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Water softening
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Idealized image of water softening process involving replacement of calcium

ions in water with sodium ions donated by a cation-exchange resin.

Water softening is the removal of calcium, magnesium, and certain other metal

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cations in hard water. The resulting soft water is more compatible with soap and

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extends the lifetime of plumbing. Water softening is usually achieved using lime

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softening or ion-exchange resins.

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Catal

1 Problems with hard water

1.1 Limescale formation
1.2 Soap scum
2 Water softening methods
2.1 Ion-exchange resin devices
2.1.1 Types of ion-exchange materials
2.1.2 Regeneration of ion-exchange resins
2.2 Lime softening

etina

2.3 Chelating agents

Deutsch

2.4 Distillation and rain water

Eesti

2.5 Reverse osmosis

Espaol

3 Claims for non-chemical devices

Esperanto

4 Health effects

Franais
Hrvatski
Italiano

Nederlands
Srpskohrvatski /

4.1 Effects of sodium

5 Other effects
5.1 Use in irrigation
6 See also
7 References

Problems with hard water

[ edit ]

Main article: Hard water

Edit links

The presence of certain metal ions like calcium and magnesium principally as
bicarbonates, chlorides, and sulfates in water causes a variety of problems.[1]

Limescale formation

[ edit ]

Hard water leads to the buildup of limescale, which can foul plumbing, and
promote galvanic corrosion.[2] In industrial scale water softening plants, the
effluent flow from the re-generation process can precipitate scale that can
interfere with sewage systems.

Soap scum

[ edit ]

The slippery feeling experienced when using soap with soft water occurs
because soaps tend to bind to fats in the surface layers of skin, making soap
molecules difficult to remove by simple dilution. In contrast, in hard-water areas
the rinse water contains calcium or magnesium ions which form insoluble salts,
effectively removing the residual soap from the skin but potentially leaving a
coating of insoluble stearates on tub and shower surfaces, commonly called
soap scum.[3]
Which of these effects is considered more or less desirable varies from person
to person, and those who dislike the sliminess and difficulty of washing off soap
caused by soft water may harden the water by adding chemicals such as baking
soda, calcium chloride or magnesium sulphate.[4]

Water softening methods

[ edit ]

The most common means for removing

water hardness rely on ion-exchange
polymers or reverse osmosis. Other
approaches include precipitation
methods and sequestration by the
addition of chelating agents.

Lime scale in a PVC pipe

Ion-exchange resin devices

[ edit ]

Conventional water-softening appliances intended for household use depend on

an ion-exchange resin in which "hardness ions" - mainly Ca2+ and Mg2+ - are
exchanged for sodium ions.[5] As described by NSF/ANSI Standard 44,[6] ionexchange devices reduce the hardness by replacing magnesium and calcium
(Mg2+ and Ca2+) with sodium or potassium ions (Na+ and K+)."
Types of ion-exchange materials [ edit ]
Ion exchange resins are organic polymers containing anionic functional groups

to which the divalent cations (Ca++) bind

more strongly than monovalent cations
(Na+). Inorganic materials called zeolites
also exhibit ion-exchange properties. These
minerals are widely used in laundry
detergents. Resins are also available to
remove carbonate, bi-carbonate and
sulphate ions which are absorbed and
hydroxide ions released from the

Ion exchange resins, in the form

of beads, are a functional
component of domestic water
softening units.

resin.[citation needed]
Regeneration of ion-exchange resins [ edit ]
When all the available Na+ ions have been replaced with calcium or magnesium
ions, the resin must be re-charged by eluting the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions using a
solution of sodium chloride or sodium hydroxide depending on the type of resin
used.[7] For anionic resins, regeneration typically uses a solution of sodium
hydroxide (lye) or potassium hydroxide. The waste waters eluted from the ionexchange column containing the unwanted calcium and magnesium salts are
typically discharged to the sewage system.

Lime softening

[ edit ]

Main article: Lime softening

Lime softening is the process in which lime is added to hard water to make it
softer.

Chelating agents

[ edit ]

Main article: Chelation

Chelators are used in chemical analysis, as water softeners, and are ingredients
in many commercial products such as shampoos and food preservatives. Citric
acid is used to soften water in soaps and laundry detergents. A commonly used
synthetic chelator is ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA).

Distillation and rain water

[ edit ]

Since Ca2+ and Mg2+ exist as nonvolatile salts, they can be removed by distilling
the water. Distillation is too expensive in most cases. Rainwater is soft because
it is naturally distilled during the water cycle of evaporation, condensation and
precipitation.[8]

Reverse osmosis

[ edit ]

Main article: Reverse osmosis

Reverse osmosis (RO) takes advantage of hydrostatic pressure gradients
across a special membrane. The membrane has pores large enough to admit
water molecules for passage; hardness ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+ remain
behind and are flushed away by excess water into a drain. The resulting soft
water supply is free of hardness ions without any other ions being added.

Membranes have a limited capacity, requiring regular replacement.

Claims for non-chemical devices

[ edit ]

Some manufacturers claim that their electronic devices affect the interaction of
minerals with water so that the minerals do not bind to surfaces. Since these
systems do not work by exchanging ions, like traditional water softeners do,
therefore one benefit claimed for the user is the elimination of the need to add
salt to the system. While particle size reduction and plant growth promotion
have been claimed,[9] it is also important to remember that such systems do not
remove minerals from the water itself. Rather they can only alter the
downstream effects that the mineral-bearing water would otherwise have,
examples are remediation of calcium scaling,[10][11] and remediation of salt
crusts in soil.[12] These systems do not fall within the term "water softening" but
rather "water conditioning". Similar claims for magnetic water treatment are not
considered to be valid. For instance, no reduction of scale formation was found
when such a magnet device was scientifically tested.[13]

Health effects

[ edit ]

Effects of sodium

[ edit ]

The CDC recommends limiting daily total sodium intake to 2,300 mg per day,[14]
though the average American consumes 3,500 mg per day.[15] Because the
amount of sodium present in drinking watereven after softeningdoes not
represent a significant percentage of a person's daily sodium intake, the EPA
considers sodium in drinking water to be unlikely to cause adverse health
effects.[16]
For those who are on sodium-restricted diets, the use of a reverse osmosis
system for drinking water and cooking water will remove sodium along with any
other impurities which may be present. Potassium chloride can also be used as
a regenerant instead of sodium chloride, although it is more costly. For people
with impaired kidney function, however, elevated potassium levels, or
hyperkalemia, can lead to complications such as cardiac arrhythmia.
Compared to Reverse osmosis and distilled methods of producing soft water,
hard water conveys some benefits to health by reducing the solubility of
potentially toxic metal ions such as lead and copper, which are more soluble in
these types of soft water than in hard water.[17]

Other effects
Use in irrigation

[ edit ]
[ edit ]

Softened water (measured as residual sodium carbonate index) in which

calcium and magnesium have been partly replaced by sodium, is not suitable
for irrigation use, as it tends to cause the development of alkali soils.[18] Nonchemical devices are often used in place of traditional water softening, for this

application.

See also

[ edit ]

Desalination

Water portal

Ion exchange
Water purification

References

[ edit ]

1. ^ The Editors of Encyclopdia Britannica. "Hard water"

. Encyclopdia

Britannica. Retrieved 4 March 2015.

2. ^ Stephen Lower (July 2007). "Hard water and water softening"

. Retrieved

2007-10-08.
3. ^ Elmhurst College - Cleansing action of soap.
4. ^ "Soft Water V. Hard Water In Plumbing, Pools And Hot Tubs Spas"

Retrieved 2013-06-23.
5. ^ "Water Softeners"

. Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Retrieved

2010-01-29.
6. ^ Filtration Facts

, September 2005, U.S. Environmental Protection

Administration, pp. 6-7. Accessed 6 January 2013.

7. ^ New Hampshire Dept of Environmental Services-Ion Exchange Treatment of
Drinking Water
8. ^ Bartram, edited by Jamie; Ballance, Richard (1996). Water quality monitoring :
a practical guide to the design and implementation of freshwater quality studies
and monitoring programmes (1st ed.). London: E & FN Spon. ISBN 0419223207.
9. ^ http://www.hydrosmart.com.au/
10. ^ http://archive.wcponline.com/pdf/1101Michaud.pdf
11. ^ http://arisawater.com/wp-content/uploads/2011-ASU-Study-No-Salt-WaterConditioners.pdf
12. ^ http://www.hydrosmart.com.au/testimonials.html
13. ^ http://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/567404
14. ^ http://www.cdc.gov/salt/
15. ^ http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2010/04/19/AR2010041905049.html
16. ^ http://water.epa.gov/scitech/drinkingwater/dws/ccl/sodium.cfm#twelve
17. ^ "Common Water Quality Problems And Their Treatment"

(PDF) . Retrieved

2013-06-23.
18. ^ Managing irrigation water quality (page 12), Oregon State University, USA
Retrieved on 2012-10-04.

Categories: Water technology

Water

This page was last modified on 8 July 2016, at 01:54.

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