions of inverts should also
be used as guidance. The expected stream velocity should be based upon a typical flow (i.e.,
2-year flow and less) and not a 10-or 50-year design flood.

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7.3.6.3.3

December 2012

Reinforced Concrete Pipe

Reinforced concrete pipe (AASHTO M 170M) is typically specified as an alternative whenever

environmental conditions permit. The appropriate pipe class is determined from approved FLH
fill height FLH Standard Drawings. If the following guidance on corrosion and abrasion
limitations is used, reinforced concrete pipe can be assumed to have a minimum service life of
50 years.
Corrosion
Reinforced concrete pipe should not be specified for extremely corrosive conditions where the
pH is less than 3.0 and the resistivity is less than 300 -cm. Where the pH is less than 4.0, or
the pipe is exposed to wetting and drying in a salt or brackish water environment, protective
coatings (e.g., epoxy resin mortars, poly vinyl chloride sheets) should be used. When the
sulfate concentration is greater than 0.2% in the soil or 2,000 parts per million in the water, Type
V cement should be specified. When the sulfate concentration is greater than 1.5% in the soil
or 15,000 parts per million in the water, Type V cement should be used with a sulfate resistant
pozzolan. A higher cement ratio may also be used (e.g., AASHTO Class V pipe design).
Abrasion
On installations in severe abrasive environments, consider using seven or eight sack concrete
or increasing the cover over the reinforcing steel.

7.3.6.3.4

Steel Pipe with Metallic Coatings

Steel pipe will typically be specified as an alternative when the environmental conditions permit.
The appropriate minimum structural metal thickness is determined from approved FLH fill height
tables. Federal Lands Highway design policy assumes that steel pipe will provide a useful,
maintenance-free service life for a period of time beyond the point of first perforation. This
assumes an acceptable risk for most Federal Lands Highway projects, but at locations with
erodible soils, large traffic volumes, or high fills where replacement or repair would be unusually
difficult or expensive, consider increasing the steel plate by one standard thickness. In unusual
situations where very high fills and severe abrasion are combined, or where other environmental
concerns would make replacement of a pipe culvert very costly or impractical, consider using a
pipe one size larger in diameter to permit re-lining in the future by insertion of another pipe.
The following types of steel pipe with metallic coatings are considered as alternatives on
Federal Lands Highway projects:

Galvanized steel (AASHTO M 218)

Aluminum coated steel (Type 2) (AASHTO M 274)

Corrosion
Under non-abrasive and low-abrasive conditions, the service life of steel pipe with metallic
coatings may be determined based upon corrosion (i.e., pH and resistivity) factors determined
from Exhibit 7.3-B, which shows the relationship between service life and corrosion for plain
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December 2012

galvanized steel pipe. It has been adapted from the California Department of Transportation
Method for Estimating the Service Life of Steel Culverts, California Test 643. The curves have
been modified to show the expected average service life of pipe with a steel thickness of
0.0625 [1.63 mm] assuming a useful, maintenance-free service life 25 percent longer than the
number of years to first perforation. Under moderate and severe abrasive conditions, abrasion
protection must also be considered.
Under nonabrasive and low abrasive conditions, the metal thickness of galvanized and
aluminum coated steel (Type 2) alternatives should be determined from Exhibit 7.3-B based on
the resistivity and pH of the site. The minimum metal thickness of steel pipe, as determined
from FLH standard fill height tables, may have to be increased, or the additional life of a
protective coating may have to be added, in order to provide a 50-year service life. The results
included in FHWA-FLP-91-006 indicate that within the environmental range of 5.0 through
9.0 pH and resistivity equal to or greater than 1500 -cm, aluminum coated steel (Type 2) can
be expected to give a service life of twice that of plain galvanized pipe.
Exhibit 7.3-B can be used to determine various combinations of increased thicknesses,
aluminum coated steel (Type 2), and protective coatings to achieve a 50-year service life, but in
no case may the metal thickness specified by the structural requirements be reduced.
Abrasion
Under nonabrasive and low abrasive conditions, the metal thickness of the galvanized,
galvalume, and aluminum coated steel alternatives, as determined from Exhibit 7.3-B, should be
used.
On installations in moderate abrasive environments where protective coatings are not required
for corrosion protection, the thickness of the metal should be increased by one standard metal
pipe thickness determined from the diagram for average service life of plain galvanized culverts
(see Exhibit 7.3-B) or invert protection should be provided. Invert protection may consist of
bituminous coating with invert paving with bituminous concrete, Portland cement concrete lining,
installation of metal plates or rails, or velocity reduction structures.
On installations in severe abrasive environments where protective coatings are not required for
corrosion protection, the thickness of the metal should be increased by one standard metal pipe
thickness determined from the diagram for average service life of plain galvanized culverts (see
Exhibit 7.3-B) and invert protection should be provided. Invert protection may consist of
installation of metal plates or rails, or velocity reduction structures.
Protective coatings are not suitable for corrosion protection in moderate-abrasive and severe
abrasive locations. Metal pipes should not be specified in moderate and severe abrasive
environments where coatings are required to protect against water-side corrosion.

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FACTOR

THICKNESS, inch
GAGE
THICKNESS, mm
1.0

1.2

0.079
14
2.01
1.7

0.109
12
2.77
2.2

0.138
10
3.51

2.6

0.168
8
4.27

Note: Multiply the average Service Life by the

Thickness Factor

0.8

0.064
16
1.63

THICKNESS FACTORS

0.052
18
1.32

3. Under conditions with pH between 5 and 9, and above R 1500, the

average service life determined for plain galvanized culverts should
be multiplied by 2.0 for Aluminum coated steel, (Type 2).

2. The Chart has also been modified to reflect a minimum metal

thickness of 0.064 inch or 16 gage [1.63 mm]

1. The curves in this Chart are based on the data in FHWA-FLP-91-006

which uses the factors in California Test 643, Method for Estimating
the Service Life of Steel Culverts. These factors increased the
estimated service life by 25% after first perforation.

NOTES:

Service Life Estimation Chart for Average Service Life of Plain Galvanized Culverts

FEDERAL LANDS HIGHWAY MODIFIED CALIFORNIA METHOD CHART FOR

ESTIMATING SERVICE LIFE OF PLAIN GALVANIZED STEEL CULVERTS

Hydrology and Hydraulics

December 2012

Exhibit 7.3-B ESTIMATING STEEL PIPE SERVICES LIFE

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7.3.6.3.5

December 2012

Non-Metallic Protective Coatings for Steel Pipe

Protective coatings may be used to provide additional protection from corrosion or abrasion
resulting in an extended service life. Coatings to protect against corrosion may only be used in
non-abrasive and low abrasive environments.
The additional service life noted below in bold for each type of protective coating, for corrosion
protection, are from Part V of FHWA-FLP-91-006. The added service is applicable only to nonabrasive and moderate abrasive conditions. All of the following types of steel pipe with nonmetallic coatings are considered as alternatives on Federal Lands Highway projects:
Bituminous coating
Bituminous coatings (AASHTO M 190) can be expected to add 10 years of service to the water
side and 25 years life to the soil side service life of pipe as determined from Exhibit 7.3-B.
Bituminous-coated pipe should not be used in low abrasive environments.
Bituminous paving and coating
Bituminous paved invert with bituminous coatings (AASHTO M 190) can be expected to add
25 years life to water side locations. Under moderate abrasive conditions, bituminous paved
pipe may be used for invert protection where corrosion protection is not required.
Concrete lining
Concrete lining (ASTM A 849) can be expected to add 25 years of service life. Due to the
natural cracking of concrete, the concrete lining should be applied over an asphalt coating if
corrosion protection is needed. Under moderate abrasive conditions, concrete lined pipe may
be used for invert protection where corrosion protection is not required.
Polymer coating
Ethylene Acrylic Acid Film coatings (AASHTO M245 and M246) should provide an additional
30 years service life with a 0.009 [0.25 mm] thickness.
Aramid fiber bonded coating
Only limited data is available for the service life of aramid fiber bonded coated (ASTM A 885)
and epoxy coated pipes. No additional service life is currently credited with this policy.

7.3.6.3.6

Aluminum Alloy Pipe

Aluminum alloy pipe (AASHTO M 196M) will typically be specified as an alternative when
environmental conditions permit. The appropriate minimum structural metal thickness is
determined from approved FLH fill height tables. Within the following limits of corrosion and
abrasion, aluminum alloy pipe can be assumed to have a service life of 50 years. Additional
service life may be achieved where required by abrasion with the addition of protective coatings
or additional metal thickness as discussed below:
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December 2012

Corrosion
An aluminum alloy should be allowed if the pH is between four and nine and the resistivity is
greater than 500 -cm. An aluminum alloy alternative can also be considered for use in salt
and brackish environments when embedded in granular, free draining material.
Abrasion
On installations in non-abrasive and low-abrasive environments, abrasion protection is not
required.
On installations in moderately abrasive environments, the thickness should be increased by one
standard metal thickness or invert protection should be used. Invert protection may consist of
bituminous coating and invert paving with bituminous concrete or Portland cement concrete,
installation of metal plates or rails, or velocity reduction structures.
On installations in severe abrasive environments, the thickness of the metal should be
increased by one standard metal pipe thickness from that determined for low-abrasive
conditions and invert protection should be provided. Invert protection may consist of installation
of metal plates or rails or velocity reduction structures.

7.3.6.3.7

Plastic Pipe

Polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride plastic pipe may be specified as alternatives for pipe
diameters and minimum resin cell classifications shown in the AASHTOs Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges, Division I Design, Section 18, Soil Thermoplastic Pipe
Interaction Systems. The thickness of the plastic alternatives must meet the structural
requirements of AASHTOs Standard Specifications. The assumed service life of plastic pipe
designed in accordance with AASHTO Section 18 is 50 years. The maximum allowable fill
heights for pipe materials listed below is determined from approved FLH standard fill-height
tables which include the following plastic pipe materials:

Smooth wall polyethylene (ASTM F 714)

Corrugated polyethylene (AASHTO M 294)
Ribbed polyethylene (ASTM F 894)
Smooth wall polyvinyl chloride (AASHTO M 278 and ASTM F 679)
Ribbed polyvinyl chloride (AASHTO M304 and ASTM F 794)

Corrosion
Plastic alternatives may be specified without regard to the resistivity and pH of the site.
Abrasion
Under nonabrasive and low-abrasive conditions, polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride alternatives
should be allowed. Plastic alternatives should not be used under moderate and severe abrasive
conditions without invert protection.

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December 2012

Maximum Size
Limit the size of plastic pipe to 48 [1200 mm] under mainline roads.
The locations selected for use of plastic pipes should address partner agency concerns of
possible damage due to fire, ultraviolet sunlight, and rodents.

7.3.6.4

Recommended Methods

Design and evaluate the design service life for galvanized steel culvert and storm drain pipes by
the Modified California method presented in Exhibit 7.3B. Refer to FHWA-RD-97-140, Durability
Analysis of Aluminized Type 2 Corrugated Metal Pipe, for design guidance on aluminized
material.

7.3.6.5

Reporting

Documentation of the design service life of culvert and storm drain pipes should be included in
the design reporting.

7.3.6.6

Plans

For culvert and storm drain pipes, include information on pipe material, size, class, gauge, and
any special coatings in the Plan Drainage Summary.

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7.4

December 2012

RIVER HYDRAULICS

7.4.1

FLOODPLAIN ENCROACHMENTS

When a Federal Lands Highway project involves an encroachment on a base (100-year)

floodplain, the location and design of the project must comply with FHWA Policy 23 CFR 650A,
Location and Design of Encroachments on Flood Plains. This section identifies the standards
and criteria arising from this policy and their applicability (see Section 7.4.1.2). It also provides
guidelines for ensuring compliance.
Typically, one is referring to the standards and criteria of this section because of direction
received from another section within this chapter that involves floodplain encroachments (e.g.,
bridges, culverts, etc.). Such direction is given when a proposed project includes a new or
expanded encroachment on a base floodplain regulated by the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA), or contains the potential for adversely impacting private property
or insurable buildings on or near a base floodplain, as defined below.

7.4.1.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

23 CFR 650A

FHWA Policy 23 CFR 650 Subpart A, Location and Design of

Encroachments on Flood Plains

2.

NS 23 CFR 650A

Federal-Aid Policy Guide, Non-regulatory Supplement to Title 23

CFR 650 Subpart A, Attachment 2, Procedures for Coordinating
Highway Encroachments on Floodplains with Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA)

3.

44 CFR
Subchapter B

Code of Federal Regulations, 44 CFR Sections 59 to 77,

National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP)

4.

HEC 17

FHWA HEC 17, The Design of Encroachments on Flood Plains

using Risk Analysis

5.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 2

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 2 - Legal Aspects,

Section 2.5 National Flood Insurance Program

6.

AASHTO HDG Vol. I AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume I Hydraulic

Considerations in Highway Planning and Location

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7.4.1.2

December 2012

Standard Practices

If a proposed project includes a new or expanded encroachment on a FEMA regulated base

floodplain, or contains the potential for adversely impacting private property or insurable
buildings on or near the base floodplain, the design will comply with the FEMA standards and
criteria used to administer the National Flood Insurance Program in accordance with 23 CFR
650A, Section 650.115(a)(5), in addition to the other applicable standards and criteria contained
within this chapter. These standards and criteria apply as minimums, regardless of the
hydraulic structure proposed or the encroachment type (i.e., transverse or longitudinal).
For the purposes of this chapter, adverse impacts to private property or insurable buildings will
be defined, respectively, as follows:

Damage to existing real or fixed private property, caused directly by the project during a
100-year flood, over the service life of the project

Increased 100-year water-surface elevations that impact existing, insurable buildings

If a FEMA map revision request is anticipated, project management will be notified immediately
to determine how the coordination process will be handled, and how a revision will be
developed (e.g., development and evaluation of alternatives). The revision request will receive
concurrence from Federal Lands Highway, the project partner, and the local floodplain
administrator.

7.4.1.3

Design Standards

7.4.1.3.1

Capacity Design

Design Flood
Design the encroachment using the 100-year (base) flood.
Check Flood
Use the overtopping flood for evaluating encroachment impacts. If the overtopping flood is less
than the base flood, or so large as to not be practicable, then use the greatest flood that may be
reasonably estimated to pass through the structure, such as the 500-year flood, as the check
flood.

7.4.1.3.2

Survey and Mapping

When survey is needed to quantify hydraulic impacts, refer to Chapter 5 for standards on survey
for floodplain mapping.

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7.4.1.4
7.4.1.4.1

December 2012

Design Criteria
FEMA Regulated Base Floodplain

With Detailed Study (i.e., FIRM or FBFM map, report, and modeling information available)

Floodway defined Do not encroach upon floodway (bridge piers excepted)

No Floodway defined Do not exceed 1 ft [0.3 m] rise (or local standard if more strict)

No Detailed Study (i.e., FHBM map available)

Do not exceed 1 ft [0.3 m] rise based on own pre- and post-project water-surface profile
models

7.4.1.4.2

Unregulated Base Floodplain

Do not exceed 1 ft [0.3 m] rise based on own pre- and post-project water-surface profile models.

7.4.1.5
7.4.1.5.1

Design Guidance
Floodplains Identified on NFIP Maps

Where National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) maps are available, their use is mandatory in
determining whether the project will involve an encroachment upon a base floodplain. If a
particular encroachment cannot be designed to meet FEMA standards and criteria, then
coordination with FEMA is necessary, as described in the Non-Regulatory Supplement,
Attachment 2 (NS 23 CFR 650A).
An encroachment upon a base floodplain identified on NFIP maps, for which a regulatory
floodway has been established, will be considered consistent with NFIP standards and criteria if
the highway and structure components are kept outside the regulatory floodway. An
encroachment having components other than bridge piers within the regulatory floodway should
be avoided wherever practicable.
If an encroachment upon a regulatory floodway cannot be avoided, it will be designed to cause
no rise in the floodway profile. The floodplain administrator of each affected local community
must be contacted and must concur that the project, as designed, will cause no rise in the base
flood profile. An example of this is a project to replace an existing low-water crossing in a
regulatory floodway with higher road profile and a bridge. Unless the new bridge is built with
both abutments outside the floodway, then the higher-profile embankment leading to the bridge
constitutes an encroachment upon the floodway.
An encroachment upon a base floodplain identified on NFIP maps, for which no regulatory
floodway has been established, will be designed to cause no more than 1.0 ft [0.3 m] rise in the
base flood profile, unless more strict local criteria are applicable and appropriate. Many states,
counties, and municipalities have ordinances mandating more restrictive criteria than those

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December 2012

listed above. It is imperative to determine the extent and nature of state, county and municipal
floodplain regulations early in the reconnaissance and scoping phase of the project.

7.4.1.5.2

Coordination with FEMA

Coordination with FEMA is required when the project includes an encroachment upon a base
floodplain identified by NFIP maps and the applicable standards and criteria cannot be satisfied.
Typically, the coordination includes a map revision request in order to incorporate changes to
the effective water-surface profile model; increases to the base flood profile, floodway profile, or
base flood inundation limits; or to revise the regulatory floodway encroachment limits.
Whenever a project requires a physical map revision, a Conditional Letter of Map Revision
(CLOMR) will be submitted to FEMA and their approval received prior to construction. Once the
construction is completed, a survey may be required to verify that the project was constructed
as represented in the CLOMR request, and a Letter of Map Revision (LOMR) will typically be
requested.
When a project includes an encroachment upon a regulatory floodway and the no-rise criteria
cannot be met, NFIP regulations mandate that a CLOMR request pursuant to 44 CFR
Subchapter B Section 65.12 (Revision of flood insurance rate maps to reflect base flood
elevations caused by proposed encroachments) be submitted to and approved by FEMA prior to
construction of the project. When an encroachment meets FEMA/local standards and criteria
on a base floodplain with a detailed regulatory study, FEMA, or the local floodplain administrator
may request to obtain a copy of the updated water-surface profile model and study report.
Failure to comply with these regulations can lead to NFIP program sanctions against the
affected local community.

7.4.1.5.3

Role of Community Floodplain Administrators

The responsibility for enforcing floodplain regulations lies with the local community (state,
county, or municipality) having land use jurisdiction. This is true for floodplains identified by
NFIP maps and those not included in the NFIP. The regulations of relevant local communities
must be examined early in the reconnaissance and scoping phase of the project. Coordination
with FEMA on a given project usually implies and includes coordination with the floodplain
administrator of the local community. If a project requires revisions to the NFIP maps, for
example, the revision request must be approved by the community floodplain administrator. It is
important, therefore, to identify the names and contact information of the floodplain
administrators of the communities affected by a project early, and to remain in frequent contact
with the floodplain administrators as the project progresses.

7.4.1.6

Reporting

The reporting requirements for this section will be consistent with those applicable to the
encroachment or structure type, as described in other sections of this chapter.

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7.4.1.7

December 2012

Plans

Show the following information in the project plans for encroachment structures:

The magnitude, approximate probability of exceedance and, at appropriate locations, the

water-surface elevations associated with the overtopping flood or the largest flood that
may be reasonably estimated, such as the 500-year flood

The magnitude and water-surface elevation of the base flood, if larger than the
overtopping flood

7.4.2

SCOUR AND STREAM STABILITY

Any crossing of, or encroachment onto a natural river, stream or floodplain by a highway facility
calls for an evaluation of the scour potential and the stability of the stream. This section
identifies key technical references for assessment of scour and stream stability and provides
some specific guidance for application to Federal Lands Highway projects.

7.4.2.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

T 5140.23

Technical Advisory T 5140.23, Evaluating Scour at Bridges, 1991

2.

HDS 6

FHWA HDS 6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments,

FHWA NHI-01-004, 2001

3.

HEC 18

FHWA HEC 18, Evaluating Scour at Bridges, FHWA HIF-12-003,

2012

4.

HEC 20

FHWA HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway Structures, FHWA

HIF-12-004, 2012

5.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23, Bridge Scour and Stream

Countermeasures, FHWA NHI-09-111 and 112, 2009

6.

FHWA RD-86-126

FHWA Report Number RD-86-126, Development of a

Methodology for Estimating Embankment Damage Due to Flood
Overtopping, 1987

7.

NCHRP 533

NCHRP Report 533, Handbook for Predicting Stream Meander

Migration, 2004

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Instability

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7.4.2.2

December 2012

Standard Practices

The potential for scour and stream instability will be considered when designing highway
facilities that interface with natural rivers, streams, or floodplains. Accordingly, an assessment or
evaluation of the potential for scour and stream instability will be conducted at a level
commensurate with the risk of damage to the facility. The design will protect the highway facility
from stream instability and scour at an appropriate level, in accordance with the applicable
sections of Chapter 7 for each type of drainage structure or facility.

7.4.2.3

Design Standards and Criteria

Select the design standards and criteria for stability against scour and stream instability in
accordance with the applicable sections of Chapter 7, as referenced below:

Bridge foundations, see Section 7.4.3

Embankment stability in overtopping, see Section 7.4.3
Longitudinal embankments, see Section 7.4.4
Retaining walls, see Section 7.4.5
Low water crossings, see Section 7.4.6
Channel changes, see Section 7.4.7
Scour and stream instability countermeasures, see Section 7.4.8

7.4.2.4

Design Guidance

7.4.2.4.1

General Approach to Stream Stability and Scour Analysis

HEC 20 describes the systematic analysis approach as having three levels, progressing from
simple concepts and qualitative assessment to detailed numerical and physical modeling:
Level 1: Application of simple geomorphic concepts and other qualitative assessment methods.
Level 2: (if necessary after Level 1 assessment) Application of basic hydrologic, hydraulic, and
sediment transport engineering concepts.
Level 3: (if necessary after Level 2 analysis) Application of detailed numerical or physical
modeling studies.
In the majority of cases, the Level 2 analysis will provide a reliable, somewhat conservative
evaluation of the potential threat from scour and stream instability. The design of the facility can
then account for and protect against the threat. In such cases a Level 3 analysis is not required.
Certain circumstances may justify a Level 3 study. Some examples are listed below:

The hydraulics of the site are too complex for one-dimensional analysis and a twodimensional model is required (see Section 7.4.3)

The scour estimates are too conservative to be practicably accommodated in design and
refined approaches are needed, such as:

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December 2012

Conducting physical modeling to represent site-specific conditions

The scour will potentially be arrested or reduced by a scour-resistant horizon (e.g.

bedrock, sandstone, shale, or stiff clay) and an assessment of the erodibility of the
material is justified

The degradation potential may be too complex for simple analysis and a sediment
transport modeling study is justified

7.4.2.4.2

Scour Components

The analysis of scour potential at a bridge or other highway facility should consider several
scour components, generalized as follows:

Long-term bed elevation change

General scour
Contraction scour
Local scour

Long-Term Bed Elevation Change

Aggradation and degradation are the vertical raising and lowering, respectively, of the
streambed over relatively long distances and time frames. Such changes can be the result of
both natural and man-induced changes in the watershed. Long-term bed change can occur in
perennial streams that flow year round and in ephemeral desert arroyos. Its progression can
take many forms, such as headcuts (vertical channel bed discontinuities) migrating upstream,
progressive incision of a low-flow channel, or gradual lowering or raising across the streambed
over time. Evaluation of the potential for long-term aggradation or degradation must consider
the effects of a range of flow conditions over a long period of time, rather than focusing solely on
the effect of a single event. HEC 20 provides extensive guidance on evaluating the potential for
long-term bed change.
General Scour
General scour is a lowering of the channel bed elevation due to the natural downstream
sediment transport capacity of a stream. Physical changes to the stream environment are not
required to produce general scour. Common examples of general scour that occurs naturally
are scour at the outside of a channel bend, scour at a confluence of two streams, and scour that
occurs due to a change in stream gradient. For design purposes, general scour is usually
evaluated on an event-specific basis, considering one or more flood conditions. Guidance on
evaluating the potential for general scour is available in HDS 6, HEC 18, HEC 20, and HEC 23.
Contraction Scour
Contraction scour is a specific type of general scour that results when the flow area is
constricted, for example when a bridged waterway has less flow area under the bridge than
upstream. Its effects are usually localized in the vicinity of the constriction. Contraction scour is
event-specific and is usually analyzed for one or more flood conditions (e.g. the stability design
flood and check flood). HEC 18 provides detailed guidance on evaluating contraction scour.
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Local Scour
The scour caused by, and in the immediate vicinity of an obstruction such as a bridge pier or
abutment is referred to as local scour. Local scour can also be caused by other localized
conditions, such as high-velocity flow impinging on a wall, sudden drops, or scour at the tip of a
spur. Local scour is usually evaluated on an event-specific basis considering one or more flood
conditions (e.g. the stability design flood and check flood). Local scour at bridges can be
evaluated using the guidance of HEC 18. The evaluation of local scour in other contexts is
aided by the guidance in HDS 6, HEC 20, and HEC 23.

7.4.2.4.3

Lateral Migration

Lateral migration of the stream channel is another potential long-term threat to highway
facilities. Lateral migration can undermine bridge abutments, piers, embankments, retaining
walls, and other facilities that were originally located at the top of the channel bank or set back
from the channel. If lateral migration is a potential threat to a highway facility, the design should
accommodate the channel migration by providing adequate foundation depth or should prevent
the migration by the use of appropriate countermeasures. HEC 20 and NCHRP 533 provide
guidance on evaluating and predicting meander migration. HEC 23 provides guidance on
designing stream instability countermeasures.

7.4.2.4.4

Bridge Scour

Reference Elevations
Use the lowest channel bed elevation as the pier scour reference elevation for all main channel
bridge piers, unless non-erodible material allows otherwise. Use the main channel hydraulic
input variables and reference elevation for piers located outside but near the main channel,
when the potential for channel migration exists. Use the lowest channel bed elevation as the
abutment scour reference elevation for abutments located in or adjacent to the main channel,
unless non-erodible material allows otherwise.
Debris at Piers
Consider the potential for debris to accumulate on the piers during a flood. If the potential is
moderate to high, account for the debris by artificially increasing the pier width in the scour
calculations or by some other rational approach.
Abutment Scour
If accommodating the computed local abutment scour depth in the foundation design is not
practicable, consider using an abutment scour countermeasure to prevent the formation of the
local scour. If a countermeasure is used, then design the abutment foundation to accommodate
the sum of the estimated contraction scour and long-term degradation.

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7.4.2.4.5

December 2012

Incipient Motion

Chapter 5 of HEC 18 provides a critical velocity equation to determine whether the scour
conditions are live-bed or clear-water. This equation is generally reliable for sand-bed channels.
It is not always reliable for coarse bed material such as gravel or cobbles. To determine whether
clear-water or live-bed conditions apply at a site with coarse bed material, consider developing a
modified critical velocity equation using the detailed derivation data provided in Appendix C of
HEC 18.

7.4.2.4.6

Sediment Transport Modeling

Sediment transport modeling (sediment routing analyses) is a Level 3 approach that is

warranted only rarely. It is an appropriate approach when the Level 2 methods are producing
results that are obviously too conservative. When sediment transport modeling is being
considered, the context is usually a perceived threat of the long-term degradation component of
total scour.
Commonly used sediment transport modeling programs include:

BRI-STARS, available from the FHWA

HEC-6, available from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

When undertaking sediment transport modeling, the engineer must take care to calibrate the
model and should apply extensive engineering judgment to the interpretation and use of the
results.

7.4.2.5

Recommended Methods

The methodologies described in HEC 18 and HEC 20 provide a systematic approach to

evaluating scour potential and assessing stream instability and should be followed wherever
practicable.

7.4.2.6

Reporting

In addition to the reporting requirements described in Section 7.1.11, the following items are
required when scour evaluation, stream stability analysis, or sediment transport analysis have
been performed.

Sediment gradation curves

Scour components investigated

Scour equations/approach used

Hydraulic input variable values (e.g. velocity, depth, and angle of attack) for scour
calculations

Sediment transport modeling assumptions, if applicable

Calibration results

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December 2012

Sediment sampling locations and frequencies, if sediment transport calculations were

performed

Sediment transport function used, if sediment transport calculations were performed

Findings, conclusions, and recommendations

7.4.3

BRIDGED WATERWAYS

This section applies to the hydraulic design of waterway crossings involving bridges. For the
purposes of this section, bridges are defined as structures that consist of a superstructure or
deck supported by abutments, with or without piers, usually with an open bottom. This section
typically does not apply to closed-bottom culverts even if their total span is greater than or equal
to 20 ft [6.1 m].

7.4.3.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

23 CFR 650A

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 23, Part 650 Subpart A,

Location and Hydraulic Design of Encroachments on Flood
Plains

2.

NS 23 CFR 650A

Federal-Aid Policy Guide, Non-regulatory Supplement to Title 23

CFR 650 Subpart A, Attachment 2, Procedures for Coordinating
Highway Encroachments on Floodplains with Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA)

3.

T 5140.23

Technical Advisory T 5140.23, Evaluating Scour at Bridges, 1991

4.

HDS 7

FHWA HDS 7, Hydraulic Design of Safe Bridges, 2012

5.

HEC 18

FHWA HEC 18, Evaluating Scour at Bridges

6.

HEC 20

FHWA HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway Structures

7.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

8.

HEC-RAS

USACE HEC-RAS, Hydraulic Reference Manual

9.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. VII

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume VII Hydraulic

Analysis for the Location and Design of Bridges

10.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. VIII

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume VIII Hydraulic

Aspects in Restoration and Upgrading of Highways

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Bridge

Scour

and

Stream

Instability

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11.

Guide to Bridge
Hydraulics

7.4.3.2
7.4.3.2.1

December 2012

Transportation
Hydraulics

Association

of

Canada,

Guide

to

Bridge

Standard Practices
Floodplain Encroachments

If a waterway crossing constitutes a new or expanded encroachment on a base (100-year)

floodplain that is regulated by FEMA or potentially creates an adverse impact to private property
or insurable buildings, reference Section 7.4.1 for details on appropriate design policy,
standards, and criteria, as well as guidance on FEMA coordination, if required.

7.4.3.2.2

Existing Bridges

Known Scour Problems

An appropriate scour analysis will be conducted on any existing bridge within the project limits
that has known scour problems or concerns and has not had such an analysis conducted
previously. This will be done regardless of the project type. The bridge owner will be informed
of the results of the scour analysis and asked to update National Bridge Inventory, Item 113,
accordingly.
Substantial Rehabilitation
To identify hydraulic consequences of proposed work, conduct full capacity and stability
analyses on any bridge that is to be substantially rehabilitated. Substantial rehabilitation is
defined as the addition or modification of a foundation element, any work that reduces the
hydraulic opening of the bridge, or any work that changes the flow distribution at the crossing.
Incorporate results of the analyses into the project, as necessary, to meet current standards.
Scour countermeasures will be designed and installed as necessary to achieve the foundation
stability design standard either before or as a part of the rehabilitation project. Existing bridge
piers will be considered stable against scour if protected with a suitably designed
countermeasure.

7.4.3.2.3

Scour Countermeasures

Scour countermeasures will not be used to protect or reduce scour at new bridge piers.

7.4.3.3

Design Standards

The hydraulic design of bridged waterways requires the definition of standards for capacity and
foundation stability. The following standards apply to bridges on both High- and Low-Standard
roadways. Refer to the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

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7.4.3.3.1

December 2012

Capacity Design

Design Flood
Design bridges to convey the 50-year flood with appropriate freeboard. Freeboard is defined as
the vertical clearance between the design-flood water surface and the low chord of the bridge.
The required height of freeboard is defined in Section 7.4.3.4.
Check Flood
Use the greater of the 100-year flood or the overtopping flood as the standard check flood for
water surface increase caused by the crossing.
The overtopping flood is defined as the discharge rate at which water would begin to flow over
the top of the bridge deck or the approach roadways. If overtopping is not practicable then use
the greatest flood that may be reasonably estimated to pass through the bridge, such as the
500-year flood.
Temporary Bridges
The capacity design standard for temporary bridges depends on the roadway classification.
Refer to the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

High-Standard Roadways: Design temporary bridges to remain open to traffic during a

10-year flood.

Low-Standard Roadways: Design temporary bridges to remain open to traffic during a

2-year flood.

7.4.3.3.2

Stability Design

Foundations
The stability design of a bridge foundation refers to its ability to withstand scour. Refer to
Section 7.4.2 for guidance on evaluating scour at bridges.

Design Flood: Design bridge foundations to withstand the estimated worst-case scour
up through the 100-year flood.

Check Flood: Use the 200-year event, as the check flood. Provide supporting
documentation when using a flood magnitude less than 200-year for the check flood.

Scour Countermeasures: When economically preferred, countermeasures can be used

to protect bridge foundations from scour. Such countermeasures will be designed to
withstand the estimated worst-case scour up through the 200-year flood. Scour
countermeasures will not be used to provide foundation stability for new bridge piers.

When risk considerations, such as those described in Section 7.1.4, conclude that a flood
standard other than the 50-year event should be used for capacity design; use Exhibit 7.4-A in

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conjunction with the selected capacity design flood standard to determine the minimum scour
and scour countermeasure design standards, as applicable.
Exhibit 7.4-A CAPACITY DESIGN, SCOUR DESIGN, AND COUNTERMEASURE
DESIGN STANDARDS FOR BRIDGES

Capacity Design
Flood Frequency

Scour Design
Flood Frequency

Scour Check
Flood Frequency

Countermeasure
Design Flood
Frequency

Q10

Q25

Q50

Q50

Q25

Q50

Q100

Q100

Q50

Q100

Q200

Q200

Q100

Q200

Q500

Q500

Approach Embankments
Some bridged waterway crossings will be designed to allow overtopping of the approach
embankments. In such cases design the embankment, with armoring if necessary, to remain
stable in overtopping floods up through the 50-year event. Refer to Section 7.4.8 for guidance
on the design of embankment protection measures.
Temporary Bridges
The stability design standard for temporary bridges depends on the roadway classification.
Refer to the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

High-Standard Roadways:
flood.

Low-Standard Roadways: Design temporary bridges to remain stable in a 2-year flood.

7.4.3.3.3

Design temporary bridges to remain stable in a 10-year

Survey and Mapping

When survey is needed to quantify hydraulic impacts, refer to Chapter 5 for standards on survey
and mapping for bridged waterways.

7.4.3.4
7.4.3.4.1

Design Criteria
Capacity Design

Freeboard

Design all bridges with a minimum freeboard of 2.0 ft [0.6 m]

Design the bridge with 3.5 ft to 5.0 ft [1.0 m to 1.5 m] of freeboard when the potential for
woody debris is significant

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Design the bridge with 5.0 ft to 10.0 ft [1.5 m to 3.0 m] of freeboard when the potential
for ice flows during flood season is significant

Freeboard is defined as the vertical clearance between the design-flood water surface and the
low chord of the bridge superstructure. Freeboard design provides a measure of protection to
the bridge by reducing the chance of superstructure inundation and impact from floating debris.
The reference datum for measuring the freeboard is the computed water-surface elevation at
the upstream face of the bridge. A bridge with a straight-grade profile will meet or exceed the
freeboard criterion along its entire length. A bridge with an arched or vertical-curve profile will
meet or exceed the freeboard criterion along at least half of its length.
The above freeboard criteria do not apply to temporary bridges.

7.4.3.4.2

Stability Design

Design Flood
Design bridge foundations to withstand the estimated total scour with normal geotechnical and
structural safety factors. Assume that all streambed material above the total scour elevation
has been removed and is not available for load bearing or lateral support.
Check Flood
Design bridge foundations to withstand the estimated total scour with geotechnical and
structural safety factors of at least 1.0. Assume that all streambed material above the total
scour elevation has been removed and is not available for load bearing or lateral support.
Countermeasures may be designed at abutments to prevent the formation of local scour. If a
suitably designed countermeasure is used, design the abutment foundations to be stable with
appropriate geotechnical and structural safety factors assuming the estimated contraction scour
and any predicted degradation has occurred. Countermeasures will not be used at new bridge
piers.
Refer to Section 7.4.2 for guidance on evaluating scour at bridges. Refer to Section 7.4.8 for
references to standards, criteria, and guidance on the design of countermeasures.

7.4.3.5

Design Guidance

The hydraulic design of bridged waterways requires the investigation of numerous physical,
operational, and regulatory elements during the data collection phase, which must then be
applied, as appropriate, during project development. Examples of physical elements include
geometrics (e.g. length, width, alignment, abutment type, pier type, deck profile, approach
roadway profile); and hydraulic characteristics (e.g. freeboard, velocity, flow distribution,
potential overtopping of approach roadways, scour potential, sediment transport, debris
potential). Operational elements include inspection and maintenance requirements.

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7.4.3.5.1

December 2012

Bridge vs. Culvert

The typical channel or floodplain crossing will present an obvious need for either a culvert or a
bridge based on the width of the channel or floodplain and the discharge to be conveyed. For
some crossings it will be difficult to determine if a bridge or culvert is most suitable. Accordingly,
the following general advantages of bridges and culverts are offered as guidance:
Bridges have the following advantages over culverts:

Less susceptibility to clogging with sediment and debris

The waterway increases with rising water surface until water begins to submerge the
superstructure

With properly designed foundations, the structure can accommodate streambed

degradation

Scour can potentially increase the bridge waterway capacity

Bridge deck widening does not usually affect hydraulic capacity

Substantially less fill volume may be required, especially for high-profile roadways

Culverts have the following advantages over bridges:

Require less structural maintenance than bridges

The capacity can sometimes be increased by installing improved inlets
Usually easier and quicker to build than bridges
Scour associated with the structure is localized and easier to control
Upstream storage can be used to reduce peak discharge
Profile-grade raises and widening projects sometimes can be accommodated by
extending culvert ends

7.4.3.5.2

Bridge Rehabilitation

Most bridge rehabilitation projects cannot be cost-effectively designed to significantly improve

the capacity of the bridge with regard to either freeboard or water-surface profile. Avoid to the
extent practicable decreasing the freeboard or increasing the water-surface profile.

7.4.3.5.3

Approach Roadway Overtopping

It may be beneficial to design bridged waterway crossings to allow the flood to overtop the
approach roadways. Allowing overtopping to occur at an elevation below the bridge low-chord
often provides a high-capacity alternate flow path across the alignment, which leads to the
following potential benefits:

Reduces the probability of damaging pressure-flow and buoyancy conditions

Reduces the peak velocity inside the bridge waterway
Reduces the potential for scour to threaten the bridge foundations
May preserve historic flow distributions
May prevent excessive increase to the water-surface profile in large floods

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December 2012

The decision to allow overtopping of the approach roadways at a flood magnitude less than the
50-year should be supported by a risk assessment of the possible adverse consequences,
which include:

Loss of traffic serviceability during the overtopping period

Loss of emergency vehicle access across the waterway during the overtopping period
Possible loss of the road surface and embankment
Potential damage to the bridge abutment by erosion of the adjacent approach
embankment

If an overtopping condition is allowed, the road profile should be designed to keep the
overtopping flow away from the bridge abutments.

7.4.3.5.4

Location of Bridge Abutments and Relief Openings

The bridge opening waterway should be designed so the velocity of water through the structure
will not damage the highway facility or adjacent property. The acceptable velocities should be
based on the characteristics of the individual site. These characteristics include the following:

Natural stream velocities

Bed materials
Scour considerations (see Section 7.4.2)

Avoid placing abutments within the main channel of a natural stream or in other areas of
relatively high natural flow concentration and velocity. Locate abutments and relief openings to
preserve the natural flow distribution to the extent practicable Extensive guidance material can
be found in the AASHTO HDG, Volume VII Hydraulic Analysis for the Location and Design of
Bridges.

7.4.3.5.5

Pier Spacing, Shape and Orientation

Piers should be designed to minimize flow disruption and scour potential. The number of piers
located in any channel should be limited to a practical minimum and piers should not be located
in the main channel of small streams. Piers that are properly oriented with the flow do not
significantly increase the water-surface profile. A solid pier will not collect as much debris as a
pile bent or a multiple column bent. Rounding or streamlining the leading edges of piers helps
to decrease the accumulation of debris and reduces local scour at the pier. Circular-shaped,
single-column piers provide a benefit by eliminating the adverse effect of high attack angles.

7.4.3.5.6

Hydraulic Analysis and Modeling

The application of the standards, criteria, and guidance presented in this section requires a
hydraulic analysis to determine the water-surface profile and flow distribution. It is necessary, at
a minimum, to analyze a baseline (pre-project) condition and one or more proposed (postproject) conditions.

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The most common and usually most appropriate approach to bridge hydraulic analysis is to
compute a water-surface profile through 1-dimensional computer modeling. For guidance on
applying 1-dimensional hydraulic models to bridged waterways, see the user documentation for
HEC-RAS. Particularly useful is the HEC-RAS Hydraulic Reference Manual, Chapter 5 and
Appendices B and D.
Some specific bridged waterway sites may not be suitable for 1-dimensional analysis. A key
limitation in applying 1-dimensional models to bridge projects is the fact that flow contraction
and expansion are often significant factors. The lateral components of velocity, which are
ignored in 1-dimensional modeling, can be significant in the vicinity of the bridge. The watersurface elevation is assumed constant along a cross section in 1-dimensional modeling, when in
reality the water surface can vary significantly along a cross section near the bridge, especially
at skewed crossings.
Two-dimensional hydraulic models are formulated without the aforementioned limitations of 1dimensional models. They are typically more difficult to develop and run, but can provide a far
superior understanding of the hydraulics when the bridged waterway is complex.

7.4.3.6
7.4.3.6.1

Recommended Methods
One-Dimensional Computer Model

HEC-RAS is available from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE).

7.4.3.6.2

Two-Dimensional Computer Model

FESWMS-FST2DH is available from the FHWA.

For efficient model development and post-processing, FESWMS-FST2DH should be used in
conjunction with the graphical user interface SMS.

7.4.3.7

Reporting

Section 7.1.11 provides a general list of submittal requirements for hydraulic design projects.
Specific deliverables for the analysis and design of bridged waterways will include at a
minimum:

Exhibit showing cross section locations and orientations

A plot of the baseline water-surface profile compared to the proposed-condition watersurface profile resulting from the recommended design

For the capacity design discharge: the water-surface elevation upstream of the bridge;
the vertical clearance between the water surface and the lowest point on the low chord;
and the percentage of the low chord length that meets the freeboard criterion

The maximum velocity through the bridge opening for the capacity design discharge

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The predicted total scour depths and post-scour elevations at each substructure element
(shown both graphically and in tabular form)

Calculations for individual scour components

Design calculations for any proposed scour countermeasures (i.e. riprap sizing
calculations, etc.)

Design sketches of any proposed scour countermeasures (i.e. abutment riprap,

embankment protection, etc.)

7.4.3.8

Plans

Include the following information, as a minimum, in the bridge drawings:

Location, geometry, and axis alignment of abutments

Location, geometry, and axis alignment of piers

Elevations of spread footing bases or pile tips for each abutment and pier

Existing topography and grading contours in the plan drawing

Water-surface elevation upstream of the bridge from the capacity design flood in the
elevation drawing

Waterway cross-section geometry in the elevation drawing

Locations, dimensions, and details for any proposed scour countermeasures

Magnitude, frequency, and water-surface elevation of overtopping flood or the check

flood if overtopping is not possible

Magnitude, frequency, and water-surface elevation for the 100-year flood if greater than
the overtopping flood

7.4.4

LONGITUDINAL EMBANKMENTS

Hydraulic consideration is required when a longitudinal roadway encroachment on a 100-year

floodplain is unavoidable. This section provides standards, criteria, and guidance for the
hydraulic design of longitudinal embankments that encroach on base floodplains.

7.4.4.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HDS 6

FHWA HDS 6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments

2.

HEC 11

FHWA HEC 11, Design of Riprap Revetments

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3.

HEC 20

FHWA HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway Structures

4.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

7.4.4.2

Bridge

Scour

and

Stream

Instability

Standard Practices

7.4.4.2.1

Floodplain Encroachments

Longitudinal floodplain encroachments on 100-year floodplains should be avoided wherever

practicable. If a project requires an encroachment on a 100-year floodplain that is regulated by
FEMA or potentially creates an adverse impact to private property or insurable buildings,
reference Section 7.4.1 for details on appropriate design policy, standards, and criteria, as well
as guidance on FEMA coordination, if required.

7.4.4.2.2

Use of Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures

The stability standards presented in this section will usually be met by using a suitably designed
countermeasure to prevent damage to the embankment. Refer to Section 7.4.8 for standards,
criteria, and guidance on the design of countermeasures.

7.4.4.3

Design Standards

The standards presented here apply to longitudinal embankments, with or without retaining
walls that support roadways for which the profile grade is controlled by riverine water-surface
elevations.

7.4.4.3.1

Capacity Design

Design Flood
Refer to the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

High-Standard Roadways: Design longitudinal embankments to provide adequate

freeboard in the 50-year flood.

Low-Standard Roadways: Design longitudinal embankments to provide adequate

freeboard in the 25-year flood.

Freeboard is defined in Section 7.4.4.4.

Check Flood
Use the greater of the 100-year flood or the overtopping flood as the standard check flood for
evaluating impacts to private property or insurable buildings. The overtopping flood is defined
as the discharge rate at which water would begin to flow over the road surface.
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7.4.4.3.2

December 2012

Stability Design

Design Flood
Refer to the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

High-Standard Roadways:
Design longitudinally encroaching embankments with
protection as needed to remain stable in the 50-year flood.

Low-Standard Roadways:
Design longitudinally encroaching embankments with
protection as needed to remain stable in the 25-year flood.

Retaining Walls: Refer to Section 7.4.5.

7.4.4.4

Design Criteria

The criteria presented here apply to longitudinal embankments, with or without retaining walls,
that support roadways for which the profile grade is controlled by riverine water-surface
elevations.

7.4.4.4.1

Capacity Design

Design longitudinal floodplain encroachments with a minimum freeboard of 2.0 ft [0.6 m].
Freeboard is defined as the vertical distance between the design water surface and the bottom
of the aggregate base layer of the pavement structure.

7.4.4.4.2

Stability Design

Demonstrate that the embankment is reasonably expected to remain stable, with or without
protection by countermeasures, up through the stability design flood throughout the intended
service life of the embankment.

7.4.4.5
7.4.4.5.1

Design Guidance
Scour Mechanisms

Consider the following scour mechanisms in evaluating the potential scour threat to a
longitudinal embankment within a 100-year floodplain:

Long-term lateral instability in the form of channel migration

Low-flow channel impingement, if the embankment will be located within a broad, sandy
waterway that has a highly active low-flow channel meandering within it

Bank erosion of an adjacent stream channel

Contraction scour, if the longitudinal embankment will form a significant constriction to

the waterway

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Local scour by impinging flow, if flood flows will impact the embankment at a significant
angle

Bendway scour, if the embankment will be located at the outside of a bend

Outlet scour, if a cross drain or storm drain exits through the embankment

Potential flanking or undermining of scour countermeasures intended to protect the

embankment

7.4.4.6

Recommended Methods

Hydraulic analysis is necessary to determine the water-surface profile of the design flood for the
purpose of establishing the profile grade that will provide adequate freeboard. Hydraulic
analysis is also necessary to determine impacts to private property or insurable buildings. HECRAS modeling is an appropriate approach for most designs.
Refer to HEC 23 for approaches to estimating impinging-flow scour, bendway scour, and lowflow channel impingement scour. HEC 14 provides a method of estimating scour at cross drain
and storm drain outlets.

7.4.4.7

Reporting

Section 7.1.11 provides a general list of submittal requirements for hydraulic design projects.
Specific deliverables for the hydraulic analysis and design of longitudinal embankment
encroachments will include at a minimum:

A map or aerial photograph of the affected waterway reach showing the embankment
location and hydraulic model cross section locations.

A cross-section plot of the waterway showing the embankment, at the approximate point
of maximum encroachment by the embankment

A plot of the baseline water-surface profile compared to the proposed-condition watersurface profile resulting from the design alternatives

The predicted total scour depths and post-scour elevations at intervals along the toe of
the embankment

Design calculations for any proposed embankment protection (i.e. riprap sizing
calculations)

Design sketches of any proposed embankment protection, showing longitudinal extent,

required thickness of protection, and termination requirements (i.e. toe downs and end
terminations)

7.4.4.8

Plans

If protection has been designed for the embankment, then the following must be included on the
final design plans:

Details and dimensions of any required protection

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Discharge rate and water-surface elevations at appropriate locations along the

embankment profile for the capacity design flood and the 100-year flood

7.4.5

RETAINING WALLS

Some roadways include retaining walls to minimize fill quantities, longitudinal encroachments on
adjacent floodplains or channels, and other environmental impacts. Hydraulic consideration is
warranted when a proposed highway retaining wall is to be located within a 100-year floodplain,
or if a cross drain or storm drain is designed to exit through a retaining wall. Scour at the
retaining wall foundation must be prevented or the foundation must be designed for stability
against the predicted scour. This section provides standards, criteria, and guidance for the
hydraulic design and protection of retaining wall foundations.

7.4.5.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HDS 6

FHWA HDS 6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments

2.

HEC 14

FHWA HEC 14, Design of Energy Dissipators for Culverts and

Channels

3.

HEC 20

FHWA HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway Structures

4.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

7.4.5.2
7.4.5.2.1

Bridge

Scour

and

Stream

Instability

Standard Practices
Floodplain Encroachment

Longitudinal floodplain encroachments on 100-year floodplains, with or without retaining walls,

should be avoided wherever practicable. If a project requires an encroachment on a 100-year
floodplain that is regulated by FEMA or potentially creates an adverse impact to private property
or insurable buildings, reference Section 7.4.1 for details on appropriate design policy,
standards, and criteria, as well as guidance on FEMA coordination, if required.

7.4.5.2.2

Use of Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures

The stability standards presented in this section will be met by designing the retaining wall
foundation to withstand the estimated scour associated with the stability design flood, or by
using a suitably designed countermeasure to prevent the formation of all or a portion of the

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estimated scour. Refer to Section 7.4.8 for standards, criteria, and guidance on the design of
countermeasures.

7.4.5.3

Design Standards

The design standards for the hydraulic design and protection of retaining wall foundations
depend on the wall height and the roadway classification. Refer to the definition of High- and
Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

7.4.5.3.1

Stability Design

The hydraulic stability of a retaining wall foundation refers to its ability to withstand scour. Two
different types of scour can potentially threaten a retaining wall foundation. First, flow along the
wall from the channel or floodplain on which the wall is located (longitudinal flow) can cause
scour potentially throughout the entire length of the wall foundation. Second, flow from cross
drain or storm drain outlets penetrating the wall can cause local outlet scour. Each case has a
set of stability standards presented below.
Longitudinal Flow

Wall Height > 6.5 ft [2 m]: Design retaining wall foundations to withstand the estimated
worst-case longitudinal scour up through the 100-year flood.

Wall Height 6.5 ft [2 m] or Less on High-Standard Roadways: Design retaining wall

foundations to withstand the estimated worst-case longitudinal scour up through the 50year flood.

Wall Height 6.5 ft [2 m] or Less on Low-Standard Roadways: Design retaining wall

foundations to withstand the estimated worst-case longitudinal scour up through the
25-year flood.

Pipe Penetrations
Refer to the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

High-Standard Roadways: Design retaining wall foundations to withstand the estimated

worst-case outlet scour up through the 50-year flood.

Low-Standard Roadways: Design retaining wall foundations to withstand the estimated

worst-case outlet scour up through the 25-year flood.

7.4.5.4
7.4.5.4.1

Design Criteria
Stability Design

Longitudinal Flow
Design retaining wall foundations to withstand the estimated total scour (as defined in
Section 7.4.2) from the stability design flood with normal structural and geotechnical safety
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factors. Assume that all streambed material above the total scour elevation has been removed
and is not available for bearing or lateral support.
Pipe Penetrations
Design retaining wall foundations to withstand the estimated local outlet scour from the
foundation-stability design flood with normal structural and geotechnical safety factors. Assume
that all streambed material above the local scour elevation has been removed and is not
available for bearing or lateral support.

7.4.5.5
7.4.5.5.1

Design Guidance
Scour Mechanisms

Consider the following scour mechanisms in evaluating the potential scour threat to a retaining
wall segment. (See Section 7.4.2 for guidance.)

Long-term degradation, if the wall is located within or immediately adjacent to a stream

channel

Long-term lateral instability in the form of channel migration

Low-flow channel impingement, if the wall will be located within a broad, sandy waterway
that has a highly active low-flow channel meandering within it

Bank erosion

Contraction scour, if the wall forms a significant constriction to the waterway

Local scour by flow impinging on the wall, if flood flows will impact the wall at a
significant angle

Bendway scour, if the wall will be located at the outside of a bend

Bed forms, if the wall is located within a sand-bed channel

Outlet scour, if a cross drain or storm drain exits through the wall

Potential flanking or undermining of scour countermeasures intended to protect the wall

7.4.5.5.2

Pipe Exit Configuration

Pipe exits from retaining walls that include drops (the invert of the exit pipe being above the toe
of the wall) should be avoided whenever practicable. Such drops will be allowed, if required, as
long as any additional scour potential caused by the drop is accommodated. The preferred
horizontal alignment for pipes exiting a retaining wall is perpendicular to the wall.

7.4.5.6

Recommended Methods

Refer to HEC 23 for approaches to estimating impinging-flow scour, bendway scour, and lowflow channel impingement scour. HEC 14 provides a method of estimating scour at cross drain
and storm drain outlets.
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7.4.5.7

December 2012

Reporting

Section 7.1.11 provides a general list of submittal requirements for hydraulic design projects.
Specific deliverables for the hydraulic analysis and design of retaining wall encroachments will
include at a minimum:

The predicted total scour depths and post-scour elevations at intervals along the wall
segment

Design calculations for any proposed scour countermeasures (i.e. riprap sizing
calculations)

Design sketches of any proposed scour countermeasures

7.4.5.8

Plans

If scour calculations have been performed or countermeasures have been designed for the
retaining wall, then the following must be included on the final design plans.

Details and dimensions of any required scour countermeasures

Stability design discharge with water-surface elevations at appropriate locations along

the wall

7.4.6

LOW-WATER CROSSINGS

Low-water stream crossings can provide safe, cost-efficient alternatives to bridge and culvert
crossings for certain low-volume roads, provided the streamflow and road-use conditions are
suitable. This section provides standards, criteria, and guidance on the design of low-water
crossings.

7.4.6.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

FHWA CFL-03-003

FHWA CFL-03-003, Low Water Crossing Study

2.

Low Volume Roads

Engineering

U.S. Forest Service and U.S. Agency

Development,
Low
Volume
Roads
Management Practices Field Guide, 2003

3.

HDS 5

FHWA HDS 5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts

4.

HDS 6

FHWA HDS 6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments

5.

HDS 7

FHWA HDS 7, Hydraulic Design of Safe Bridges

River Hydraulics

for International
Engineering-Best

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December 2012

6.

HEC 20

FHWA HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway Structures

7.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

7.4.6.2

Bridge

Scour

and

Stream

Instability

Standard Practices

7.4.6.2.1

Allowable Uses

Low-water crossings will not be used on roadways with an ADT greater than 200, unless such
crossing is a desirable, existing feature.

7.4.6.2.2

Classes and Applications

Two classes of low-water crossings are possible on Federal Lands Highway projects: vented
crossings and unvented crossings. A vented crossing has a hydraulic opening beneath the road
surface for low flows, while an unvented crossing has no opening beneath the road surface.
The selection of the class to use for a particular project is dependent on the following:

Vented Crossing:

Daily access required, AND

Crosses a perennial stream characterized by daily flows

Unvented Crossing

7.4.6.2.3

Daily access not required, OR

Crosses an ephemeral stream with only intermittent, short-duration flows

Floodplain Encroachment

If a low-water crossing is in an NFIP floodplain or the potential exists for adversely impacting
private property or insurable buildings, refer to Section 7.4.1 for relevant policy, standards, and
criteria, as well as for guidance on FEMA coordination.

7.4.6.3
7.4.6.3.1

Design Standards
Capacity Design

Vented
Design vented low-water crossings to convey the 10-year flood beneath the road.
Unvented
Not applicable since all flow must pass over the roadway.

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7.4.6.3.2

December 2012

Stability Design

Design all low-water crossings to remain stable under worst-case scour conditions up through
the 25-year flood.

7.4.6.4
7.4.6.4.1

Design Criteria
Capacity

Vented
No overtopping by the design flood.
Unvented
Not applicable since all flow must pass over the roadway.

7.4.6.4.2

Stability

Vented
Evaluate the foundation of any open-bottom structure for scour susceptibility according to
guidance in Section 7.4.3.
Vented and Unvented
Design the crossing to remain stable under worst-case scour conditions up through the stabilitydesign flood. Demonstrate that the embankment is expected to remain stable within the limits of
protection. See Section 7.4.6.5 below for guidance on extent of embankment protection.
Design to withstand applicable scour components, e.g., drop scour, culvert outlet scour, and
long-term degradation (refer to Section 7.4.2). The use of scour countermeasures is acceptable
(refer to Section 7.4.8).

7.4.6.5

Design Guidance

Every low-water crossing should be posted with signs on both approaches instructing motorists
to stay out of the crossing when it is flooded. The low-point of the roadway profile should be
aligned with the channel thalweg.

7.4.6.5.1

Vented

Extent of Roadway / Embankment Protection

The recommended length of roadway/embankment to be protected from erosion and scour
during overtopping is the water-surface width over the roadway during the stability design flood.
River Hydraulics

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Hydraulic Operation
A vented low-water crossing will typically operate as a culvert for flows up to the capacity design
flow and as a broad crested weir combined with a culvert for flows exceeding the capacity
design flow.
Scour
If a hydraulic drop occurs from the upstream side to the downstream side of a vented crossing
during overtopping, the potential exists for drop-scour on the downstream side of the
embankment. Consequently, a vented low-water crossing will experience the potential for
culvert-type outlet scour combined with drop-scour. The scour potential will be exacerbated if
the downstream reach experiences degradation. The stability design must accommodate or
prevent the formation of scour on the downstream side of the crossing.
Fish
Fish passage concerns may be a factor in the design of vented low-water crossings. Refer to
Section 7.5.1 for guidance on designing crossings to prevent creating a barrier to fish passage.

7.4.6.5.2

Unvented

Extent of Roadway / Embankment Protection

The recommended length of roadway/embankment to be protected from erosion and scour
during overtopping is the water-surface width over the roadway during the 2-year flood.
Maintenance
An unvented low-water crossing will typically be used in an arid or semi-arid setting and will be
overtopped whenever the watershed produces runoff. The flow will often leave behind a deposit
of sediment that may require clearing before reopening the road to traffic. Consider surfacing
the low-water crossing with a hard surface to facilitate the quick removal of sediment deposits
by heavy equipment without damage to the road.
Hydraulic Operation
An unvented low-water crossing will typically operate hydraulically as a broad-crested weir.
Scour
If a hydraulic drop occurs from the upstream side to the downstream side of an unvented
crossing, the potential exists for drop-scour on the downstream side of the embankment. The
scour potential will be exacerbated if the downstream reach experiences degradation. The
stability design must accommodate or prevent the formation of scour on the downstream side of
the crossing.

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In addition to preventing or accommodating scour on the downstream side of the embankment,

the road surface should be protected from erosion within the area wetted by the 2-year flood.

7.4.6.6

Recommended Methods

The U.S. Forest Service and U.S. Agency for International Development, Low Volume Roads
Engineering-Best Management Practices Field Guide provides practical advice in developing
the design of low-water crossings.
Chapter 5 of HDS 7 provides detailed guidance on the hydraulic analysis of roadway
overtopping conditions. HDS 5 is an important reference in the analysis of the culvert-type flow
through the openings of vented low-water crossings.
HEC 20 provides useful detailed guidance on evaluating the stability of the stream reach of
interest. HEC 23 contains extensive guidance on the prediction of drop-scour and the design of
countermeasures to prevent failure of the crossing from scour and stream instability.
If water-surface elevation impacts are a concern, it may be necessary to compute a watersurface profile through the affected stream reach.

7.4.6.7

Reporting

Section 7.1.11 provides a general list of submittal requirements for hydraulic design projects.
Additional specific deliverables for hydraulic design of low-water crossings will include:

The water-surface elevation upstream of the crossing for the capacity design discharge
(vented crossings)

The maximum velocity through the low-flow opening for the capacity design discharge
(vented crossings)

Calculations of applicable scour components and total scour

Design calculations for the proposed scour countermeasures

Design sketches of the crossing and the proposed scour countermeasures

7.4.6.8

Plans

Include the following information, as a minimum, in the drawings for the crossing:

Locations of low-flow openings, if any

Elevations of footings or piles if used as foundations
Existing topography and grading contours in the plan drawing
The water-surface elevation upstream of the crossing from the capacity design flood
Magnitude and frequency of the capacity design flood
Waterway cross-section geometry in the elevation drawing
Extent of road surface protection
Locations, dimensions, and details for the proposed scour countermeasures

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7.4.7

December 2012

CHANNEL CHANGES

Some projects require realignments of stream channels to avoid or to mitigate potential

hydraulic problems at a highway crossing location. Properly designed channel changes can
reduce the hazard of flood damage to a highway crossing by reducing skew and curvature, and
sometimes by providing a larger main channel.
This section provides standards, criteria, and guidance related to the design of channel changes
for those situations where they cannot be avoided. It addresses only the hydraulic aspects of
channel relocation. For guidance on the environmental aspects of relocation (e.g., restoration of
biological or ecological components), see Section 7.5.2.

7.4.7.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HDS 6

FHWA HDS 6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments

2.

HEC 11

FHWA HEC 11, Design of Riprap Revetment

3.

HEC 20

FHWA HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway Structures

4.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

5.

AASHTO HDG Vol. I AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume I Hydraulic

Considerations in Highway Planning and Location

6.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. VII

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume VII Hydraulic

Analysis for the Location and Design of Bridges

7.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. X

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume X Evaluating

Highway Effects on Surface Water Environments

7.4.7.2

Bridge

Scour

and

Stream

Instability

Standard Practices

Alterations or relocations of existing stream channels will be avoided wherever practicable.

Where channel changes cannot be avoided, close coordination with Environmental Office staff,
resource agencies, and the partner agency will be initiated during the reconnaissance and
scoping phase and continue throughout the design of the project.
The design of channel changes will consider the impacts to stream stability and to the riparian
environment and will mitigate those impacts to the extent practicable.

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December 2012

If a channel change is proposed in a floodplain that is regulated by FEMA, or if it potentially

creates an adverse impact to private property or insurable buildings, refer to Section 7.4.1 for
details on appropriate design policy, standards, and criteria as well as guidance on FEMA
coordination, if required.

7.4.7.3
7.4.7.3.1

Design Standards
Capacity Design

To the extent practicable, the channel change will duplicate the existing stream characteristics
including:

Stream capacity
Width
Depth
Slope
Sinuosity
Bank cover
Side slopes
Flow and velocity distribution over the full range of discharges up to and including the
100-year flood

7.4.7.3.2

Stability Design

Where instability of a relocated stream channel may threaten the highway infrastructure,
channel migration countermeasures will be provided.
The design standard for the
countermeasures depends on the classification of the roadway. Refer to the definition of HighStandard and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

High Standard: Design channel migration countermeasures to withstand the worst

conditions up through the 50-year flood.

Low Standard: Design channel migration countermeasures to withstand the worst

conditions up through the 25-year flood.

7.4.7.4
7.4.7.4.1

Design Criteria
Capacity Design

To minimize the potential biological and ecological impacts, avoid using prismatic channel
geometries with neat grading lines wherever practicable.

7.4.7.4.2

Stability Design

Demonstrate stability in the horizontal and vertical dimensions, when required.

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Bioengineering treatments for both vertical and lateral stability within the relocated reach of the
channel may be used if the stability of the channel is not compromised relative to the standards
and criteria presented in this section.

7.4.7.5

Design Guidance

Addressing potential impacts to the stability of the stream and to the riparian environment is a
multi-disciplinary challenge involving the application of geomorphic analysis, hydraulic
engineering, and stream habitat evaluation.
Geomorphic analysis is required to evaluate the range of potential responses of the stream to
the proposed channel change, and to guide the design of the channel change to minimize the
adverse responses. The basic types of potential response needing investigation include
degradation, aggradation, or lateral instability. These responses can affect the channel
upstream and downstream of the proposed channel change, as well as the relocated reach
itself. An appropriate geomorphic analysis considers the initial state of the stream system and
its degree of sensitivity to the channel change being considered. It makes use of established
stream-response relationships as well as an understanding of geomorphic threshold conditions.
Refer to Section 7.4.2 for Standards, Criteria, and Guidance related to scour and stream
instability. Refer to Section 7.4.8 for Standards, Criteria, and Guidance in the design of stream
instability and countermeasures.

7.4.7.6

Recommended Methods

Chapters 4 and 6 of HEC 20, Chapter 5 of HDS 6 and Section 4 of the AASHTO Highway
Drainage Guidelines, Volume X are good starting references for the geomorphic analysis.
The application of hydraulic engineering to channel change designs entails supplementing the
geomorphic analysis with quantitative evaluations of the potential for stream instability and
designing countermeasures against stream instability.
HEC 20, HEC 23, and HDS 6 contain recommended methods for hydraulic engineering
applications to channel changes.

7.4.7.7

Reporting

Document through appropriate analysis, calculations, and judgment that the relocated channel,
together with any associated channel stability protection measures, is reasonably expected to
remain stable under worst-case conditions up to the design flood. Items to be documented
include:

Comparison of water-surface impact expected for each channel change alternative being
considered

Qualitative comparison of adverse impacts for each channel change alternative being
considered

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December 2012

Cross-section plots of the proposed relocated channel reach at key locations

Design calculations for any proposed stream instability countermeasures (i.e. riprap
sizing calculations, etc.)

Design sketches of any proposed stream instability countermeasures

7.4.7.8

Plans

The project plans should include the following for any proposed channel change:

Plan/layout drawing of the proposed channel relocation, including contour grading and
showing the connection to the existing channel at the upstream and downstream ends of
the channel change

Cross section drawings at sufficient locations to allow adequate construction staking

Details and dimensions of any proposed stream instability countermeasures

7.4.8

SCOUR AND STREAM INSTABILITY COUNTERMEASURES

This section provides standards, criteria, and guidance for designing countermeasures to
protect Federal Lands Highway facilities from scour and stream instability.

7.4.8.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HDS 6

FHWA HDS 6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments

2.

HEC 11

FHWA HEC 11, Design of Riprap Revetment

3.

HEC 14

FHWA HEC 14, Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for

Culverts and Channels

4.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

5.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. VII

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume VII Hydraulic

Analysis for the Location and Design of Bridges

6.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 17

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 17 Bank Protection

River Hydraulics

Bridge

Scour

and

Stream

Instability

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7.4.8.2

December 2012

Standard Practices

The potential for scour and stream instability will be considered when designing highway
facilities that interface with natural rivers, streams, or floodplains (see Section 7.4.2). Where it
is impracticable or inappropriate to accommodate the estimated scour and stream instability in
the design of the facility, countermeasures will be used to mitigate the potential for damage.

7.4.8.2.1

Bridge Piers

New piers will be designed so that they withstand the estimated total scour depth from the
design flood without the need for countermeasures (see Section 7.4.3). The piers of bridges to
be rehabilitated may be protected from scour by countermeasures as appropriate.

7.4.8.2.2

Floodplain Encroachments

Countermeasure installations themselves may encroach upon base floodplains and be subject
to FHWA Policy 23 CFR 650A. If such an encroachment is in an NFIP mapped floodplain or if
the encroachment produces potential adverse impacts to private property or insurable buildings,
refer to Section 7.4.1 for related policy, standards, criteria, and guidance.

7.4.8.3
7.4.8.3.1

Design Standards
Stability Design

Scour and stream instability countermeasures will be designed to meet the appropriate stability
standards for the structures they are intended to protect. Specific references to appropriate
standards are provided below:
Culvert Outlets
Refer to Sections 7.3.1 and 7.4.9.
Foundations of Bridge Abutments and Existing Piers
Refer to Section 7.4.3.
Bridge Approach Embankments
Refer to Section 7.4.3.
Longitudinal Embankments
Refer to Section 7.4.4.
Protection of Retaining Wall Foundations
Refer to Section 7.4.5.
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December 2012

Low-Water Crossings
Refer to Section 7.4.6.
Channel Changes
Refer to Section 7.4.7.
Adjacent Streambanks
If the stream stability assessment indicates that streambank erosion or migration of a nearby
channel may threaten the highway facility, install countermeasures to stabilize the channel
banks. The design standards for protection of streambank countermeasures depend on the
roadway classification. Refer to the definition of High- and Low-Standard roadways in
Section 7.1.6.

High Standard: Design the protection to withstand the worst scour conditions up through
the 50-year flood.

Low Standard: Design the protection to withstand the worst scour conditions up through
the 25-year flood.

7.4.8.4

Design Criteria

The general design criteria for scour and stream instability countermeasures are as follows:
Demonstrate that the countermeasure is reasonably expected to remain stable and to protect
the facility under worst-case conditions up through the stability design flood throughout its
intended service life.
Provide appropriate termination details to prevent undermining or flanking of the
countermeasure by scour and erosion processes not arrested by the countermeasure itself. A
countermeasure intended to prevent local scour, for instance, must be protected from
undermining by the sum of the estimated contraction scour and long-term degradation.

7.4.8.5
7.4.8.5.1

Design Guidance
Minimizing the Need for Countermeasures

Where practicable, it is usually preferable to design the facility so that countermeasures are not
necessary. This can be accomplished by avoiding route locations through areas of high scour
potential, or by designing the foundations of bridges and retaining walls to accommodate the
estimated potential scour. Designing to avoid the need for countermeasures provides the
following benefits:

Avoids the additional cost associated with building countermeasures

Avoids the considerable

countermeasures

River Hydraulics

maintenance

commitment

usually

associated

with

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Preserves the natural dynamics of the stream system

Minimizes impacts to wetlands and riparian habitat

Minimizes Section 404 wetlands permit requirements

7.4.8.5.2

Selection

Many different types of countermeasures, and variations of each type, have been used to
protect highway facilities. At a minimum, the selection should consider:

A verified need for the countermeasure (make sure the countermeasure is needed and
that the design cant practicably be modified to avoid the need)

The function of the countermeasure to address the need

The compatibility of the countermeasure with the geomorphology of the stream channel

The acceptability of any environmental impacts associated with the countermeasure, or

the potential to mitigate the impacts

The capital cost of the countermeasure

The maintenance and inspection requirements of the countermeasure

7.4.8.5.3

Inspection and Maintenance

Most countermeasure installations for protection of highway facilities are designed with the
expectation of some maintenance requirements. A typical riprap revetment, for example, needs
regular inspection to verify its continuing functionality. A long-term maintenance commitment is
needed to ensure the continued performance of a countermeasure through the expected service
life of the highway facility.

7.4.8.6

Recommended Methods

The design of protection for structures, streambanks, and longitudinal embankments can be
aided by the procedures found in several references, including:
1.

HDS 6

FHWA HDS 6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments

2.

HEC 11

FHWA HEC 11, Design of Riprap Revetment

3.

HEC 14

FHWA HEC 14, Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for

Culverts and Channels

4.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

5.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 17

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 17 Bank Protection

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Bridge

Scour

and

Stream

Instability

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December 2012

6.

Caltrans Chap. 870

California Department of Transportation Highway Design Manual,

Chapter 870 Channel and Shore Protection-Erosion Control

7.

EM 1110-2-1601

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers EM 1110-2-1601, Hydraulic

Design of Flood Control Channels, 1994.

8.

Denver USDCM

Denver Urban Drainage and Flood Control District, Urban Storm

Drainage Criteria Manual, Volume 2 (particularly useful for the
design of grade control structures)

7.4.8.7

Reporting

The reporting requirements listed below should be integrated with those for the specific types of
facilities that the countermeasures are designed to protect. The reporting items listed below are
the minimum expected for countermeasure design.

Description of need and countermeasure alternatives considered

Description of selection criteria

Documentation demonstrating the suitability

countermeasure design, including calculations

Design sketches of the proposed scour countermeasures

7.4.8.8

and

stability

of

the

proposed

Plans

Include the following information, as a minimum, in the project drawings:

7.4.9

Locations, dimensions, and details of any proposed scour and stream instability
countermeasures

ENERGY DISSIPATORS

Local scour at culvert, storm drain, and channel outlets is a common occurrence. The natural
runoff is usually confined to a lesser width and greater depth as it passes through a conveyance
system. An increased velocity results with potentially erosive capabilities at the conveyance
outlet. Turbulence and erosive eddies form also as the flow expands to conform to the natural
channel. In addition to the hydraulic characteristics of the flow at the outlet, the erosive
characteristics of the outlet channel bed and bank material, and the amount of sediment and
other debris in the flow are contributing factors to scour potential.
Where the local scour potential exceeds the protective capabilities of standard outlet treatments,
an energy dissipator design is typically required. The focus of this section is on the special
design requirements for energy dissipators.

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7.4.9.1

December 2012

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HEC 14

FHWA HEC 14, Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators

for Culverts and Channels

2.

AASHTO HDG Vol. IV

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume IV

Hydraulic Design of Culverts

7.4.9.2

Design Standard

Evaluate the performance of energy dissipators (i.e. velocity reduction) over a range of
discharges. The range of discharges will include the lowest discharge for which scour is a
concern to the design of the applicable conveyance system. Select the dissipator that provides
acceptable performance over this range of discharges.

7.4.9.3

Design Criteria

Discharge outflow to the downstream channel at velocities that are compatible with the erosion
characteristics of the outlet channel bed and bank material. If the outlet channel is stable, the
natural channel velocities would be an appropriate dissipation target. If the outlet channel is
unstable, the concern becomes a stream stability problem that may or may not include local
energy dissipation as a solution. Refer to Section 7.4.2 for guidance on evaluating stream
stability.

7.4.9.4

Design Guidance

There are many situations where standard riprap outlet structures are impractical even at low to
moderate flow conditions. Energy dissipators can be designed easily and are suitable for a
wide variety of site conditions. In some cases, concrete structures are more economical than
large riprap basins, particularly where long-term costs are considered. Also, preformed scour
holes (approximating the configuration of naturally formed holes) can dissipate energy while
providing a protective lining to the streambed. Various types of energy dissipation structures
are identified in HEC 14.

7.4.9.5

Recommended Methods

Design and evaluate the performance of energy dissipators according to the methods presented
in HEC 14. HEC 14 also contains procedures for estimating scour hole dimensions at pipe
outlets.

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7.4.9.6

December 2012

Reporting

The design of the energy dissipators for culvert, pipe, or channel outlets should be supported by
documentation containing, at a minimum, the following information:

Project identification
Location of proposed installation
Hydraulic design calculations

7.4.9.7

Plans

For the location and design of energy dissipators, prepare plans showing all details necessary
to construct the improvements according to the hydraulic and structural design, including the
following:

Location
Structural Details
Dimensions and extent of auxiliary channel riprap
Gradation of required riprap
Bedding and Filter Material or Geotextile
Grading or slope details

River Hydraulics

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7.5

December 2012

ENVIRONMENTAL HYDRAULICS

The topics included in this section on environmental hydraulics all require interdisciplinary
design or analysis. Early and frequent coordination with the local Federal Lands Environmental
Office, resource agencies, regulatory agencies, and the partner agency is often required. The
role of the hydraulics engineer will vary from analysis and design to support, such as that
required for permit application and acquisition, and review of deliverables from specialty
contractors, as requested.

7.5.1

AQUATIC ORGANISM PASSAGE

The necessity to protect aquatic organism (e.g. fish) life and provide for their passage can affect
many decisions regarding bridge, culvert, channel change, riprap design, and construction
requirements. Because of their relatively small size, the ability of culverts to accommodate
migrating aquatic organisms is an important design consideration. Consult state and local fish
and wildlife resource agencies early in the roadway planning process when aquatic organism
passage issues are anticipated. For existing culverts that obstruct aquatic organism passage,
modifications can be used to improve passage criteria. Aquatic organism passage will be
accommodated when need is verified by project scoping studies.

7.5.1.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

23 CFR 650A

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 23, Part 650 Subpart A,

Location and Hydraulic Design of Encroachments on Flood
Plains

2.

HDS 5

FHWA HDS 5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts

3.

HEC 26

FHWA HEC 26, Culvert Design for Aquatic Organism Passage,

FHWA HIF-11-008, October 2010.

4.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 9

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 9 Culverts

5.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. IV

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume IV Hydraulic

Design of Culverts

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7.5.1.2

December 2012

Design Standards and Criteria

Roadway crossing structures needed to accommodate aquatic organism passage will comply
with the applicable standards and criteria of this chapter. The selected design will be
reasonable in terms of satisfying social, environmental, and economic constraints.

7.5.1.3
7.5.1.3.1

Design Guidance
Culverts

Because aquatic organism passage needs are particularly acute and frequent at culvert
locations, many fish and wildlife agencies have established design standards and criteria for
their passage through culverts. Design considerations include discharge, maximum allowable
velocity, minimum water depth, substrate characteristics, maximum culvert length and gradient,
type of structure, and construction scheduling. Final designs should consider these standards
and criteria as well as those of this chapter.
New vs. Retrofit
The design of new or replacement culverts that must provide aquatic organism passage should
seek to replicate the natural stream hydraulics and processes, such as sediment transport
characteristics, over a range of discharges up to and including the roadway design flood. The
design should concentrate low flows to provide adequate passage depth and provide high-flow
velocities that are comparable to those in the natural channel upstream and downstream of the
crossing.
For highway rehabilitation or restoration projects, where an existing culvert has been identified
as an aquatic organism passage barrier, the engineer should consider alternatives for retrofitting
the existing structure to meet passage requirements. It is possible that the addition of baffles
inside the culvert, weirs downstream of the culvert, or other treatments can meet the criteria for
local aquatic organism passage and design storm conveyance.
Oversized or Depressed Culverts
To improve aquatic organism passage success, culverts typically require a natural alluvial
bottom. To provide this, the designer may use an oversized culvert, with the invert buried below
the channel invert elevations and a portion of the culvert bottom filled with alluvial material.
When conditions allow, this is the preferred method for providing a natural bottom. Consult
HEC 26 for specific design guidance.
Open-Bottom Culverts
Open-bottom culverts, either concrete or metal, are sometimes designed for aquatic organism
passage, environmental, aesthetics or economic reasons. These structures typically have a
natural bottom and must be supported on both sides by a scour-resistant foundation. Because
of the likelihood of local scour, evaluate and design the foundations using bridge criteria, unless

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they can be founded on bedrock. Refer to Sections 7.4.2 and 7.4.3 for information on
foundation design in areas where scour is a potential.
Culverts with Baffles
Many baffle configurations have been shown to decrease the velocity or increase water depth
through the culvert. Baffles may be used for making existing culverts aquatic organism
passable in retrofit situations. The addition of baffles may cause culverts to flow in outlet control
at relatively low discharge rates. Neglecting the culvert area occupied by the baffles may not
adequately account for the energy losses from turbulence generated by the baffles.
Downstream Weirs
Weirs may also be useful in retrofit applications. They are typically constructed downstream of
the culvert to increase tailwater and increase flow depths through the culvert. Weirs must be
designed for stability during high flows and also provide for aquatic organism passage. This
may require means for aquatic organisms to bypass the weir.
Special Treatment
In wide, shallow streams where sediment deposition is not a concern, one barrel of a multiple
barrel culvert installation can be depressed slightly to concentrate low-flows, thus improving
aquatic organism passage.

7.5.1.3.2
7.5.1.4

Bridges (reserved)
Recommended Methods

Analyze, design, and evaluate culverts for aquatic organism passage according to the methods
and procedures presented in HEC 26, Culvert Design for Aquatic Organism Passage.
Use local or regional guidance, methods, or procedures, as available and applicable. Examples
include:

Federal resources agency procedures (e.g., USFS, USFWS, NMFS)

State DOT Memorandums of Agreement with resource agencies (e.g., Alaska, Maine)
State procedures (e.g., California, Oregon)

7.5.2

7.5.2.1

STREAM RESTORATION AND REHABILITATION

Standard Practice

Stream restoration/rehabilitation is a highly interdisciplinary task requiring close coordination

with the Environmental Office, resource agencies, and the partner agency. This task may be
undertaken as part of needed channel relocation work or as an independent environmental
mitigation or habitat enhancement effort. The role of hydraulics is to provide:
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Appropriate protection for the roadway

Compatibility with geomorphic and biological factors at the site
Cost-effective design

For detailed guidance on the stability aspects of stream restoration or rehabilitation work,
reference Sections 7.4.2, 7.4.7, and 7.4.8.

7.5.2.2

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

23 CFR 650A

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 23, Part 650 Subpart A,

Location and Hydraulic Design of Encroachments on Flood
Plains

2.

HDS 6

FHWA HDS 6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments

3.

HEC 20

FHWA HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway Structures

4.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

5.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 15

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 15 Surface Water

Environment

6.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. X

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume X Evaluating

Highway Effects on Surface Water Environments

7.

Stream Corridor
Restoration

Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group, Stream

Corridor Restoration: Principles, Processes, and Practices

7.5.2.3

Bridge

Scour

and

Stream

Instability

Design Standards and Criteria

The design standards and criteria applied to stream restoration and rehabilitation design will
comply with the applicable standards and criteria of this chapter. The selected design will be
reasonable in terms of satisfying social, environmental, and economic constraints.

7.5.2.3.1

Plan Form and Geometry

Replicate the historical plan form and channel geometries, if known. Where historical
geometries are unknown, use the appropriate dominant discharge (2- to 10-year discharge) and
regime theory to establish appropriate plan form and channel geometries.

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December 2012

Stability Checks

Conduct stability checks of plan form and channel geometry over a range of discharges up to
and including the 50-year flood.

7.5.2.4

Design Guidance

In the process of restoration and rehabilitation of streams and aquatic habitat, the goal is not a
static, immovable channel. Rather, the goal is to restore the stream to a reasonably stable,
naturalistic system that exhibits a state of dynamic equilibrium.

7.5.2.5

Recommended Methods

Design and evaluate the hydraulic engineering aspects of stream restoration and rehabilitation
according to the methods and procedures presented in Chapter 7 of HEC 20, HEC 23, and the
Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group, Stream Corridor Restoration
Principles, Processes, and Practices.

7.5.3

WETLANDS

7.5.3.1

Standard Practice

Road construction and roadway operation can have numerous impacts on wetland chemistry,
biology, surface hydrology, and groundwater hydrology. Wetland design and analysis is a
highly interdisciplinary task requiring close coordination with the Environmental Office, resource
agencies, and the partner agency. The primary role of the hydraulics engineer is for support
and review of deliverables from specialty contractors, as requested.

7.5.3.2

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HDS 2

FHWA HDS 2, Highway Hydrology

2.

23 CFR 771

23 CFR 771, Environmental Impact and Related Procedures

3.

23 CFR 777

23 CFR 777, Mitigation of Environmental Impacts to Privately

Owned Wetlands

4.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 15

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 15 Surface Water

Environment

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5.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. X

7.5.3.3

December 2012

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume X Evaluating

Highway Effects on Surface Water Environments

Design Standards and Criteria

The design standards and criteria applied to wetland design will comply with the applicable
standards and criteria of this chapter. The selected design will be reasonable in terms of
satisfying social, environmental, and economic constraints.

7.5.3.4

Design Guidance

The design of wetlands should be performed by specialists. The primary role of the hydraulics
engineer is for support and review as requested.

7.5.4

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT

7.5.4.1

Standard Practice

Where required by federal, state, or local storm water management policies, standards, and
criteria, both permanent and temporary storm water controls will be incorporated into Federal
Lands Highway projects. Controls on both water quantity and quality are typical. Best
Management Practices (BMPs) that reduce storm water runoff during construction and prevent
erosion at the inlets and outlets of conveyance features should be designed and incorporated
into the project Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP).

7.5.4.2

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HEC 22

FHWA HEC 22, Urban Drainage Design Manual

2.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 12

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 12 Storage

Facilities

3.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. IX

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume IX Guidelines

for Storm Drain Systems

4.

NPDES Regulations

5.

State and Local Stormwater Management Manuals

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6.

FHWA PD-96-032

FHWA PD-96-032, Evaluation and Management of Highway

Runoff Water Quality

7.

FHWA EP-00-002

FHWA EP-00-002, Stormwater Best Management Practices in an

Ultra-Urban Setting: Selection and Monitoring

7.5.4.3

Design Standards and Criteria

Conduct project-specific hydrologic/hydraulic analyses, and design necessary facilities to

support compliance with federal, state, and local stormwater management requirements,
standards, and criteria.
The design standards and criteria applied to stormwater management design will comply with
the applicable standards and criteria of this chapter. The selected design will be reasonable in
terms of satisfying social, environmental, and economic constraints.

7.5.4.4

Recommended Methods

Federal, state, and local requirements often govern the design of stormwater management
facilities. Where applicable, those design methods should be used and supplemented with the
analysis and design methods recommended in this chapter.
Methods specific to storage routing analysis and outlet structure design for retention/detention
basins are provided in Chapter 8 of HEC 22.

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7.6

December 2012

COASTAL HYDRAULICS

7.6.1

GENERAL

Tidal waterways and coastal shorelines present special challenges to the design of highway
facilities. This section provides references, standards, criteria, and guidance specific to the
design of highway facilities in coastal areas.
Certain elements of analysis and design in coastal areas require technical knowledge specific to
the field of coastal engineering. The design of critical facilities in coastal areas, therefore, will
usually require attention from a qualified coastal engineer.

7.6.1.1

Tide Levels and Wave Heights

The hydrology and hydraulics of coastal shorelines and tidal waterways are dominated by
factors that are typically nonexistent or of little consequence in inland streams. The most
significant factors distinguishing tidal waters from inland streams are the effects of the tides and
wind-generated waves. Tidal water elevations and wave heights are, therefore, the two key
elements of coastal hydraulic analysis that define design water surface elevations. Hydraulic
design of roadway facilities along coastlines or crossing tidal waterways will consider the effects
of tidal water elevations and their cyclical fluctuations, along with storm surges and wave
heights, as appropriate. Refer to FHWA HEC 25, Highways in the Coastal Environment, for
definitions of terminology specific to tidal waterways and coastal areas.

7.6.1.2

Vertical Datum Reconciliation

Published tide heights are usually referenced to the Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW). The
relationship between MLLW and any fixed vertical datum such as the North American Vertical
Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88) and the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29, often
simply termed Mean Sea Level) varies widely depending on location along the coast. Resources
are available that quantify the relationship between MLLW and NAVD 88, which can then be
converted for NGVD 29. Chapter 6 of HEC 25 explains how to find and use these resources.

7.6.2

HYDROLOGY

Hydrologic analysis for projects along shorelines or crossing tidal waterways primarily involves
the prediction of tidal water elevations and wave heights (i.e., design water surfaces). These
predictions may be required for normal conditions unaffected by storms, for conditions resulting
from severe storms or both. The appropriate recurrence interval or level of severity to be
analyzed will depend upon the design standards presented later in this section.

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December 2012

References

The following references provided source information for the development of the guidance of
this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HEC 25

FHWA HEC 25, Highways in the Coastal Environment, FHWA

NHI-07-096, 2008

2.

EM 1110-2-1100

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers EM 1110-2-1100, Coastal

Engineering Manual

7.6.2.2
7.6.2.2.1

Standard Practices
Roadway Facilities Along Shorelines

The hydrologic analysis of a project along a shoreline of an ocean or bay will predict the
following elements for astronomic and storm events of appropriate severity:

Peak tidal elevations

Wind-generated wave heights

7.6.2.2.2

Roadway Facilities Crossing Inlets, Tidal Channels and Bays

The hydrologic analysis of a project crossing an inlet, other tidally dominated channel, or bay,
will predict the following elements for astronomic and storm events of appropriate severity:

Water-level hydrograph at the project location resulting from combined astronomic tides
and storm-surge conditions

Discharge hydrograph at the project location resulting from combined astronomic tides
and storm-surge conditions

Wind-generated wave heights

7.6.2.2.3

Roadway Facilities Crossing Estuaries

The hydrologic analysis of a project crossing an estuary (a tidally affected reach at the mouth of
a river or stream) will predict the following elements for astronomic and storm events of
appropriate severity:

Peak discharge rates for riverine floods along with approximate riverine flood duration
and time-to-peak estimate

Water-level hydrograph at the project location resulting from combined astronomic tides
and storm-surge conditions

Discharge hydrograph at the project location resulting from combined astronomic tides
and storm-surge conditions

Wind-generated wave heights

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December 2012

The hydrologic analysis of estuaries requires an investigation of the probability of a severe flood
coinciding with an extreme astronomic tide or storm-surge condition.

7.6.2.3

Design Guidance

The hydrologic determinations called for above require analysis methods that are usually not
relevant to inland rivers and streams. Essentially the design processes involve:

Estimating the magnitude and timing of the oceans rise and fall for the event or
condition of interest

Estimating the discharge hydrograph or the peak discharge rate at the location of
interest in response to the tidal rise and fall

If appropriate, combining the tidal discharge information with the riverine flow

Estimating the water-surface elevation associated with the peak discharge

Developing an appropriate design wave height prediction, usually a function of the wind
speed, the fetch, and the depth of the waterway

7.6.2.4

Recommended Methods

The processes described above can be achieved by simple or complex analysis methods,
depending on project needs. Chapters 2 through 4 of HEC 25 describe various available
methods and their appropriate application.
A common approach for developing wave height predictions is to assume a hurricane-force
wind and use the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers EM 1110-2-1100, Coastal Engineering Manual
to determine the significant wave height.

7.6.2.5

Reporting

Section 7.6.2.2 describes the hydrologic elements that are to be predicted depending on the
project situation. Those elements must be reported and must be supported by appropriate
documentation, which will include, at a minimum:

7.6.3

Data and data sources

Reference for methods used
Assumptions
Conclusions
Recommendations

FLOODPLAIN ENCROACHMENTS

The National Flood Insurance Program has designated special flood hazard areas for coastal
shorelines and tidal waterways. As with inland floodplains, coastal flood hazard areas are
delineated for base flood (100-year) conditions.
Consequently, the requirements of
Section 7.4.1 also apply to projects encroaching on FEMA regulated coastal floodplains. The
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impacts of roadway projects encroaching on coastal floodplains are typically less critical than on
riverine floodplains. Unlike riverine floodplains, the base flood elevations of coastal floodplains
other than estuaries are not typically affected by roadway encroachments. The flood elevations
of non-estuary coastal floodplains are set by the effects of astronomic tides, storm surges, and
waves, which are not sensitive to the presence of roadway encroachments.

7.6.3.1

References

The following references provided source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

23 CFR 650A

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 23, Part 650 Subpart A,

Location and Hydraulic Design of Encroachments on Flood
Plains

2.

NS 23 CFR 650A

Federal-Aid Policy Guide, Non-regulatory Supplement to Title 23

CFR 650 Subpart A, Attachment 2, Procedures for Coordinating
Highway Encroachments on Floodplains with Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA)

3.

FEMA Appendix D

FEMA Guidelines and Specifications for Floodplain Mapping

Partners Appendix D, Guidance for Coastal Flooding Analyses
and Mapping

7.6.3.2

Standard Practices

Refer to Section 7.4.1.2.

7.6.3.3

Design Standards

Refer to Section 7.4.1.3.

7.6.3.4

Design Criteria

Refer to Section 7.4.1.4. Note that encroachments on coastal floodplains other than estuaries
rarely cause any rise to the base flood elevations.

7.6.3.5

Design Guidance

Because coastal flood levels are driven by tides, storm surges, and waves, they are typically not
affected by highway encroachments. Water-surface-elevation impact studies are usually not
required, therefore, for projects encroaching on the floodplains of shorelines, bays, or inlets.
Projects encroaching on estuary floodplains may cause an adverse impact, depending on the
importance of riverine flooding compared to coastal flooding at the location of interest. Refer to
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Section 7.4.1.5 for more comprehensive guidance on the design of floodplain encroachments
and coordination with floodplain administration officials (FEMA, state, and local).

7.6.3.6

Reporting

Refer to Section 7.4.1.6.

7.6.3.7

Plans

Refer to Section 7.4.1.7. The magnitude (discharge rate) of the flood will not be applicable
except in the case of estuaries.

7.6.4

SCOUR AND STREAM STABILITY

Scour and stream instability present potential threats to highway facilities in coastal areas, just
as in the riverine context. This section provides standards, criteria, and guidance related to
scour and stream instability specifically in coastal areas.

7.6.4.1

References

The following references provided source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

T 5140.23

Technical Advisory T 5140.23, Evaluating Scour at Bridges, 1991

2.

HDS 6

FHWA HDS 6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments

3.

HEC 18

FHWA HEC 18, Evaluating Scour at Bridges

4.

HEC 20

FHWA HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway Structures

5.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

6.

HEC 25

FHWA HEC 25, Highways in the Coastal Environment

7.

FHWA RD-86-126

FHWA Report Number RD-86-126, Development of a

Methodology for Estimating Embankment Damage Due to Flood
Overtopping

8.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. XI

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume XI Highways

Along Coastal Zones and Lakeshores

9.

EM 1110-2-1100

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers EM 1110-2-1100, Coastal

Engineering Manual

Coastal Hydraulics

Bridge

Scour

and

Stream

Instability

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December 2012

Standard Practices

The potential for scour and stream instability will be considered when designing highway
facilities that interface with shorelines and tidal waterways. Accordingly, an assessment or
evaluation of the potential for scour and stream instability will be conducted at a level
commensurate with the risk of damage to the facility. The design will protect the highway facility
from stream instability and scour at an appropriate level, in accordance with the applicable
sections of Chapter 7 for each type of drainage structure or facility.

7.6.4.3

Design Standards and Criteria

Select the design standards and criteria for stability against scour and stream instability in
accordance with the applicable sections referenced below:

Bridge foundations, see Section 7.6.5

Roadway embankments, see Section 7.6.6
Scour and stream instability countermeasures, see Section 7.6.7

7.6.4.4

Design Guidance

Refer to Section 7.4.2.4 and consider additional guidance related specifically to scour and
stream instability in coastal areas.
Even though the standards and criteria associated with scour and stream instability are often
the same for inland-area and coastal-area projects, the processes causing scour can be quite
different.

7.6.4.4.1

Wave Attack Considerations

Wave attack can cause scour at facilities located along shorelines. Embankment side slopes,
for instance, can be destroyed by waves through impact, run-up, or rebound, unless protected.

7.6.4.4.2

Causes of Degradation

Degradation in an inlet is usually caused by a sediment imbalance in the tidal flows through the
inlet. The degradational trend can be initiated by construction of coastal protection works that
stop or impede the littoral drift of sediment from reaching the inlet, or by another nearby inlet to
the same bay becoming closed.

7.6.4.4.3

Flow Reversal

Since the flow reverses directions in a tidal waterway the contraction scour and local scour
potential often must be determined for flow in both directions, and the worst case used for
design.

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7.6.4.4.4

December 2012

Short Duration of High Discharge and Velocity

If the scour potential is being estimated for a short-duration event, such as a hurricane storm
surge condition, consider the possibility that the scour-causing flows will not last long enough to
develop the full equilibrium scour potential. Contraction-scour calculations can be modified to
account for the time-rate of scour (see HEC 25, Chapter 5).

7.6.4.4.5

Riverine vs. Tidal Scour Conditions

For bridges that could be subject to scour from both extreme riverine floods and extreme tidal
storm events, it may be necessary to analyze the scour for both conditions and design for the
worst case.

7.6.4.5

Recommended Methods

HEC 25 provides a description of Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3 analysis approaches for tidal
waterways. It also gives detailed guidance analyzing tide levels, hydraulics, and scour potential
in tidal waterways.
For estimates of wave scour, refer to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers EM 1110-2-1100. This
manual provides guidance on wave height prediction as a function of wind speed, wind duration,
the fetch of the water body, and the water depth within the fetch.

7.6.4.6

Reporting

Refer to Section 7.4.2.6.

7.6.5

BRIDGED WATERWAYS

This section provides standards, criteria, and guidance specific to bridges over tidal waterways.

7.6.5.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

23 CFR 650A

Code of Federal Regulations, Title 23, Part 650 Subpart A,

Location and Hydraulic Design of Encroachments on Flood
Plains

2.

T 5140.23

Technical Advisory T 5140.23, Evaluating Scour at Bridges, 1991

3.

HEC 18

FHWA HEC 18, Evaluating Scour at Bridges

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4.

HEC 20

FHWA HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway Structures

5.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

6.

HEC 25

FHWA HEC 25, Highways in the Coastal Environment

7.

HEC-RAS

USACE HEC-RAS, Hydraulic Reference Manual

8.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. VII

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume VII Hydraulic

Analysis for the Location and Design of Bridges

9.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. VIII

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume VIII Hydraulic

Aspects in Restoration and Upgrading of Highways

10.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. XI

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume XI Highways

Along Coastal Zones and Lakeshores

7.6.5.2
7.6.5.2.1

Bridge

Scour

and

Stream

Instability

Standard Practices
Floodplain Encroachments

New or expanded encroachments on 100-year coastal floodplains should be avoided wherever

practicable. If a project requires an encroachment on a 100-year coastal floodplain that is
regulated by FEMA or potentially creates an adverse impact to private property or insurable
buildings along estuaries, reference Sections 7.6.3 and 7.4.1 for appropriate design policy,
standards, and criteria, as well as guidance on FEMA coordination, if required.

7.6.5.3

Design Standards

The following standards apply to bridges on both High- and Low-Standard roadways. Refer to
the definitions of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

7.6.5.3.1

Capacity Design

Design bridges to provide the appropriate freeboard above the 50-year storm-tide elevation plus
the 50-year wave height.
Temporary Bridges

High-Standard Roadways: Design temporary bridges to remain open to traffic while

experiencing the highest astronomic tide plus the 10-year wave height.

Low-Standard Roadways: Design temporary bridges to remain open to traffic while

experiencing the highest astronomic tide plus the 2-year wave height.

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7.6.5.3.2

December 2012

Stability Design

The stability design of a bridge foundation refers to its ability to withstand scour.
Design Flood
Use the worst-case scour-producing event up through the 100-year event as the design flood.
See HEC 25 for an expanded description of the stability design event.
Check Flood
Use a more severe storm, on the order of a 500-year event, as the check flood. Provide
supporting documentation when using an event frequency other than 500-year for the check
flood.
Temporary Bridges

High-Standard Roadways:
Design temporary bridges to remain stable while
experiencing the highest astronomic tide and the 10-year wave height.

Low-Standard Roadways:
Design temporary bridges to remain stable while
experiencing the highest astronomic tide and the 2-year wave height.

7.6.5.4

Design Criteria

Refer to Section 7.4.3.4.

capacity design criteria:

Those criteria apply here, with the following modification to the

The reference datum for measuring freeboard is the design storm tide elevation plus the design
wave height at the bridge location, on whichever side of the bridge this reference elevation is
highest.

7.6.5.5

Design Guidance

Refer to Section 7.4.3.5 for general guidance related to bridge design.

7.6.5.6

Recommended Methods

HEC 25 provides recommended methods for hydraulic and scour analysis of bridges over tidal
waterways.

7.6.5.7

Reporting

Section 7.1.11 provides a general list of submittal requirements for hydraulic design projects.
Specific additional deliverables for the analysis and design of bridged tidal waterways will
include at a minimum:

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For the capacity design event: the water-surface elevation at the bridge; the vertical
clearance between the design water surface (storm tide elevation plus wave height) and
the lowest point on the low chord; and the percentage of the low chord length that meets
the freeboard criterion

The maximum discharge through the bridge opening for the foundation stability design
event

The maximum velocity through the bridge opening for the foundation stability design
event

The predicted total scour depths and post-scour elevations at each substructure element
(shown both graphically and in tabular form)

Calculations for individual scour components

Design calculations for any proposed scour countermeasures (i.e. riprap sizing
calculations, etc.)

Design sketches of any proposed scour countermeasures (i.e. abutment riprap,

embankment protection, etc.)

7.6.5.8

Plans

Include the following information, as a minimum, in the bridge drawings:

Location, geometry, and axis alignment of abutments

Location, geometry, and axis alignment of piers

Elevations of spread footing bases or pile tips for each abutment and pier

Existing topography and grading contours in the plan drawing

The capacity-design water-surface elevation (storm tide elevation plus wave height) in
the elevation drawing

Waterway cross-section geometry in the elevation drawing

Locations, dimensions, and details for any proposed scour countermeasures

Magnitude, frequency, and water-surface elevation of overtopping flood or the check

flood if overtopping is not possible

Magnitude, frequency, and water-surface elevation for the 100-year flood if greater than
the overtopping flood

7.6.6

ROADWAY EMBANKMENTS

This section provides standards, criteria, and guidance related to the design of roadway
embankments parallel and adjacent to coastal shorelines.

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References

The following references provided source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HDS 6

FHWA HDS 6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments

2.

HEC 11

FHWA HEC 11, Design of Riprap Revetment

3.

HEC 20

FHWA HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway Structures

4.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

5.

HEC 25

FHWA HEC 25, Highways in the Coastal Environment

6.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. XI

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume XI Highways

Along Coastal Zones and Lakeshores

7.

EM 1110-2-1100

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers EM 1110-2-1100, Coastal

Engineering Manual

7.6.6.2
7.6.6.2.1

Bridge

Scour

and

Stream

Instability

Standard Practices
Floodplain Encroachments

Roadway encroachments on 100-year coastal floodplains should be avoided wherever

practicable. If a project requires an encroachment on a 100-year coastal floodplain that is
regulated by FEMA or potentially creates an adverse impact to private property or insurable
buildings along estuaries, reference Sections 7.6.3 and 7.4.1 for appropriate design policy,
standards, and criteria, as well as guidance on FEMA coordination, if required.

7.6.6.2.2

Use of Scour and Stream Instability Countermeasures

The stability standards presented in this section will usually be met by using a suitably designed
countermeasure to prevent damage to the embankment. Refer to Sections 7.6.7 and 7.4.8 for
standards, criteria, and guidance on the design of countermeasures.

7.6.6.3

Design Standards

The standards presented here apply to coastal roadway embankments, with or without retaining
walls, for which the profile grade is controlled by tidal water levels and wave heights. Refer to
the definition of High- and Low-Standard roadways in Section 7.1.6.

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Capacity Design

High-Standard Roadways: Design coastal roadway embankments to provide adequate

freeboard above the 50-year storm-tide elevation plus the 50-year wave height.
Freeboard is defined in Section 7.6.6.4.

Low-Standard Roadways: Design coastal roadway embankments with the profile grade
above the highest astronomic tide plus the 25-year wave height.

7.6.6.3.2

Stability Design

High-Standard Roadways: Design coastal roadway embankments with protection as

needed to remain stable against the 50-year storm surge and 50-year wave attack.

Low-Standard Roadways: Design coastal roadway embankments with protection as

needed to remain stable against the 25-year wave attack.

7.6.6.4

Design Criteria

The criteria presented here apply to coastal roadway embankments, with or without retaining
walls, for which the profile grade is controlled by tidal water levels and wave heights.

7.6.6.4.1

Capacity Design

High-Standard Roadways: Design coastal roadway embankments with a minimum

freeboard of 2.0 ft [0.6 m]. Freeboard is defined as the vertical distance between the
design water surface and the bottom of the aggregate base layer of the pavement
structure.

Low-Standard Roadways: No freeboard required since overtopping is a desired and

cost-effective mechanism for providing hydraulic relief.

7.6.6.4.2

Stability Design

Demonstrate that the embankment is reasonably expected to remain stable, with or without
protection by countermeasures, up through the stability design standard throughout the
intended service life of the embankment.

7.6.6.5

Design Guidance

Prominent concerns in the design of coastal highway embankments are:

Preventing an unacceptable frequency of service interruption by high water (e.g. storm

surges) and waves

Protecting the roadway embankment from destruction by wave attack up through the
stability design event.

Protecting the roadway embankment from scour by adjacent parallel or impinging

currents.

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It is necessary, therefore, to determine the peak storm tide elevation, the expected significant
wave height and the peak velocity of any adjacent parallel or impinging current associated with
the design recurrence interval. In some cases it may be necessary to analyze numerous types
of events to develop the design parameters. In some locations, for instance, the highest storm
tide with a 50-year recurrence interval may be generated by an extratropical storm, such as a
Noreaster, while the 50-year currents and waves may come from a hurricane.
The appropriate level of study to determine the design wave height depends upon several
factors, including: the location of the facility; the orientation of the water body with respect to the
facility; the straight-line length of the fetch along the anticipated wind direction; the depth of
water along the fetch; and the anticipated speed and duration of sustained winds.

7.6.6.6

Recommended Methods

HEC 25 gives detailed guidance for analyzing tide levels, hydraulics, and scour potential in tidal
waterways.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Manual EM 1110-2-1100 provides guidance on wave height
prediction. The methods in EM 1110-2-1100 should generally be used in locations that are not
subject to attack from large waves. Examples of appropriate locations include small bays or
channels protected by barrier islands, and inland reaches of estuaries. At locations subject to
attack by large waves, such as the open ocean coastline, the wave height determination should
employ more extensive coastal engineering approaches, including numerical wave modeling.

7.6.6.7

Reporting

Section 7.1.11 provides a general list of submittal requirements for hydraulic design projects.
Specific additional deliverables for the analysis and design of coastal roadway embankments
will include at a minimum:

A map or aerial photograph of the affected coastal area showing the embankment
location

If a detailed tidal hydraulic analysis was developed, a map showing the model limits,
boundary condition locations, and cross section locations

A profile drawing showing the design storm tide level and wave height along the
embankment

The predicted total scour depths and post-scour elevations at intervals along the toe of
the embankment

Design calculations for any proposed embankment protection (i.e. riprap sizing
calculations)

Design sketches of any proposed embankment protection, showing longitudinal extent,

required thickness of protection, and termination requirements (i.e. toe downs and end
terminations)

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December 2012

Plans

If protection has been designed for the embankment, then the following must be included on the
final design plans:

Details and dimensions of any required protection

A profile drawing showing the design storm tide level and wave height along the
embankment

7.6.7

SCOUR AND STREAM INSTABILITY COUNTERMEASURES

This section provides standards, criteria, and guidance for the design of countermeasures in
coastal areas.

7.6.7.1

References

The following references provide source information for the development of the standards,
criteria, and guidance of this subsection (most recent editions apply):
1.

HDS 6

FHWA HDS 6, River Engineering for Highway Encroachments

2.

HEC 11

FHWA HEC 11, Design of Riprap Revetment

3.

HEC 23

FHWA HEC 23,

Countermeasures

4.

HEC 25

FHWA HEC 25, Highways in the Coastal Environment

5.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. VII

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume VII Hydraulic

Analysis for the Location and Design of Bridges

6.

AASHTO HDG
Vol. XI

AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines, Volume XI Highways

Along Coastal Zones and Lakeshores

7.

AASHTO MDM
Chap. 17

AASHTO Model Drainage Manual, Chapter 17 Bank Protection

8.

Caltrans Chap. 870

California Department of Transportation Highway Design Manual,

Chapter 870 Channel and Shore Protection-Erosion Control

9.

EM 1110-2-1100

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers EM 1110-2-1100, Coastal

Engineering Manual

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7.6.7.2

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Standard Practices

The potential for scour and stream instability will be considered when designing highway
facilities that interface with shorelines and tidal waterways (see Section 7.6.4). Where it is
impracticable or inappropriate to accommodate the estimated scour or stream instability in the
design of the facility, countermeasures will be used to mitigate the potential for damage.

7.6.7.2.1

Bridge Piers

New piers will be designed so that they withstand the estimated total scour depth from the
design flood or event without the need for countermeasures (see Section 7.4.3). The piers of
bridges to be rehabilitated may be protected from scour by countermeasures as appropriate.

7.6.7.3
7.6.7.3.1

Design Standards
Stability Design

Scour and stream instability countermeasures will be designed to meet the appropriate stability
standards for the structures they are intended to protect. Specific references to appropriate
standards are provided below:
Foundations of Bridge Abutments and Existing Piers
Refer to Section 7.6.5.
Roadway Embankments
Refer to Section 7.6.6.

7.6.7.4

Design Criteria

Refer to Section 7.4.8.4.

7.6.7.5

Design Guidance

Refer to Section 7.4.8.5 and consider additional guidance related specifically to the design of
scour and stream instability countermeasures in coastal areas.

7.6.7.5.1

Wave Attack

When designing countermeasure installations in coastal environments that will be subject to

wave attack, consider the potential for the countermeasure to be destroyed or compromised by
wave attack. The riprap size required to resist wave attack is often larger than that required to
withstand the computed current velocity.

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December 2012

Filter Requirements

Designing riprap countermeasures in tidal waterways can be particularly challenging with

respect to filtering, because of the very fine bed sediments that often exist in tidal waterways.
The problem is compounded by the relentless pumping action cause by wave impacts. Unless
the design adequately prevents the migration of fine sediment through the revetment section,
the countermeasure may settle or unravel, thus becoming ineffective. Take special care to
provide an adequate filter based on site-specific bed sediment characteristics.

7.6.7.6

Recommended Methods

HEC 25 and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers EM 1110-2-1100 provide methods and
procedures for determining wave heights and designing countermeasures to withstand wave
attack.

7.6.7.7

Reporting

Refer to Section 7.4.8.7.

7.6.7.8

Plans

Refer to Section 7.4.8.8.

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