Introduction To High Energy Physics by Dan Kabat
Uploaded by
Atanu GayenIntroduction To High Energy Physics by Dan Kabat
Uploaded by
Atanu GayenIntroduction to High Energy Physics
Physics 85200
Fall 2011
January 8, 2015
Contents
List of exercises
page v
Conventions
vii
Useful formulas
ix
Particle properties
xi
The particle zoo
Exercises
Flavor SU (3) and the eightfold way
10
2.1
Tensor methods for SU (N ) representations
10
2.2
SU (2) representations
13
2.3
SU (3) representations
14
2.4
The eightfold way
16
2.5
Symmetry breaking by quark masses
18
2.6
Multiplet mixing
21
Exercises
23
Quark properties
25
3.1
Quark properties
25
3.2
Evidence for quarks
27
3.2.1
Quark spin
27
3.2.2
Quark charge
28
3.2.3
Quark color
29
i
ii
Contents
Exercises
32
Chiral spinors and helicity amplitudes
33
4.1
Chiral spinors
34
4.2
Helicity amplitudes
37
Exercises
40
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
41
5.1
Symmetries and conservation laws
41
5.1.1
44
5.2
5.3
Spontaneous symmetry breaking (classical)
45
5.2.1
Breaking a discrete symmetry
45
5.2.2
Breaking a continuous symmetry
47
5.2.3
Partially breaking a continuous symmetry
50
5.2.4
Symmetry breaking in general
52
Spontaneous symmetry breaking (quantum)
53
Exercises
55
Chiral symmetry breaking
60
Exercises
64
Effective field theory and renormalization
66
7.1
66
Effective field theory
7.1.1
7.2
Flavor symmetries of the quark model
Example I: 2 theory
2 2
7.1.2
Example II:
theory
7.1.3
Effective field theory generalities
Renormalization
66
69
71
72
7.2.1
Renormalization in 4 theory
73
7.2.2
Renormalization in QED
77
7.2.3
Comments on renormalization
79
Exercises
80
Effective weak interactions: 4-Fermi theory
86
Exercises
91
Intermediate vector bosons
95
Contents
10
11
12
13
iii
9.1
Intermediate vector bosons
95
9.2
Massive vector fields
96
9.3
Inverse muon decay revisited
98
9.4
Problems with intermediate vector bosons
99
9.5
Neutral currents
100
Exercises
103
QED and QCD
104
10.1 Gauge-invariant Lagrangians
104
10.2 Running couplings
109
Exercises
113
Gauge symmetry breaking
116
11.1 Abelian Higgs model
117
Exercises
120
The standard model
122
12.1 Electroweak interactions of leptons
122
12.1.1 The Lagrangian
122
12.1.2 Mass spectrum and interactions
124
12.1.3 Standard model parameters
130
12.2 Electroweak interactions of quarks
131
12.3 Multiple generations
133
12.4 Some sample calculations
135
12.4.1 Decay of the Z
136
12.4.2 e+ e annihilation near the Z pole
138
12.4.3 Higgs production and decay
140
Exercises
144
Anomalies
150
13.1 The chiral anomaly
150
13.1.1 Triangle diagram and shifts of integration variables 151
13.1.2 Triangle diagram redux
154
13.1.3 Comments
155
iv
Contents
13.1.4 Generalizations
158
13.2 Gauge anomalies
159
13.3 Global anomalies
161
Exercises
164
Additional topics
167
14.1 High energy behavior
167
14.2 Baryon and lepton number conservation
170
14.3 Neutrino masses
173
14.4 Quark flavor violation
175
14.5 CP violation
177
14.6 Custodial SU (2)
179
Exercises
183
15
Epilogue: in praise of the standard model
190
Feynman diagrams
192
Partial waves
199
Vacuum polarization
203
Two-component spinors
209
Summary of the standard model
213
14
List of exercises
1.1
Decays of the spin3/2 baryons
1.2
Decays of the spin1/2 baryons
1.3
Meson decays
1.4
Isospin and the resonance
1.5
Decay of the
1.6
I = 1/2 rule
2.1
Casimir operator for SU (2)
23
2.2
Flavor wavefunctions for the baryon octet
23
2.3
Combining flavor + spin wavefunctions for the baryon octet
24
2.4
Mass splittings in the baryon octet
24
2.5
Electromagnetic decays of the
24
3.1
Decays of the W and
32
4.1
Quark spin and jet production
40
5.1
Noethers theorem for fermions
55
5.2
Symmetry breaking in finite volume?
56
5.3
O(N ) linear -model
58
5.4
O(4) linear -model
58
5.5
SU (N ) nonlinear -model
59
6.1
Vacuum alignment in the -model
64
6.2
Vacuum alignment in QCD
64
7.1
scattering
80
7.2
Mass renormalization in 4 theory
82
7.3
Renormalization and scattering
82
7.4
Renormalized Coulomb potential
83
8.1
Inverse muon decay
92
8.2
Pion decay
92
8.3
Unitarity violation in quantum gravity
94
9.1
Unitarity and AB theory
103
10.1
Tree-level q q interaction potential
113
10.2
Three jet production
114
11.1
Superconductivity
120
vi
List of exercises
12.1
W decay
144
12.2
Polarization asymmetry at the Z pole
144
12.3
Forward-backward asymmetries at the Z pole
145
12.4
12.5
e e ZH
H f f, W + W , ZZ
146
146
H gg
147
13.2
Anomalous U (1)s
166
14.1
Unitarity made easy
183
14.2
See-saw mechanism
184
14.3
Custodial SU (2) and the parameter
185
14.4
Quark masses and custodial SU (2) violation
185
14.5
Strong interactions and electroweak symmetry breaking
185
14.6
S and T parameters
186
14.7
187
A.1
B L as a gauge symmetry
ABC theory
197
C.1
Pauli-Villars regularization
206
C.2
Mass-dependent renormalization
207
D.1
Chirality and complex conjugation
211
D.2
Lorentz invariant bilinears
211
D.3
Majorana spinors
211
D.4
Dirac spinors
212
12.6
13.1
164
Conventions
The Lorentz metric is g = diag(+ ).
The totally antisymmetric tensor satisfies 0123 = +1.
We use a chiral basis for the Dirac matrices
0 11
0
i
0
i
=
=
11 0
i 0
5
0 1 2 3
i =
where the Pauli matrices are
0 1
0 i
1
2
=
=
1 0
i 0
The quantum of electric charge is e =
the electron as eQ with Q = 1.
11 0
0 11
1 0
0 1
4 > 0. Ill write the charge of
Compared to Peskin & Schroeder weve flipped the signs of the gauge
couplings (e e, g g) in all vertices and covariant derivatives. So
for example in QED the covariant derivative is D = + ieQA and
the electron photon vertex is ieQ . (This is a matter of convention
because only e2 is observable. Our convention agrees with Quigg and is
standard in non-relativistic quantum mechanics.)
vii
Useful formulas
Propagators:
i
p2 m2
i(p/ + m)
p2 m2
ig
k2
i(g k k /m2 )
k 2 m2
spin-1/2
massless vector
massive vector
4 theory
spinor and scalar QED
QCD
standard model
Vertex factors:
Spin sums:
scalar
X
i
X
i
u(p, )
u(p, ) = p/ + m
v(p, )
v (p, ) = p/ m
i i = g
i i = g +
appendix A
appendix A
chapter 10
appendix E
spin-1/2
massless vector (QED only)
k k
m2
massive vector
In QCD in general one should only sum over physical
gluon polarizations: see p. 113.
Trace formulas:
Tr (odd # s) = 0
Tr (odd # s) 5 = 0
Tr (11) = 4
Tr ( 5 ) = 0
Tr ( ) = 4g
Tr = 4 g g g g + g g
Tr 5 = 0
Tr 5 = 4i
ix
Useful formulas
Decay rate 1 2 + 3:
In the center of mass frame
|p|
h|M|2 i
8m2
Here p is the spatial momentum of either outgoing particle and m is the
mass of the decaying particle. If the final state has identical particles,
divide the result by 2.
=
Cross section 1 + 2 3 + 4:
The center of mass differential cross section is
1 |p3 |
d
=
h|M|2 i
d c.m. 64 2 s |p1 |
where s = (p1 + p2 )2 and |p1 |, |p3 | are the magnitudes of the spatial
3-momenta. This expression is valid whether or not there are identical
particles in the final state. However in computing a total cross section
one should only integrate over inequivalent final configurations.
Particle properties
Leptons, quarks and gauge bosons:
particle
Leptons
Quarks
Gauge bosons
charge
mass
lifetime / width
principal decays
0
-1
-1
-1
0
0.511 Mev
106 Mev
1780 Mev
e e
0 , , e e
u
c
t
d
s
b
2/3
2/3
2/3
-1/3
-1/3
-1/3
3 MeV
1.3 GeV
172 GeV
5 MeV
100 MeV
4.2 GeV
stable
stable
2.2 106 sec
2.9 1013 sec
photon
W
Z
gluon
0
1
0
0
0
80.4 GeV
91.2 GeV
0
e , ,
e
xi
stable
2.1 GeV
2.5 GeV
`+ ` , ud,
`+ ` , , q q
W+
c
s
xii
Particle properties
Pseudoscalar mesons (spin-0, odd parity):
meson
0
K
0
K 0, K
KS0
KL0
quark content
d
ud,
u
(u
u dd)/
2
charge
u
s, s
u
d
s, sd
0 mix to
K 0, K
form KS0 , KL0
(u
u + dd 2s
s)/ 6
(u
u + dd + s
s)/ 3
1
0
1
0
strangeness:
140
135
494
498
MeV
MeV
MeV
MeV
0
0
548 MeV
958 MeV
+
0
isospin multiplets:
mass
K+
K0
lifetime
principal decays
2.6 108 sec
8.4 1017 sec
1.2 108 sec
9.0 1011 sec
5.1 108 sec
5.1 1019 sec
3.4 1021 sec
+ +
K + + , + 0
, 00
e e , ,
, 0 0 0 , + 0
+ , 0 0 , 0
0
K
K
-1
Vector mesons (spin-1):
meson
quark content
(u
ud,
u dd)/
2, d
u
s
u
s, d
s, sd,
u
(u
u + dd)/
2
s
s
strangeness:
mass
width
principal decays
+1, 0, -1
+1, 0, 0, -1
0
0
775 MeV
892 MeV
783 MeV
1019 MeV
150 MeV
51 MeV
8.5 MeV
4.3 MeV
K
+0
K + K , KL0 KS0
+
0
isospin multiplets:
charge
K +
K 0
1
0
K
K
-1
Particle properties
xiii
Spin-1/2 baryons:
baryon
quark content
charge
mass
p
n
+
0
uud
udd
uds
uus
uds
dds
uss
dss
+1
0
0
+1
0
-1
0
-1
938.3 MeV
939.6 MeV
1116 MeV
1189 MeV
1193 MeV
1197 MeV
1315 MeV
1322 MeV
isospin multiplets:
p
n
strangeness:
lifetime
stable
886 sec
2.6 1010
8.0 1011
7.4 1020
1.5 1010
2.9 1010
1.6 1010
+
0
-1
-1
principal decays
pe e
p , n 0
p 0 , n +
n
0
sec
sec
sec
sec
sec
sec
-2
Spin-3/2 baryons:
baryon
quark content
charge
uuu, uud, udd, ddd
uus, uds, dds
uss, dss
sss
+2, +1, 0, -1
+1, 0, -1
0, -1
-1
++
+
isospin multiplets:
strangeness:
mass
1232
1387
1535
1672
+
0
-1
MeV
MeV
MeV
MeV
width / lifetime
principal decays
118 MeV
39 MeV
10 MeV
8.2 1011 sec
p, n
,
K , 0
-2
-3
The particle data book denotes strongly-decaying particles by giving their
approximate mass in parenthesis, e.g. the baryon is known as the (1385).
The values listed for K , , are for the state with charge 1.
1
The particle zoo
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
The observed interactions can be classified as strong, electromagnetic, weak
and gravitational. Here are some typical decay processes:
strong:
electromag:
weak:
0 p
0 +
0
0
lifetime 6 1024 sec
4 1024 sec
7 1020 sec
8 1017 sec
n pe e
2.6 108 sec
15 minutes
The extremely short lifetime of the 0 indicates that the decay is due to the
strong force. Electromagnetic decays are generally slower, and weak decays
are slower still. Gravity is so weak that it has no influence on observed
particle physics (and will hardly be mentioned for the rest of this course).
The observed particles can be classified into
hadrons: particles that interact strongly (as well as via the electromagnetic and weak forces). Hadrons can either carry integer spin (mesons)
or half-integer spin (baryons). Literally hundreds of hadrons have been
detected: the mesons include , K, , ,. . . and the baryons include p, n,
, , ,. . .
charged leptons: these are spin-1/2 particles that interact via the electromagnetic and weak forces. Only three are known: e, , .
neutral leptons (also known as neutrinos): spin-1/2 particles that only
feel the weak force. Again only three are known: e , , .
gauge bosons: spin-1 particles that carry the various forces (gluons for the
1
The particle zoo
strong force, the photon for electromagnetism, W and Z for the weak
force).
All interactions have to respect some familiar conservation laws, such as
conservation of charge, energy, momentum and angular momentum. In addition there are some conservation laws that arent so familiar. For example,
consider the process
p e+ 0 .
This process respects conservation of charge and angular momentum, and
there is plenty of energy available for the decay, but it has never been observed. In fact as far as anyone knows the proton is stable (the lower bound
on the proton lifetime is 1031 years). How to understand this? Introduce a
conserved additive quantum number, the baryon number B, with B = +1
for baryons, B = 1 for antibaryons, and B = 0 for everyone else. Then
the proton (as the lightest baryon) is guaranteed to be absolutely stable.
Theres a similar law of conservation of lepton number L. In fact, in the
lepton sector, one can make a stronger statement. The muon is observed to
decay weakly, via
e e .
However the seemingly allowed decay
e
has never been observed, even though it respects all the conservation laws
weve talked about so far. To rationalize this we introduce separate conservation laws for electron number, muon number and tau number Le , L , L .
These are defined in the obvious way, for instance
Le = +1
for e and e
Le = 1
for e+ and e
Le = 0
for everyone else
Note that the observed decay e e indeed respects all these conservation laws.
So far all the conservation laws weve introduced are exact (at least, no
violation has ever been observed). But now for a puzzle. Consider the decay
K + +0
observed with 20% branching ratio
The initial and final states are all strongly-interacting (hadronic), so you
The particle zoo
might expect that this is a strong decay. However the lifetime of the K +
is 108 sec, characteristic of a weak decay. To understand this Gell-Mann
and Nishijima proposed to introduce another additive conserved quantum
number, called S for strangeness. One assigns some rather peculiar values,
for example S = 0 for p and , S = 1 for K + and K 0 , S = 1 for
and , S = 2 for . Strangeness is conserved by the strong force and
by electromagnetism, but can be violated by weak interactions. The decay
K + + 0 violates strangeness by one unit, so it must be a weak decay. If
this seems too cheap I should mention that strangeness explains more than
just kaon decays. For example it also explains why
p
is a weak process (lifetime 2.6 1010 sec).
Now for another puzzle: there are some surprising degeneracies in the
hadron spectrum. For example the proton and neutron are almost degenerate, mp = 938.3 MeV while mn = 939.6 MeV. Similarly m+ = 1189 MeV
while m0 = 1193 MeV and m = 1197 MeV. Another example is m =
140 MeV and m0 = 135 MeV. ( + and have exactly the same mass
since theyre a particle / antiparticle pair.)
Back in 1932 Heisenberg proposed that we should regard the proton and
neutron as two different states of a single particle, the nucleon.
1
0
|pi =
|ni =
0
1
This is very similar to the way we represent a spin-up electron and spindown electron as being two different states of a single particle. Pushing
this analogy further, Heisenberg proposed that the strong interactions are
invariant under isospin rotations the analog of invariance under ordinary
rotations for ordinary angular momentum. Putting this mathematically, we
postulate some isospin generators Ii that obey the same algebra as angular
momentum, and that commute with the strong Hamiltonian.
[Ii , Ij ] = iijk Ik
[Ii , Hstrong ] = 0
i, j, k {1, 2, 3}
We can group particles into isospin multiplets, for example the nucleon
doublet
p
n
has total isospin I = 1/2, while the s and s are grouped into isotriplets
The particle zoo
with I = 1:
+
0
+
0
Note that isospin is definitely not a symmetry of electromagnetism, since
were grouping together particles with different charges. Its also not a
symmetry of the weak interactions, since for example the weak decay of the
pion violates isospin. Rather the claim is that if we could turn
off the electromagnetic and weak interactions then isospin would be an
exact symmetry and the proton and neutron would be indistinguishable.
(For ordinary angular momentum, this would be like having a Hamiltonian
that can be separated into a dominant rotationally-invariant piece plus a
small non-invariant perturbation. If you like, the weak and electromagnetic
interactions pick out a preferred direction in isospin space.)
At this point isospin might just seem like a convenient book-keeping device for grouping particles with similar masses. But you can test isospin in
a number of non-trivial ways. One of the classic examples is pion proton scattering. At center of mass energies around 1200 MeV scattering is
dominated by the formation of an intermediate resonance.
+ p ++ anything
0 p + anything
p 0 anything
The pion has I = 1, the proton has I = 1/2, and the has I = 3/2.
Now recall the Clebsch-Gordon coefficients for adding angular momentum
(J = 1) (J = 1/2) to get (J = 3/2).
P
J,M
notation: |J, M i = m1 ,m2 Cm
1 ,m2 |J1 , m1 i |J2 , m2 i
|3/2, 3/2i = |1, 1i |1/2, 1/2i
r
1
2
|1, 0i |1/2, 1/2i
|3/2, 1/2i = |1, 1i |1/2, 1/2i +
3
3
r
r
2
1
|3/2, 1/2i =
|1, 0i |1/2, 1/2i +
|1, 1i |1/2, 1/2i
3
3
|3/2, 3/2i = |1, 1i |1/2, 1/2i
As well see isospin is also violated by quark masses. To the extent that one regards quark
masses as a part of the strong interactions, one should say that even Hstrong has a small
isospin-violating component.
The particle zoo
From this we can conclude that the amplitudes stand in the ratio
r
h + p|Hstrong |++ i : h 0 p|Hstrong |+ i : h p|Hstrong |0 i = 1 :
2
:
3
1
3
This is either obvious (if you dont think about it too much), or a special
case of the Wigner-Eckart theorem. Anyhow youre supposed to prove it
on the homework.
Since we dont care what the decays to, and since decay rates go like
the | |2 of the matrix element (Fermis golden rule), we conclude that near
1200 MeV the cross sections should satisfy
2 1
:
3 3
This fits the data quite well. See the plots on the next page.
( + p X) : ( 0 p X) : ( p X) = 1 :
The conservation laws weve discussed in this chapter are summarized in
the following table.
conservation law
energy E
charge Q
baryon # B
lepton #s Le , L , L
strangeness S
isospin I
strong
X
X
X
X
X
X
EM
X
X
X
X
X
weak
X
X
X
X
References
The basic forces, particles and conservation laws are discussed in the introductory chapters of Griffiths and Halzen & Martin. Isospin is discussed in
section 4.5 of Griffiths.
For the general formalism see Sakurai, Modern Quantum Mechanics p. 239.
The particle zoo
Cross section (mb)
39. Plots of cross sections and related quantities
10
010001-13
p total
10
+
p elastic
10
-1
p
d
10
10
1.2
2.2
10
5
7 8 9 10
20
4
5
6 7 8 9 10
Center of mass energy (GeV)
20
30
30
40
40
50 60
d total
Cross section (mb)
p total
10
p elastic
10
-1
10
10
Laboratory beam momentum (GeV/c)
Figure 39.14: Total and elastic cross sections for p and d (total only) collisions as a function of laboratory beam momentum and total
center-of-mass energy. Corresponding computer-readable data files may be found at http://pdg.lbl.gov/xsect/contents.html (Courtesy of
the COMPAS Group, IHEP, Protvino, Russia, August 2001.)
Exercises
Exercises
1.1
Decays of the spin3/2 baryons
The spin3/2 baryons in the baryon decuplet (, , , )
are all unstable. The , and decay strongly, with a lifetime
1023 sec. The , however, decays weakly (lifetime 1010 sec).
To see why this is, consider the following decays:
1.
2.
+ p 0
3. 0
4. 0
0
5. K
6. K
(i) For each of these decays, which (if any) of the conservation laws
we discussed are violated? You should check E, Q, B, S, I.
(ii) Based on this information, which (if any) interaction is responsible for these decays?
1.2
Decays of the spin1/2 baryons
Most of the spin1/2 baryons in the baryon octet (nucleon, ,
, ) decay weakly to another spin1/2 baryon plus a pion. The
two exceptions are the 0 (which decays electromagnetically) and
the neutron (which decays weakly to pe e ). To see why this is,
consider the following decays:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
n
0
n 0
n p
n pe e
(i) For each of these decays, which (if any) of the conservation laws
we discussed are violated? You should check E, Q, B, L, S, I.
The particle zoo
(ii) Based on this information, which (if any) interaction is responsible for these decays? You can assume a photon indicates an
electromagnetic process, while a neutrino indicates a weak process.
1.3
Meson decays
Consider the following decays:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
e e
0
K 0
K
000
0
(i) For each of these decays, which (if any) of the conservation laws
we discussed are violated? You should check E, Q, B, L, S, I.
(ii) Based on this information, which interaction is responsible for
these decays? You can assume a photon indicates an electromagnetic process, while a neutrino indicates a weak process.
(iii) Look up the lifetimes of these particles. Do they fit with your
expectations?
1.4
Isospin and the resonance
Suppose the strong interaction Hamiltonian is invariant under an
SU (2) isospin symmetry, [Hstrong , I] = 0. By inserting suitable
isospin raising and lowering operators I = I1 iI2 show that (up
to possible phases)
1
1
h++ |Hstrong | + pi = h+ |Hstrong | 0 pi = h0 |Hstrong | pi .
3
2
1.5
Decay of the
The baryon decays primarily to + . For a neutral there
are two possible decays:
0 0 0
0 +
Use isospin to predict the branching ratios.
Exercises
1.6
I = 1/2 rule
The baryon decays weakly to a nucleon plus a pion. The Hamiltonian responsible for the decay is
1
H = GF u
(1 5 )d s (1 5 )u + c.c.
2
This operator changes the strangeness by 1 and the z component
of isospin by 1/2. It can be decomposed H = H3/2 + H1/2 into
pieces which carry total isospin 3/2 and 1/2, since u
(1 5 )d
transforms as |1, 1i and s (1 5 )u transforms as |1/2, 1/2i. The
(theoretically somewhat mysterious) I = 1/2 rule states that the
I = 1/2 part of the Hamiltonian dominates.
(i) Use the I = 1/2 rule to relate the matrix elements hp |H|i
and hn 0 |H|i.
(ii) Predict the corresponding branching ratios for p and
n 0 .
The PDG gives the branching ratios p = 63.9% and
n 0 = 35.8%.
2
Flavor SU (3) and the eightfold way
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
Last time we encountered a zoo of conservation laws, some of them only
approximate. In particular baryon number was exactly conserved, while
strangeness was conserved by the strong and electromagnetic interactions,
and isospin was only conserved by the strong force. Our goal for the next few
weeks is to find some order in this madness. Since the strong interactions
seem to be the most symmetric, were going to concentrate on them. Ultimately were going to combine B, S and I and understand them as arising
from a symmetry of the strong interactions.
At this point, its not clear how to get started. One idea, which several
people explored, is to extend SU (2) isospin symmetry to a larger symmetry
that is, to group different isospin multiplets together. However if you list
the mesons with odd parity, zero spin, and masses less than 1 GeV
, 0
0
K , K 0, K
135
494
548
958
to 140 MeV
to 498 MeV
MeV
MeV
its not at all obvious how (or whether) these particles should be grouped
together. Somehow this didnt stop Gell-Mann, who in 1961 proposed that
SU (2) isospin symmetry should be extended to an SU (3) flavor symmetry.
2.1 Tensor methods for SU (N ) representations
SU (2) is familiar from angular momentum, but before we can go any further
we need to know something about SU (3) and its representations. It turns
out that we might as well do the general case of SU (N ).
10
2.1 Tensor methods for SU (N ) representations
11
First some definitions; if you need more of an introduction to group theory
see section 4.1 of Cheng & Li. SU (N ) is the group of N N unitary matrices
with unit determinant,
U U = 11,
det U = 1 .
Were interested in representations of SU (N ). This just means we want a
vector space V and a rule that associates to every U SU (N ) a linear operator D(U ) that acts on V . The key property that makes it a representation
is that the multiplication rule is respected,
D(U1 )D(U2 ) = D(U1 U2 )
(on the left Im multiplying the linear operators D(U1 ) and D(U2 ), on the
right Im multiplying the two unitary matrices U1 and U2 ).
One representation of SU (N ) is almost obvious from the definition: just
set D(U ) = U . That is, let U itself act on an N -component vector z.
z Uz
This is known as the fundamental or N -dimensional representation of SU (N ).
Another representation is not quite so obvious: set D(U ) = U . That is,
let the complex conjugate matrix U act on an N -component vector.
z U z
In this case we need to check that the multiplication law is respected; fortunately
D(U1 )D(U2 ) = U1 U2 = (U1 U2 ) = D(U1 U2 ) .
This is known as the antifundamental or conjugate representation of SU (N ).
Its often denoted N.
At this point its convenient to introduce some index notation. Well write
the fundamental representation as acting on a vector with an upstairs index,
zi U ij zj
where U i j (ij element of U ). Well write the conjugate representation as
acting on a vector with a downstairs index,
zi Ui j zj
where Ui j (ij element of U ). We take complex conjugation to exchange
upstairs and downstairs indices.
Given any number of fundamental and conjugate representations we can
12
Flavor SU (3) and the eightfold way
multiply them together (take a tensor product, in mathematical language).
For example something like xi y j z k would transform under SU (N ) according
to
x i y j z k Ui l U j m U k n x l y m z n .
Such a tensor product representation is in general reducible. This just means
that the linear operators D(U ) can be simultaneously block-diagonalized, for
all U SU (N ).
Were interested in breaking the tensor product up into its irreducible
pieces. To accomplish this we can make use of the following SU (N )-invariant
tensors:
ij
i1 iN
i1 iN
Kronecker delta
totally antisymmetric Levi-Civita
another totally antisymmetric Levi-Civita
Index positions are very important here: for example ij with both indices
downstairs is not an invariant tensor. Its straightforward to check that
these tensors are invariant; its mostly a matter of unraveling the notation.
For example
i j U i k Uj l k l = U i k Uj k = U i k (U )j k = U i k (U )k j = (U U )i j = i j
One can also check
i1 iN U i1 j1 U iN jN j1 jN = det U i1 iN = i1 iN
with a similar argument for i1 iN .
Decomposing tensor products is useful in its own right, but it also provides
a way to make irreducible representations of SU (N ). The procedure for
making irreducible representations is
1. Start with some number of fundamental and antifundamental representations: say m fundamentals and n antifundamentals.
2. Take their tensor product.
3. Use the invariant tensors to break the tensor product up into its irreducible pieces.
The claim (which I wont try to prove) is that by repeating this procedure
for all values of m and n, one obtains all of the irreducible representations
of SU (N ).
Life isnt so simple for other groups.
2.2 SU (2) representations
13
2.2 SU (2) representations
To get oriented lets see how this works for SU (2). All the familiar results
about angular momentum can be obtained using these tensor methods.
First of all, what are the irreducible representations of SU (2)? Lets
im
. Suppose weve already classified all
start with a general tensor Tji11ji22j
n
representations with fewer than k = m + n indices; we want to identify the
new irreducible representations that appear at rank k. First note that by
contracting with ij we can move all indices upstairs; for example starting
with an antifundamental zi we can construct
ij zj
which transforms as a fundamental. So we might as well just look at tensors
with upstairs indices: T i1 ik . We can break T up into two pieces, which are
either symmetric or antisymmetric under exchange of i1 with i2 :
T i1 ik =
1 i1 i2 i
1 i1 i2 ik
k
+ T i2 i1 ik +
T i2 i1 ik .
T
T
2
2
The antisymmetric piece can be written as i1 i2 times a tensor of lower rank
(with k 2 indices). So lets ignore the antisymmetric piece, and just keep
the piece which is symmetric on i1 i2 . If you repeat this symmetrization
/ antisymmetrization process on all pairs of indices youll end up with a
tensor S i1 ik that is symmetric under exchange of any pair of indices. At
this point the procedure stops: theres no way to further decompose S using
the invariant tensors.
So weve learned that SU (2) representations are labeled by an integer
k = 0, 1, 2, . . .; in the k th representation a totally symmetric tensor with k
indices transforms according to
S i1 ik U i1 j1 U ik jk S j1 jk
To figure out the dimension of the representation (meaning the dimension of
the vector space) we need to count the number of independent components
of such a tensor. This is easy, the independent components are
S 11 , S 112 , S 1122 , . . . , S 22
so the dimension of the representation is k + 1.
In fact we have just recovered all the usual representations of angular
momentum. To make this more apparent we need to change terminology a
bit: we define the spin by j k/2, and call S i1 ...i2j the spin-j representation.
14
Flavor SU (3) and the eightfold way
The dimension of the representation has the familiar form, dim(j) = 2j + 1.
Some examples:
representation
k=0
k=1
k=2
..
.
tensor
zi
S ij
..
.
name
trivial
fundamental
symmetric tensor
..
.
dimension
1
2
3
..
.
spin
j=0
j = 1/2
j=1
..
.
All the usual results about angular momentum can be reproduced in tensor language. For example, consider addition of angular momentum. With
two spin-1/2 particles the total angular momentum is either zero or one. To
see this in tensor language one just multiplies two fundamental representations and then decomposes into irreducible pieces:
z i wj =
1 i j
1 i j
z w + z j wi +
z w z j wi
2
2
The first term is symmetric so it transforms in the spin one representation.
The second term is antisymmetric so its proportional to ij and hence has
spin zero.
2.3 SU (3) representations
Now lets see how things work for SU (3). Following the same procedure,
we start with an arbitrary tensor Tji11ji22
. First lets work on the upstairs
indices. Decompose
im
Tji11ji22j
= (piece thats symmetric on i1 i2 )
n
+(piece thats antisymmetric on i1 i2 ) .
The antisymmetric piece can be written as
i3 i4 im
i1 i2 k Tkj
1 j2 jn
in terms of a tensor T with lower rank (two fewer upstairs indices but one
more downstairs index). So we can forget about the piece thats antisymmetric on i1 i2 . Repeating this procedure for all upstairs index pairs, we end
up with a tensor thats totally symmetric on the upstairs indices. Following
a similar procedure with the help of ijk , we can further restrict attention to
tensors that are symmetric under exchange of any two downstairs indices.
2.3 SU (3) representations
15
For SU (3) theres one further decomposition we can make. We can write
1 i1 ki2 im i1 i2 im
m
Sji11 ji22i
jn = j1 Skj2 jn + Sj1 j2 jn
3
ki2 im
= 0. Throwing out the
where S is traceless on its first indices, Skj
2 jn
trace part, and repeating this procedure on all upstairs / downstairs index
im
that are
pairs, we see that SU (3) irreps act on tensors Tji11ji22j
n
symmetric under exchange of any two upstairs indices
symmetric under exchange of any two downstairs indices
traceless, meaning if you contract any upstairs index with any downstairs
index you get zero
This is known as the
representation
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
0
1
1
0
2
3
0
..
.
m
n
tensor
representation of SU (3). Some examples:
name
dimension
notation
trivial
zi
fundamental
zi
conjugate
S ij
symmetric tensor
Tji
adjoint
Sij
symmetric tensor
S ijk
symmetric tensor
10
10
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
Using these methods we can reduce product representations (the SU (3)
analog of adding angular momentum). For example, to reduce the product
3 3 we can write
z i wj =
1
1 i j
z w + z j wi + ijk vk
2
2
16
Flavor SU (3) and the eightfold way
where vk = klm z l v m . In terms of representations this means
.
33=63
As another example, consider 3 3.
1 i k
1
i
i
z wj = z wj j z wk + ji z k wk
3
3
33=81
Finally, lets do 6 3.
2
1 ij k
S ij z k =
S z + S jk z i + S ki z j + S ij z k
3
3
1 ijk 1 i ljk 1 j lik
S + Tl + Tl
=
3
3
3
3
ijk
ij
k
where S = S z + (cyclic perms) is in the
,
0
1
is in the
. That is, weve found that
1
1 jk i 1 ki j
S z S z
3
3
and Tli = lmn S im z n
6 3 = 10 8 .
If you want to keep going, it makes sense to develop some machinery to
automate these calculations but fortunately, this is all well need.
2.4 The eightfold way
Finally, some physics. Gell-Mann and Neeman proposed that the strong
interactions have an SU (3) symmetry, and that all light hadrons should be
grouped into SU (3) multiplets. As weve seen, all SU (3) multiplets can be
So at least as a mnemonic its convenient
built up starting from the 3 and 3.
to think in terms of elementary quarks and antiquarks
u
q= d
in 3
s
u
q =
in 3
d
s
Here Im embedding the SU (2) isospin symmetry inside SU (3) via
U 0
SU (3) .
0 1
2.4 The eightfold way
17
Im also going to be associating one unit of strangeness with s. That is, in
terms of isospin / strangeness the 3 of SU (3) decomposes as
3 = 20 11 .
(On the left hand side we have an SU (3) representation, on the right hand
side Im labeling SU (2) representations by their dimension and putting
strangeness in the subscript.) The idea here is that (although theyre both
exact symmetries of the strong force) isospin is a better approximate symmetry than SU (3)flavor , so isospin multiplets will be more nearly degenerate
in mass than SU (3) multiplets.
All mesons are supposed to be quark antiquark states. In terms of SU (3)
= 8 1, so mesons should be grouped into
representations we have 3 3
octets (hence the name eightfold way) and singlets. Further decomposing
in terms of isospin and strangeness
(20 11 ) (20 1+1 ) = (2 2)0 21 21 10 = 30 10 21 21 10
That is, we should get
an isospin triplet with strangeness = 0
an isospin doublet with strangeness = +1
an isospin doublet with strangeness = -1
two singlets with strangeness = 0
+, 0,
K +, K 0
0, K
K
, 0
Not bad!
The baryons are supposed to be 3-quark states. In terms of SU (3) repre
sentations we have 333 = (6 3)3
= 10881 so we get decuplets,
octets and singlets. As an example, lets decompose the decuplet in terms
of isospin and strangeness. Recall that the 10 is a symmetric 3-index tensor
so
[(20 11 ) (20 11 ) (20 11 )]symmetrized
= (2 2 2)symmetrized, 0 (2 2)symmetrized, 1 22 13
= 40 31 22 13
(Its very convenient to think about the symmetrized SU (2) products in
tensor language.) That is, we should get
When strangeness was first introduced people didnt know about quarks. They gave the K +
strangeness +1, but it turns out the K + contains an s quark. Sorry about that.
18
Flavor SU (3) and the eightfold way
isospin
isospin
isospin
isospin
3/2 with strangeness = 0
1 with strangeness = -1
1/2 with strangeness = -2
0 with strangeness = -3
++ , + , 0 ,
+ , 0 ,
0 ,
One cant help but be impressed.
2.5 Symmetry breaking by quark masses
Having argued that hadrons should be grouped into SU (3) multiplets, wed
now like to understand the SU (3) breaking effects that give rise to the
(rather large) mass splittings observed within each multiplet. It might seem
hopeless to understand SU (3) breaking at this point, since weve argued
that so many things (electromagnetism, weak interactions) violate SU (3).
But fortunately there are some SU (3) breaking effects namely quark mass
terms which are easy to understand and are often the dominant source of
SU (3) breaking.
The idea is to take quarks seriously as elementary particles, and to introduce a collection of Dirac spinor fields to describe them.
u
=
d
s
Here is a 3-component vector in flavor space; each entry in is a 4component Dirac spinor. Although we dont know the full Lagrangian for
the strong interactions, wed certainly expect it to include kinetic terms for
the quarks.
Lstrong = Lkinetic +
Lkinetic = i
The quark kinetic terms are invariant under SU (3) transformations
U . Were going to assume that all terms in Lstrong have this symmetry.
Now lets consider some possible SU (3) breaking terms. One fairly obvious
possibility is to introduce mass terms for the quarks.
LSU (3)breaking = Lmass +
In the old days people took the strong interactions to be exactly SU (3) invariant, as we did
above. They regarded mass terms as separate SU (3)-breaking terms in the Lagrangian. These
days one tends to think of quark masses as part of the strong interactions, and regard Lmass
as an SU (3)-violating part of the strong interactions.
2.5 Symmetry breaking by quark masses
Lmass
= M
19
mu 0
0
M=
0 md 0
0
0 ms
These mass terms are, in general, not SU (3)-invariant. Rather the pattern
of SU (3) breaking depends on the quark masses. The discussion is a bit
simpler if we include the symmetry of multiplying by an overall phase,
that is, if we consider U with U U (3).
mu = md = ms
U (3) is a valid symmetry
mu = md 6= ms
U (3) broken to U (2) U (1)
mu , md , ms all distinct
U (3) broken to U (1)3
In the first case wed have a flavor SU (3) symmetry plus an additional
U (1) corresponding to baryon number. In the second (most physical) case
wed have an isospin SU (2) symmetry acting on ud plus two additional
U (1)s which correspond to (linear combinations of) baryon number and
strangeness. In the third case wed have three U (1) symmetries corresponding to upness, downness and strangeness.
One can say this in a slightly fancier way: the SU (3) breaking pattern is
determined by the eigenvalues of the quark mass matrix. To see this suppose
we started with a general mass matrix M that isnt necessarily diagonal. M
has to be Hermitian for the Lagrangian to be real, so we can write
mu 0
0
M = U 0 md 0 U
0
0 ms
mu md ms
for some U SU (3). Then an SU (3) transformation of the quark fields
U will leave Lstrong invariant and will bring the quark mass matrix to
a diagonal form. But having chosen to diagonalize the mass matrix in this
way, one is no longer free to make SU (3) transformations with off-diagonal
entries unless some of the eigenvalues of M happen to coincide.
In the real world isospin SU (2) is a much better symmetry than flavor
SU (3). Its tempting to try to understand this as a consequence of having
mu md ms . How well does this work? Lets look at the spin-3/2 baryon
decuplet. Recall that this has the isospin / strangeness decomposition
20
Flavor SU (3) and the eightfold way
++ = uuu
+ = uud
0 = udd
= ddd
+
= uus
0 = uds
= dds
0
= uss
= dss
= sss
I=
3
2
S=0
I=1
S = 1
1
2
S = 2
I=0
S = 3
I=
Denoting
m0 = (common mass arising from strong interactions)
mu md mu,d
wed predict
m = m0 + 3mu,d
m = m0 + 2mu,d + ms
m = m0 + mu,d + 2ms
m = m0 + 3ms
Although we cant calculate m0 , there is a prediction we can make: mass
splittings between successive rows in the table should roughly equal, given
by ms mu,d . Indeed
m m = 155 MeV
m m = 148 MeV
m m = 137 MeV
(equal to within roughly 5 %). This suggests that most SU (3) breaking is
indeed due to the strange quark mass.
One comment: you might think you could incorporate the charm quark
into this scheme by extending Gell-Manns SU (3) to an SU (4) flavor symmetry. In principle this is possible, but in practice its not useful: the charm
Note that the mass splittings originate from the traceless part of the mass matrix, which
transforms
in the8 of SU (3). To be fair, any term in the Hamiltonian that transforms like
1
0 0
0 1 0 8 will give rise to the observed pattern of mass splittings, so really what
0
0 2
weve shown is that quark masses are a natural source for such a term.
2.6 Multiplet mixing
21
quark mass is so large that it cant be treated as a small perturbation of the
strong interactions.
2.6 Multiplet mixing
At this point you might think that SU (3) completely accounts for the spectrum of hadrons. To partially dispel this notion lets look at the light vector
(spin-1) mesons, which come in an isotriplet (+ , 0 , ), two isodoublets
0 , K ) and two isosinglets , .
(K + , K 0 ), (K
At first sight everything is fine. Wed expect to find the SU (3) quantum
= 8 1, or in terms of isospin and strangeness 30 21
numbers 3 3
21 10 10 . Its tempting to assign the flavor wavefunctions
1 (dd u
u), d
u
+ , 0 , = ud,
2
K + , K 0 = u
s, d
s
0
K , K = sd, s
u
1
= (u
u + dd 2s
s)
6
1
= (u
u + dd + s
s)
3
(2.1)
Here were identifying the with the I = 0 state in the octet and taking
to be an SU (3) singlet. Given our model for SU (3) breaking by quark
masses wed expect
m m8 + 2mu,d
mK m8 + mu,d + ms
2
1
m m8 + 2mu,d + 2ms
3
3
2
1
m m1 + 2mu,d + 2ms
3
3
Here m8 (m1 ) is the contribution to the octet (singlet) mass arising from
strong interactions. Weve used the fact that according to (2.1) the , for
example, spends 1/3 of its time as a u
u or dd pair and the other 2/3 as
an s
s pair. It follows from these equations that m = 43 mK 13 m , but
this prediction doesnt fit the data: m = 783 MeV while 43 mK 13 m =
931 MeV.
Rather than give up on SU (3), Sakurai pointed out that due to SU (3)
breaking states in the octet and singlet can mix. In particular we should
22
Flavor SU (3) and the eightfold way
allow for mixing between the two isosinglet states (isospin is a good enough
symmetry that multiplets with different isospins dont seem to mix):
|i
cos sin
|8i
=
|i
sin cos
|1i
Here is a mixing angle which relates the mass eigenstates |i, |i to the
states with definite SU (3) quantum numbers introduced above:
|8i
|1i
1
2|s
(|u
ui + |ddi
si)
6
1
+ |s
(|u
si)
ui + |ddi
3
The mass we calculated above can be identified with the expectation value of
the Hamiltonian in the octet state, h8|H|8i = 931 MeV. On the other hand
h8|H|8i = (cos h| sin h|)H(cos |i sin |i) = m cos2 + m sin2 .
This allows us to calculate the mixing angle
s
r
h8|H|8i m
931 MeV 783 MeV
sin =
=
= 0.79
m m
1019 MeV 783 MeV
which fixes the flavor wavefunctions
1
0.04|s
ui + |ddi)
si
|i = 0.999 (|u
2
1
.
|i = 0.999|s
si + 0.04 (|u
ui + |ddi)
2
The has very little strange quark content, while is almost pure s
s. When
combined with the OZI rule this explains why the decays predominantly
to strange particles, unlike the which decays primarily to pions:
0
K +K , K 0K
+
83% branching ratio
89% branching ratio
It also explains why the lives longer than the , even though theres more
phase space available for its decay:
lifetime
lifetime
1.5 1022 sec
0.8 1022 sec
I hope this illustrates some of the limitations of flavor SU (3). Along these
lines its worth mentioning that the spectrum of light scalar (as opposed to
see Cheng & Li p. 121
Exercises
23
pseudoscalar) mesons is quite poorly understood, both theoretically and
experimentally. One recent attempt at clarification is hep-ph/0204205.
References
Cheng & Li is pretty good. For an introduction to group theory see section
4.1. Tensor methods are developed in section 4.3 and applied to the hadron
spectrum in section 4.4. For a more elementary discussion see sections 5.8
and 5.9 of Griffiths. Symmetry breaking by quark masses is discussed by
Cheng & Li on p. 119; / mixing is on p. 120. For a classic treatment of
the whole subject see Sidney Coleman, Aspects of symmetry, chapter 1.
Exercises
2.1
Casimir operator for SU (2)
A symmetric tensor with n indices provides a representation of
SU (2) with spin s = n/2. In this representation the SU (2) generators can be taken to be
1
1
Ji = i 11 11 + + 11 11 i
2
2
where i are the Pauli matrices. (There are n terms in this expression; in the k th term the Pauli matrices act on the k th index of the
P
tensor.) The SU (2) Casimir operator is J 2 = i Ji Ji . Show that
J 2 has the expected eigenvalue in this representation.
2.2
Flavor wavefunctions for the baryon octet
The baryon octet can be represented as a 3-index tensorB ijk =
1
T i l ljk where T i l is traceless. For example, in a basis u = 0 ,
0
0
0
0 0 1
d = 1 , s = 0 , the matrix T = 0 0 0 gives the
0
1
0 0 0
flavor wavefunction of a proton u(ud du). Work out the flavor
wavefunctions of the remaining members of the baryon octet. The
hard part is getting the 0 and right; youll need to take linear
combinations which have the right isospin.
24
2.3
Flavor SU (3) and the eightfold way
Combining flavor + spin wavefunctions for the baryon octet
You might object to the octet wavefunctions worked out in problem 2.2 on the grounds that they dont respect Fermi statistics. For
spin-1/2 baryons we can represent the spin of the baryon using a
vector v a a = 1, 2 which transforms in the 2 of the SU (2) angular
momentum group.
(i) Write down a 3-index tensor that gives the spin wavefunction for
the (spin-1/2) quarks that make up the baryon. (v a is the analog
of T i l in problem 2.2. Im asking you to find the analog of B ijk .)
(ii) Show how to combine your flavor and spin wavefunctions to
make a state that is totally symmetric under exchange of any two
quarks. It has to be totally symmetric so that, when combined
with a totally antisymmetric color wavefunction, we get something
that respects Fermi statistics.
(iii) Suppose the quarks have no orbital angular momentum (as is
usually the case in the ground state). Can you make an octet of
baryons with spin 3/2?
2.4
Mass splittings in the baryon octet
In class we discussed a model for SU (3) breaking based on nondegenerate quark masses. Use this model to predict
m + mN
m m
2
where mN is the nucleon mass. To what accuracy are these relations
actually satisfied?
2.5
Electromagnetic decays of the
The up and down quarks have different electric charges, so electromagnetic interactions violate the isospin SU (2) subgroup of SU (3).
However the down and strange quarks have identical electric charges.
This means that electromagnetism respects a different SU (2) subgroup of SU (3), sometimes called U -spin, that acts on the quarks
as
u
u
d 1 0
d .
0 U
s
s
Use this to show that the electromagnetic decay is
forbidden but that + + is allowed.
3
Quark properties
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
3.1 Quark properties
Quarks must have some unusual properties, if you take them seriously as
elementary particles.
First, isolated quarks have never been observed. To patch this up well
simply postulate quark confinement: the idea that quarks are always permanently bound inside mesons or baryons.
Second, quarks must have unusual (fractional!) electric charges.
++ uuu
ddd
sss
Qu = 2/3
Qs = 1/3
Qd = 1/3
Theres nothing wrong with fractional charges, of course its just that
theyre a little unexpected.
Third, quarks are presumably spin-1/2 Dirac fermions. To see this note
that baryons have half-integer spins and are supposed to be qqq bound states.
The simplest possibility is to imagine that the quarks themselves carry spin
1/2. Then by adding the spin angular momenta of the quarks we can make
1 1
=10
2 2
1 1 1
3 1 1
baryons with spins
=
2 2 2
2 2 2
mesons with spins
You can make hadrons with even larger spins if you give the quarks some
orbital angular momentum.
At this point theres a puzzle with Fermi statistics. Consider the combined
25
26
Quark properties
flavor and spin wavefunction for a ++ baryon with spin sz = 3/2.
|++ with sz = 3/2i = |u , u , u i
The state is symmetric under exchange of any two quarks, in violation of
Fermi statistics.
To rescue the quark model Nambu proposed that quarks carry an additional color quantum number, associated with a new SU (3) symmetry
group denoted SU (3)color . This is in addition to the flavor and spin labels
weve already talked about. That is, a basis of quark states can be labeled
by |flavor , color , spini. Here the flavor label runs over the values u, d, s and
provides a representation of the 3 of SU (3)flavor . The color label runs over
the values r, g, b and provides a representation of the 3 of SU (3)color . Finally
the spin label runs over the values , and provides a representation of the
2 of the SU (2) angular momentum group. One sometimes says that quarks
are in the (3, 3, 2) representation of the SU (3)flavor SU (3)color SU (2)spin
symmetry group.
Strangely enough, color has never been observed directly in the lab. What
I mean by this is that (for example) hadrons can be grouped into multiplets
that are in non-trivial representations of SU (3)flavor . But there are no degeneracies in the hadron spectrum associated with SU (3)color : all observed
particles are color singlets. Well elevate this observation to the status of
a principle, and postulate that all hadrons are invariant under SU (3)color
transformations. This implies quark confinement: since quarks are in the 3
of SU (3)color they cant appear in isolation. Whats nice is that we can make
color-singlet mesons and baryons. Denoting quark color by a 3-component
vector z a we can make
color-singlet baryon wavefunctions
color-singlet meson wavefunctions
abc
ab
So why introduce color at all? It provides a way to restore Fermi statistics.
For example, for the ++ baryon, the color wavefunction is totally antisymmetric. So when we combine it with the totally symmetric flavor and spin
wavefunction given above we get a state that respects Fermi statistics.
It gets confusing, but try to keep in mind that SU (3)flavor and SU (3)color are completely
separate symmetries that have nothing to do with one another.
3.2 Evidence for quarks
27
3.2 Evidence for quarks
This may be starting to seem very contrived. But in fact theres very concrete evidence that quarks carry the spin, charge and color quantum numbers
weve assigned.
3.2.1 Quark spin
Perhaps the most direct evidence that quarks carry spin 1/2 comes from
the process e+ e two jets. This can be viewed as a two-step process:
an electromagnetic interaction e+ e q q, followed by strong interactions
which convert the q and q into jets of (color-singlet) hadrons.
jet
e
_
q
jet
Assuming the quark and antiquark dont interact significantly in the final
state, each jet carries the full momentum of its parent quark or antiquark.
Thus by measuring the angular distribution of jets you can directly determine the angular distribution of q q pairs produced in the process e+ e q q.
For spin-1/2 quarks this is governed by the differential cross section
Q2e Q2q e4
d
=
1 + cos2 .
2
d
64 s
(3.1)
Here were working in the center of mass frame and neglecting the electron
and quark masses. Qe is the electron
charge and Qq is the quark charge,
both measured in units of e 4, while s = (p1 + p2 )2 is the square of
the total center-of-mass energy and is the c.m. scattering angle (measured
with respect to the beam direction).
As youll show in problem 4.1, this angular distribution is characteristic of
having spin-1/2 particles in the final state. The data indicates that quarks
indeed carry spin 1/2: Hanson et. al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 35 (1975) 1609.
For example see Peskin & Schroeder section 5.1. Well discuss this in detail in the next chapter.
28
Quark properties
3.2.2 Quark charge
One can measure (ratios of) quark charges using the so-called Drell-Yan
process
deuteron + anything .
Recall that + ud and d
u, while the deuteron (if you think of it
as a proton plus neutron) has quark content uuuddd. We can regard the
Drell-Yan process as an elementary electromagnetic interaction q q +
together with lots of strong interactions. In cartoon form the interactions
are
+
u
_
d
ddd
+
D
uuu
ddd
uuu
At high energies the electromagnetic process has a center-of-mass cross
section
=
Q2q Q2 e4
12s
that follows from integrating (3.1) over angles. You might worry that the
whole process is dominated by strong interactions. What saves us is the fact
that the deuteron is an isospin singlet. This means that since isospin is a
symmetry of the strong interactions strong interactions cant distinguish
between the initial states + D and D. They only contribute an overall
factor to the two cross sections, which cancels out when we take the ratio.
Thus we can predict
Q2d
( + D + X)
(1/3)2
1
=
= .
2
2
( D X)
Qu
(2/3)
4
This fits the data (actually taken with an isoscalar
See Hogan et. al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 42 (1979) 948.
12 C
target) pretty well.
Its a proton-neutron bound state with no orbital angular momentum, isospin I = 0, and
regular spin J = 1.
3.2 Evidence for quarks
29
From Hogan et. al., PRL 42 (1979) 948
3.2.3 Quark color
A particularly elegant piece of evidence for quark color comes from the decay
0 , as youll see in problem 13.1. But for now a nice quantity to study
is the cross-section ratio
R=
(e+ e hadrons)
.
(e+ e + )
The initial step in the reaction e+ e hadrons is the purely electrodynamic
process e+ e q q, followed by strong interactions that turn the q and q
into a collection of hadrons. This hadronization takes place with unit
probability, so we dont need to worry about it, and we have
30
Quark properties
e+
R =
quarks
e+
Here weve taken the phase space in the numerator and denominator to
be the same, which is valid for quark and muon masses that are negligible
compared to Ecm . The diagrams in the numerator and denominator are essentially identical, except that in the numerator the diagram is proportional
to Qe Qq while in the denominator its proportional to Qe Q . Thus
X
R=
Q2quark
quarks
where the sum is over quarks with mass < s/2. If we have enough energy
to produce strange quarks wed expect
i
h
R = 3 (2/3)2 + (1/3)2 + (1/3)2 = 2
| {z } | {z } | {z }
up
down
strange
where the factor of 3 arises from the sum over quark colors. For Ecm between
roughly 1.5 GeV and 3 GeV the data shows that R is indeed close to 2.
However at larger energies R increases. This is evidence for heavy flavors of
quarks.
charm
bottom
top
mc = 1.3 GeV
mb = 4.2 GeV
mt = 172 GeV
Qc = 2/3
Qb = 1/3
Qt = 2/3
Above the bottom threshold (but below the top) wed predict
h
i
R = 3 (2/3)2 + (1/3)2 + (1/3)2 + (2/3)2 + (1/3)2 = 11/3
in pretty good agreement with the data.
References
Evidence for the existence of quarks is given in chapter 1 of Quigg, under
the heading why we believe in quarks.
3.2 Evidence for quarks
010001-6
31
39. Plots of cross sections and related quantities
10
10
10
10
10
10
J/
(2S)
(e+e qq hadrons) [pb]
and R in e+e Collisions
10
10
s (GeV)
10
10
J/
10
(2S)
10
-1
10
s (GeV)
10
Figure 39.6, Figure 39.7: World data on the total cross section of e+ e hadrons and the ratio R = (e+ e hadrons)/(e+ e + ,
QED simple pole). The curves are an educative guide. The solid curves are the 3-loop pQCD predictions for (e+ e hadrons) and the
R ratio, respectively [see our Review on Quantum chromodynamics, Eq. (9.12)] or, for more details, K.G. Chetyrkin et al., Nucl. Phys.
B586, 56 (2000), Eqs. (1)(3)). Breit-Wigner parameterizations of J/, (2S), and (nS), n = 1..4 are also shown. Note: The experimental
shapes of these resonances are dominated by the machine energy spread and are not shown. The dashed curves are the naive quark parton
model predictions for and R. The full list of references, as well as the details of R ratio extraction from the original data, can be
found in O.V. Zenin et al., hep-ph/0110176 (to be published in J. Phys. G). Corresponding computer-readable data files are available
at http://wwwppds.ihep.su/zenin o/contents plots.html. (Courtesy of the COMPAS (Protvino) and HEPDATA (Durham) Groups,
November 2001.)
32
Quark properties
Exercises
3.1
Decays of the W and
The W boson decays to a weak doublet pair of fermions, meaning either e e , , , u
d, cs, or in principle tb.
(i) Suppose the amplitude for W decay is the same for all fermion
pairs. Only kinematically allowed decays are possible, but aside
from that you can neglect differences in phase space due to fermion
masses. Predict the branching ratios for the decays
W e e
W
W
W hadrons
(ii) The lepton decays by W , followed by W decay.
Predict the branching ratios for the decays
e e
hadrons
(iii) How did you do, compared to the particle data book? What
would happen if you didnt take color into account?
4
Chiral spinors and helicity amplitudes
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
To be concrete let me focus on the process e+ e + .
e+
p + p
1
2
p
4
Evaluating this diagram is a straightforward exercise in Feynmanology, as
reviewed in appendix A. The amplitude is
iM = v(p2 )(ieQ )u(p1 )
ig
u
(p3 )(ieQ )v(p4 )
(p1 + p2 )2
where Q = 1 for the electron and muon. In the center of mass frame the
corresponding differential cross section is
s
!
s 4m2
4m2
4(m2e + m2 )
d
e4
4m2e
2
=
1 + (1
)(1
) cos +
.
d
64 2 s s 4m2e
s
s
s
Here s = (p1 + p2 )2 is the square of the total center-of-mass energy and
is the c.m. scattering angle (measured with respect to the beam direction).
This result is clearly something of a mess, however note that things simplify
quite a bit in the high-energy (or equivalently massless) limit s me , m .
In this limit we have
d
e4
=
1 + cos2 .
2
d
64 s
33
34
Chiral spinors and helicity amplitudes
One of our main goals in this section is to understand the origin of this
simplification.
4.1 Chiral spinors
Ill start with some facts about Dirac spinors. Recall that a Dirac spinor
D is a 4-component object. Under a Lorentz transform
~
D ei(J+K) D .
(4.1)
~ about the direction
Here were performing a rotation through an angle ||
~
The rotation
, and were boosting with rapidity || in the direction .
generators J and boost generators K are given in terms of Pauli matrices
by
~ /2 0
i~ /2
0
J=
K=
0 ~ /2
0
i~ /2
Here Im working the the chiral basis where the Dirac matrices take the
form
0 11
0
i
0
i
=
=
11 0
i 0
Whats nice about the chiral basis is that the Lorentz generators are blockdiagonal. This makes it manifest that Dirac spinors are a reducible representation of the Lorentz group. The irreducible pieces of D are obtained
by decomposing
L
D =
R
into left- and right-handed chiral spinors L , R .
In the chiral basis
5
0 1 2 3
i =
11 0
0 11
.
We can use this to define projection operators
1 5
1 + 5
11 0
0 0
PL =
=
PR =
=
0 0
0 11
2
2
which pick out the left- and right-handed pieces of a Dirac spinor.
L
0
PL D =
PR D =
.
0
R
4.1 Chiral spinors
35
To see why this decomposition is useful, lets express the QED Lagrangian
in terms of chiral spinors.
1
LQED = (i D m) F F
4
Here D = + ieQA is the covariant derivative. In the chiral basis we
have
(i D m)
0
= L R
!
~ ~
m
iD0 + iD
L
~ ~
11 0
R
m
iD0 iD
!
iD iD
~ ~
m
L
0
= L R
~ ~
R
m
iD0 + iD
~ ~ R m R + L
~ ~ L + i D0 + D
= iL D0 D
R
L
R
11
The important thing to note is that the mass term couples L to R . But
in the massless limit L and R behave as two independent fields. Theyre
both coupled to the electromagnetic field, of course, through the interaction
Hamiltonian
i
h
(A0 + A ~ )R .
(4.2)
Hint = Lint = eQ L (A0 A ~ )L + R
Note that there are no L R A couplings in the Hamiltonian. This will lead
to simplifications in high-energy scattering amplitudes.
To see the physical interpretation of these chiral spinors recall the plane
wave solutions to the Dirac equation worked out in Peskin & Schroeder.
Were interested in describing states with definite
helicity component of spin along direction of motion .
To describe these states let p be a unit vector in the direction of motion.
Start by finding the (orthonormal) eigenvectors of the operator p ~ :
(
p ~ ) =
| + |2 = | |2 = 1 .
Then you can construct Dirac spinors describing states with definite helicity.
It may seem counterintuitive that vR is constructed from , and vL from + . To understand this you can either go through some intellectual contortions with hole theory, or more
straightforwardly you can read it off from the angular momentum operator of a quantized Dirac
field.
36
Chiral spinors and helicity amplitudes
p
+
E
|p|
uR (p) = p
E + |p| +
p
E
+
|p|
uL (p) = p
E |p|
p
E + |p|
p
vR (p) =
E |p|
p
E |p| +
p
vL (p) =
E + |p| +
right-handed particle (helicity +~/2)
left-handed particle (helicity ~/2)
right-handed antiparticle (helicity +~/2)
left-handed antiparticle (helicity ~/2)
These spinors are kind of messy. But in the massless limit E |p| and
things simplify a lot:
0
uR (p)
2E +
2E
uL (p)
0
2E
vR (p)
0
vL (p)
0 +
2E
pure R
pure L
pure L
pure R
Thus in the massless limit
L
describes a left-handed particle and its right-handed antiparticle
describes a right-handed particle and its left-handed antiparticle
Warning: when people talk about left- or right-handed particles theyre
referring to helicity component of spin along the direction of motion.
When people talk about left- or right-handed spinors theyre referring to
chirality behavior under Lorentz transforms. In general these are very
different notions although, as weve seen, they get tied together in the massless limit.
4.2 Helicity amplitudes
37
4.2 Helicity amplitudes
Lets look more closely at the high-energy behavior of e+ e + . At
high energies the electron and muon masses can be neglected, which makes
it useful to work in terms of chiral spinors. The interaction Hamiltonian
looks like two copies of (4.2), one for the electron and one for the muon.
Hint only couples two spinors of the same chirality to the gauge field, so out
of the 16 possible scattering amplitudes between states of definite helicity
only four are non-zero:
e+
L e R R L
e+
L e R L R
e+
R eL L R
e+
R eL R L
Here Im denoting the helicity of the particles with subscripts L, R. For
+
example, both e+
L and eR sit inside a right-handed spinor. Ditto for L and
R . In general this is known as helicity conservation at high energies (see
Halzen & Martin section 6.6).
+
Lets study the particular spin-polarized process e+
L e R L R .
e+
_
R
p + p
1
2
p
4
The amplitude is
iM = vL (p2 )(ieQ )uR (p1 )
ig
u
R (p3 )(ieQ )vL (p4 ) .
(p1 + p2 )2
At this point its convenient to fix the kinematics (spatial momenta indicated
by large arrows, spins indicated by small arrows)
38
Chiral spinors and helicity amplitudes
e+
L
p
4
+
L
_
e
p
1
Then for the incoming e+ e we have (Im only interested in the angular
dependence, so Im not going to worry about normalizing the spinors)
p2 = (E, 0, 0, E)
0
0
vL (p2 ) =
0
p1 = (E, 0, 0, E)
0
0
uR (p1 ) =
1
0
Then the electron current part of the diagram is
vL (p2 )(ieQ )uR (p1 )
!
i
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
vL (p2 )
;
uR (p1 )
11 0
11 0
i 0
!
11 0
i 0
;
uR (p1 )
= vL (p2 )
0 11
0
i
= (0, 1, i, 0)
(4.3)
To get the muon current part of the diagram, first consider scattering at
= 0, for which
p3 = (E, 0, 0, E)
0
0
uR (p3 ) =
1
0
p4 = (E, 0, 0, E)
0
0
vL (p4 ) =
0
1
u
R (p3 )(ieQ )vL (p4 )
4.2 Helicity amplitudes
uR (p3 )
11 0
0 11
;
i 0
0
i
39
!
vL (p4 )
= (0, 1, i, 0)
To get the result for general we just need to rotate this 4-vector through
an angle about (say) the y-axis:
u
R (p3 )(ieQ )vL (p4 ) (0, cos , i, sin ) .
The helicity amplitude goes like the dot product of the two currents:
+
M(e+
L eR L R ) (0, 1, i, 0) (0, cos , i, sin ) = (1 + cos ) .
This result is a beautifully simple example of quantum measurement at
work. The electron current describes an initial state with one unit of angular
momentum polarized in the +z direction |J = 1, Jz = 1i. To verify this
statement, just look at how the 4-vector (4.3) transforms under a rotation
about the z axis. The (complex conjugate of the) muon current describes
a final state which also has one unit of angular momentum, but polarized
in the direction of the outgoing muon: |J = 1, J = 1i. The angular
dependence of the amplitude is given by the inner product of these two
angular momentum eigenstates. As a reality check, note that the amplitude
vanishes when = (the amplitude for an eigenstate with Jz = +1 to be
found in a state with Jz = 1 vanishes).
The other helicity amplitudes go through in pretty much the same way.
The only difference is that for a process like LR RL its scattering at
= 0 thats prohibited; this shows up as a (1 cos ) dependence. Finally,
the cross sections go like |M|2 , so
d
d
=
(1 + cos )2
d LRLR
d RLRL
d
d
=
(1 cos )2
d LRRL
d RLLR
Summing over final polarizations and averaging over initial polarizations
gives
d
1 + cos2 .
d unpolarized
Although spin-averaged amplitudes are usually easier to compute, especially
for finite fermion masses, its often easier to interpret helicity amplitudes.
This sort of analysis is quite general. See appendix B.
40
Chiral spinors and helicity amplitudes
References
Plane wave solutions to the Dirac equation are worked out in Peskin &
Schroeder: for the classical theory see p. 48, for the (slightly confusing)
quantum interpretation see p. 61, for a summary of the results see appendix
A.2. Chiral spinors (also known as Weyl spinors) are discussed in section
3.2 of Peskin & Schroeder, while helicity amplitudes are covered in section
5.2.
Exercises
4.1
Quark spin and jet production
Two-jet production in e+ e collisions can be understood as a treelevel QED-like process e+ e q q followed by hadronization
of the quark and antiquark. Assuming the quark and antiquark
dont interact significantly, each jet carries the full momentum of its
parent quark or antiquark. The distribution of jets with respect to
the scattering angle carries information about the spin of a quark.
References: theres some discussion in Cheng & Li p. 215-216, and
for a nice picture see p. 9 in Quigg.
(i) Suppose the quark is a spin-1/2 Dirac fermion with charge Q and
mass M . What is the center of mass differential cross section for
the process e+ e q q? You should average over initial spins and
sum over final spins, also you should keep track of the dependence
on both the electron and quark masses.
(ii) Now suppose the quark is a spinless particle that can be modeled
as a complex scalar field with charge Q and mass M . Re-evaluate
the center of mass differential cross-section for e+ e q q. You
should average over the initial e+ e spins. The Feynman rules are
in appendix A.
(iii) In the high-energy limit the electron and quark masses are negligible and the angular distribution simplifies. For spin-1/2 quarks
theres a nice explanation for the angular distribution at high energies: we talked about it in class, or see Peskin & Schroeder sect. 5.2
or Halzen & Martin sect. 6.6. Whats the analogous explanation
for the high energy angular distribution of spinless quarks?
(iv) In e+ e collisions at Ecm = 7.4 GeV the jet-axis angular distribution was found to be proportional to 1 + (0.78 0.12) cos2
[Phys. Rev. Lett. 35, 1609 (1975)]. Whats the spin of a quark?
5
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
5.1 Symmetries and conservation laws
When discussing symmetries its convenient to use the language of Lagrangian mechanics. The prototype example Ill have in mind is a scalar
field (t, x) with potential energy V (). The action is
Z
1
S[] = d4 x L(, )
L = V ()
2
Classical trajectories correspond to stationary points of the action.
vary +
S = 0 to first order in
is a classical trajectory
With suitable boundary conditions on this variational principle is equivalent to the Euler-Lagrange equations
L
L
= 0.
( )
To see this one computes
Z
L
L
4
S =
d x
+
( )
Z
L
L
4
=
d x
+
( )
Z
L
L
4
=
d x
+ surface terms
( )
With suitable boundary conditions we can drop the surface terms, in which
case S vanishes for any iff the Euler-Lagrange equations are satisfied.
41
42
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
Now lets discuss continuous internal symmetries, which are transformations of the fields that
depend on one or more continuous parameters,
are internal, in the sense that the transformation can depend on but
not on ,
are symmetries, in the sense that they leave the Lagrangian invariant.
That is, we consider continuous transformations of the fields
(x) 0 (x) = 0 ((x))
(5.1)
such that
L(, ) = L(0 , 0 ) .
The notation in (5.1) means that the new value of the field at the point
x only depends on the old value of the field at the point x it doesnt
depend on the old value of the field at any other point. Equivalently the
transformation can depend on but not on .
One consequence of this definition is that if (x) satisfies the equations of
motion, then so does 0 (x). In other words a symmetry maps one solution
to the equations of motion into another solution.
Another consequence is Noethers theorem, that symmetries imply conservation laws. Given an infinitesimal internal symmetry transformation
+ the current
j =
( )
(5.2)
is conserved. That is, the equations of motion for imply that j = 0.
Proof: Suppose satisfies the equations of motion, and consider an infinitesimal internal symmetry transformation + . Lets compute
L in two ways. On the one hand L = 0 by the definition of an internal
symmetry. On the other hand
L =
L
L
+
.
( )
Proof: the Lagrangian is invariant so S[] = S[0 ]. Varying with respect to (x) the chain rule
R
0 (y)
0
S
S
gives (x)
= y S
0 (y) (x) . Assuming the Jacobian is non-singular we have = 0 iff
S
0
= 0.
5.1 Symmetries and conservation laws
43
If we use the Euler-Lagrange equations this becomes
L
L
+
( )
( )
L
=
( )
L =
is conComparing the two expressions for L we see that j = (L
)
served: the equations of motion for imply j = 0. Q.E.D.
This shows that symmetries conservation laws. It works the other way
as well: given a conservation law obtained using Noethers theorem, you can
reconstruct the symmetry it came from. This is best expressed in Hamiltonian language. Given a conserved current j one has the corresponding
conserved charge
Z
dQ
Q = d3 x j 0 (t, x)
=
0
so
t
is
arbitrary
dt
Q is the generator of the symmetry in the sense that
i [Q, (t, x)] = (t, x) .
(This is a quantum commutator, but if you like Poisson brackets you can
write a corresponding expression in the classical theory.)
Proof: recall that the canonical momentum
=
L
(0 )
obeys the equal-time commutator
i [(t, x), (t, y)] = 3 (x y)
R
R
and note that Q = d3 x j 0 = d3 x satisfies
Z
i[Q, (t, x)] = i d3 y [(t, y)(t, y), (t, x)]
Z
= i d3 y [(t, y), (t, x)] (t, y)
= (t, x) .
Its important for this argument that (t, x) commutes with (t, x). This
is valid for internal symmetries, since (x) only depends on (x) and (x)
commutes with itself.
44
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
5.1.1 Flavor symmetries of the quark model
As an example, consider the quark model we introduced in section 3.1. In
terms of a collection of Dirac spinor fields
u
=
d
s
we guessed that the strong interaction Lagrangian looked like
+
Lstrong = i
The quark kinetic terms are invariant under U (3) transformations U .
If we assume this symmetry extends to all of Lstrong , we can derive the
a a
corresponding conserved currents. Setting U = ei T where the generators
T a are a basis of 3 3 Hermitian matrices we have
infinitesimal transformation = ia T a
R Lstrong
= i
( )R
T a
j a =
R Lstrong
R =0
( )
conserved
Here Im using the fermionic version of Noethers theorem, worked out in
problem 5.1. In the last line I stripped off the infinitesimal parameters a .
As promised, this approach unifies several conservation laws introduced in
chapter 1.
U (3) generator
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 1
i
0
0 0
conservation law
traceless
quark number ( = B/3)
strangeness
isospin
flavor SU (3)
There is a subtle point here - what if there were terms involving or hidden in the
terms in Lstrong ? Such terms would modify the currents, but fortunately dimensional analysis
tells you that any such terms can be neglected at low energies.
5.2 Spontaneous symmetry breaking (classical)
45
5.2 Spontaneous symmetry breaking (classical)
It might seem that weve exhausted our discussion of symmetries and their
consequences. But theres a somewhat surprising phenomenon that can occur in quantum field theory: the ground state of a quantum field doesnt
have to be unique. This opens up a new possibility: given some degenerate vacua, a symmetry transformation 0 can leave the Lagrangian
invariant but may act non-trivially on the space of vacua.
This phenomenon is known as spontaneous symmetry breaking. Rather
than give a general discussion, Ill go through a few examples that illustrate
how it works. In this section the analysis will be mostly classical. In the next
section well explore the consequences of spontaneous symmetry breaking in
the quantum theory.
5.2.1 Breaking a discrete symmetry
As a first example, consider a real scalar field with a 4 self-interaction.
1
1
1
L = 2 2 4
2
2
4
The potential energy of the field V () = 12 2 2 + 14 4 . Assuming 2 > 0
the potential looks like
V(phi)
phi
In this case there is a unique ground state at = 0. The Lagrangian is
invariant under a Z2 symmetry that takes . This symmetry has the
usual consequence: in the quantum theory an n particle state has parity
(1)n under the symmetry, so the number of quanta is conserved mod 2.
46
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
Now lets consider the same theory but with 2 < 0. Then the potential
looks like
V(phi)
phi
p
Now there are two degenerate ground states located at = 2 /. Note
that the Z2 symmetry exchanges the two ground states. Taking 2 to be
negative might bother you does it mean the mass is imaginary? In a way
it does: standard perturbation theory is an expansion about the unstable
point = 0, and the imaginary mass reflects the instability.
To see the physical consequences of having 2 < 0 its best to expand the
action about one of the degenerate minima. Just to be definite lets expand
about the minimum on the right, and set
p
= 0 +
0 = 2 /
Here is a new field with the property that it vanishes in the appropriate
ground state. Rewriting the action in terms of
1
1
1
L = (0 + )2 (0 + )4
2
2
4
Expanding this in powers of theres a constant term (the value of V at
its minimum) that we can ignore. The term linear in vanishes since were
expanding about a minimum. Were left with
p
1
1
L = + 2 2 2 3 4
(5.3)
2
4
The curious thing is that, if I just handed you this Lagrangian without
telling you where it came from, youd say that this is a theory of a real
scalar field with
a positive (mass)2 given by m2 = 22 > 0
5.2 Spontaneous symmetry breaking (classical)
47
cubic and quartic self-couplings described by an interaction Hamiltonian
Hint = (2 )1/2 3 + 14 4
no sign of a Z2 symmetry!
A few comments are in order.
(i) A low-energy observer can only see small fluctuations about one of the
degenerate minima. To such an observer the underlying Z2 symmetry
is not manifest, since it relates small fluctuations about one minimum
to small fluctuations about the other minimum.
(ii) The underlying symmetry is still valid, even if 2 < 0, and it does
have consequences at low energies. In particular the coefficient of
the cubic term in the potential energy for is not an independent
coupling constant its fixed in terms of and m2 . So a low-energy
observer who made very precise measurements of scattering
could deduce the existence of the other vacuum.
(iii) A more straightforward way to discover the other vacuum is to work
at high enough energies that the field can go over the barrier from
one vacuum to the other.
(iv) Although its classically forbidden, in the quantum theory cant the
field tunnel through the barrier to reach the other vacuum, even
at low energies? The answer is no because, as youll show on the
homework, the tunneling probability vanishes for a quantum field in
infinite spatial volume.
This last point is rather significant. In ordinary quantum mechanics states
that are related by a symmetry can mix, and its frequently the case that the
ground state is unique and invariant under all symmetries. But tunneling
between different vacua is forbidden in quantum field theory in the infinite
volume limit. This is what makes spontaneous symmetry breaking possible.
5.2.2 Breaking a continuous symmetry
Now lets consider a theory with a continuous symmetry. As a simple ex~ with
ample, lets take a two-component real scalar field
1 ~ ~ 1 2 ~ 2 1 ~ 4
L =
|| || .
2
2
4
For example the ground state of a particle in a double-well potential is unique, a symmetric
combination of states localized in either well (Sakurai, Modern quantum mechanics, p. 256).
Likewise the ground state of a rigid rotator has no angular momentum. This is not to say that
in quantum mechanics the ground state is always unique. For example the ground state of a
deuterium nucleus has total angular momentum J = 1.
48
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
This theory has an SO(2) symmetry
1
cos sin
1
7
2
sin cos
2
Noethers theorem gives the corresponding conserved current
j = 2 1 1 2 .
First lets consider 2 > 0. In this case there are no surprises. The poten~ = 0. The symmetry leaves the ground state
tial has a unique minimum at
invariant. The symmetry is manifest in the spectrum of small fluctuations
(the particle spectrum): in particular
1 and 2 have the same mass.
(5.4)
The conserved charge is also easy to interpret. For spatially homogeneous
fields its essentially the angular momentum youd assign a particle rolling
~ Alternatively, if you work in terms of a complex field
in the potential V ().
1
= 2 (1 + i2 ), then the conserved charge is the net number of quanta.
Now lets consider 2 p
< 0. In this case theres a circle of degenerate
~ = 2 /. Under the SO(2) symmetry these vacua
minima located at ||
get rotated into each other. To see whats going on lets introduce fields
that are adapted to the symmetry, and set
~ = ( cos , sin )
> 0,
+ 2
In terms of and the symmetry acts by
invariant,
+ const.
and we have
1
1
1
1
L = + 2 2 2 4
2
2
2
4
p
2
When < 0 the minimum of the potential is at = 2 /. To take
this into account we shift
p
= 2 / +
and find that (up to an additive constant)
L =
1
1
+ 2 2 (2 )1/2 3 4
2
4
1
1
+ (2 /) + (2 /)1/2 + 2
2
2
5.2 Spontaneous symmetry breaking (classical)
49
The first line is, aside from the restriction > 0, just the theory we encountered previously in (5.3): it describes a real scalar field with cubic and
quartic self-couplings. The second line describes a scalar field that has
some peculiar-looking couplings to but no mass term. (If you want you
can redefine to give it a canonical kinetic term.) If I didnt tell you where
this Lagrangian came from youd say that this is a theory with
two scalar fields, one massive and the other massless
cubic and quartic interactions between the fields
no sign of any SO(2) symmetry!
Although there are some parallels with discrete symmetry breaking, there
are also important differences. The main difference is that in the continuous
case a massless scalar field appears in the spectrum. Its easy to understand
why it has to be there. The underlying SO(2) symmetry acts by shifting
+ const. The Lagrangian must be invariant under such a shift, which
rules out any possible mass term for .
One can make a stronger statement. The shift symmetry tells you that
the potential energy is independent of . So the symmetry forbids, not just
a mass term, but any kind of non-derivative interaction for . The usual
terminology is that, once all other fields are set equal to their vacuum values,
parametrizes a flat direction in field space.
Its worth saying this again. We have a family of degenerate ground
states labeled by the value of . A low-energy observer could, in a localized
region, hope to study a small fluctuation about one of these vacua. Unlike
in the discrete case, a small fluctuation about one vacuum can reach some
of the other nearby vacua. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.1. The energy
density of such a fluctuation can be made arbitrarily small even if the
amplitude of the fluctuation is held fixed just by making the wavelength
of the fluctuation larger. This property, that the energy density goes to zero
as the wavelength goes to infinity, manifests itself through the presence of a
massless scalar field. These massless fields are known as Goldstone bosons.
Incidentally, suppose we were at such low energies that we couldnt create
any particles. Thenpwed describe the dynamics just in terms of a (rescaled)
Goldstone field = 2 / that takes values on a circle.
1
L =
+ 2(2 /)1/2
2
The circle should be thought of as the space of vacua of the theory. This is
known as a low-energy effective action for the Goldstone boson.
50
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
~ y, z = 0) is
Fig. 5.1. A fluctuation in the model of section 5.2.2. The field (x,
drawn as an arrow in the xy plane. Top figure: one of the degenerate vacuum
states. Bottom figure: a low-energy fluctuation, in which the field in a certain
region is slightly rotated. The energy density of such a fluctuation goes to zero as
the wavelength increases.
5.2.3 Partially breaking a continuous symmetry
As a final example, lets consider the dynamics of a three-component real
~ with the by now familiar-looking Lagrangian
scalar field
1 ~ ~ 1 2 ~ 2 1 ~ 4
L =
|| || .
2
2
4
5.2 Spontaneous symmetry breaking (classical)
51
This theory has an SO(3) symmetry
~ R
~
R SO(3) .
~ = 0 and the SO(3) symmetry is
For 2 > 0 theres a unique vacuum at
2
unbroken. For < 0 spontaneous symmetry breaking occurs.
When the symmetry is broken we have a collection of ground states characterized by
p
~ = 2 / .
||
That is, the space of vacua is a two-dimensional sphere S 2 R3 . The
symmetry group acts on the sphere by rotations.
To proceed, lets first choose a vacuum to expand around. Without loss of
generality well expand around the vacuum at the north pole of the sphere,
namely the point
p
~ = (0, 0, 2 /) .
Now lets see how our vacuum state behaves under symmetry transformations. Rotations in the 13 and 23 planes act non-trivially on our ground
state. They move it to a different point on the sphere, thereby generating
a two-dimensional space of flat directions. Corresponding to this we expect
to find two massless Goldstone bosons in the spectrum. Rotations in the
12 plane, however, leave our choice of vacuum invariant. They form an
unbroken SO(2) subgroup of the underlying SO(3) symmetry.
To make this a bit more concrete its convenient to parametrize fields near
the north pole of the sphere in terms of three real scalar fields , x, y defined
by
p
~ = x, y, 1 x2 y 2 .
(5.5)
The field parametrizes radial fluctuations in the fields, while x and y
parametrize points
on a unit two-sphere. As in our previous examples one
p
2
can set = / + and find that has a mass m2 = 22 . The
fields x and y are Goldstone bosons. Substituting (5.5) into the Lagrangian
and setting = 0 one is left with the low-energy effective action for the
Goldstone bosons
1 2
1
L=
x
x+
y
y(x
yy
x)(x
yy
x)
.
1 x2 y 2
Note that the Goldstone bosons xy transform as a doublet of the unbroken
SO(2) symmetry.
52
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
5.2.4 Symmetry breaking in general
Many aspects of symmetry breaking are determined purely by group theory.
Consider a theory with a symmetry group G. Suppose weve found a ground
state where the fields (there could be more than one) take on a value Ill
denote 0 . The theory might not have a unique ground state. If we act
on 0 with some g G we must get another state with exactly the same
energy. This means g0 is also a ground state. Barring miracles wed expect
to obtain the entire space of vacua in this way:
M = (space of vacua) = {g0 : g G}
Now its possible that some (or all) elements of G leave the vacuum 0
invariant. That is, there could be a subgroup H G such that
h0 = 0
h H .
In this case H survives as an unbroken symmetry group. One says that G
is spontaneously broken to H.
This leads to a nice representation of the space of vacua. If g1 = g2 h for
some h H then g1 and g2 have exactly the same effect on 0 : g1 0 = g2 0 .
This means that M is actually a quotient space, M = G/H, where the
notation just means weve imposed an equivalence relation:
G/H G/{g1 g2 if g1 = g2 h for some h H} .
This also leads to a nice geometrical picture of the Goldstone bosons: they
are simply fields I which parametrize M. One can be quite explicit about
the general form of the action for the Goldstone fields. If you think of the
space of vacua as a manifold M with coordinates I and metric GIJ (), the
low-energy effective action is
Z
1
S = d4 x GIJ () I J .
2
Actions of this form are known as non-linear -models. At the classical
level, to find the metric GIJ one can proceed as we did in our SO(2) example: rewrite the underlying Lagrangian in terms of Goldstone fields which
parametrize the space of vacua (the analogs of ) together with fields that
parametrize radial directions (the analogs of ). Setting the radial fields
equal to their vacuum values, one is left with a non-linear -model for the
Obscure terminology, referring to the fact that the Goldstone fields take values in a curved
space. If the space of vacua is embedded in a larger linear space, say M Rn , then the action
for the fields that parametrize the embedding space Rn is known as a linear -model.
5.3 Spontaneous symmetry breaking (quantum)
53
Goldstone fields, and one can read off the metric from the action. Finally,
the number of Goldstone bosons is equal to the number of broken symmetry
generators, or equivalently the dimension of the quotient space:
# Goldstones = dim M = dim G dim H .
5.3 Spontaneous symmetry breaking (quantum)
Now lets see more directly how spontaneous symmetry breaking plays out
in the quantum theory. First we need to decide: what will signal spontaneous symmetry breaking? To this end lets assume we have a collection of
degenerate ground states related by a symmetry. Let me denote two of these
ground states |0i, |00 i. The symmetry is spontaneously broken if |0i =
6 |00 i.
Instead of applying this criterion directly, its often more convenient to
search for a field whose vacuum expectation value transforms under the
symmetry:
h0||0i =
6 h00 ||00 i .
This implies |0i 6= |00 i, so it implies spontaneous symmetry breaking as
defined above. Such expectation values are known as order parameters.
Now lets specialize to continuous symmetries. In this case we have a
conserved current j (t, x), and we can construct a unitary operator
U () = ei
d3 x (x)j 0 (t,x)
which implements a position-dependent symmetry transformation parametrized
by (x). For infinitesimal , the change in the ground state |0i is
Z
|0i = i d3 x (x)j 0 (t, x)|0i
The condition for spontaneous symmetry breaking is that |0i does not
vanish, even as approaches a constant.
Claim: for each broken symmetry there is a massless Goldstone boson in
the spectrum.
Lets give an intuitive proof of this fact. The symmetry takes us from
For instance, in our SO(3) example,
1
1x2 y 2
1 y2
xy
xy
1 x2
is the metric on a unit
two-sphere.
R
Formally as (x) approaches a constant we have |0i = iQ|0i, where Q = d3 x j 0 is the
generator of the symmetry. So the condition for spontaneous symmetry breaking is Q|0i 6= 0.
However one should be careful about discussing Q for a spontaneously broken symmetry: see
Burgess and Moore, exercise 8.2 or Ryder, Quantum field theory p. 300.
54
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
one choice of vacuum state to another, at no cost in energy. Therefore a
small, long-wavelength fluctuation in our choice of vacuum will cost very
little energy. We can write down a state corresponding to a fluctuating
choice of vacuum quite explicitly: its just the state
U ()|0i
produced by acting on |0i with the unitary operator U (). Setting =
eipx , where p is a 3-vector that determines the spatial wavelength of the
fluctuation, to first order the change in the ground state is
Z
|0i |pi = i d3 x eipx j 0 (t, x)|0i .
The state weve defined satisfies two properties:
1. It represents an excitation with spatial 3-momentum p.
2. The energy of the excitation vanishes as p 0.
This shows that |pi describes a massless particle. We identify it as the state
representing a single Goldstone boson with 3-momentum p. To establish
the above properties, note that
1. Under a spatial translation x x + a the state |pi transforms the way a
momentum eigenstate should: acting with a spatial translation operator
Ta we get
Z
Ta |pi = d3 x eipx j 0 (t, x + a)|0i = eipa |pi .
2. We argued above that |0i and U ()|0i |0i + |0i become degenerate
in energy as the wavelength of the fluctuation increases. This means that
for large wavelength |0i has the same energy as |0i itself. So the energy
associated with the excitation |pi must vanish as p 0.
This argument shows that the broken symmetry currents create Goldstone
bosons from the vacuum. This can be expressed in the Lorentz-invariant
form
h(p)|j (x)|0i = if p eipx
where |(p)i is an on-shell one-Goldstone-boson state with 4-momentum p
and f is a fudge factor to normalize the state. Note that current conser What would happen if we tried to carry out this construction with an unbroken symmetry
generator, i.e. one that satisfies Q|0i = 0?
For a rigorous proof of this see Weinberg, Quantum theory of fields, vol. II p. 169 173.
For reasons youll see in problem 8.2, for pions the fudge factor f is known as the pion decay
constant. It has the numerical value f = 93 MeV.
Exercises
55
vation j = 0 implies that p2 = 0, i.e. massless Goldstone bosons. More
generally, if we had multiple broken symmetry generators Qa wed have
h a (p)|j b (x)|0i = if ab p eipx
(5.6)
i.e. one Goldstone boson for each broken symmetry generator.
Finally, we can see the loophole in the usual argument that symmetries
degeneracies in the spectrum. Let Qa be a symmetry generator and
let i be a collection of fields that form a representation of the symmetry:
i[Qa , i ] = Da i j j . Then
iQa i |0i = i[Qa , i ]|0i + ii Qa |0i = Da i j j |0i + ii Qa |0i .
The first term is standard: by itself it says particle states form a representation of the symmetry group. But when the symmetry is spontaneously
broken the second term is non-zero.
References
Symmetries and and spontaneous symmetry breaking are discussed in Cheng
& Li sections 5.1 and 5.3. Theres some nice discussion in Quigg sections
2.3, 5.1, 5.2. Peskin & Schroeder discuss symmetries in section 2.2 and
spontaneous symmetry breaking in section 11.1.
Exercises
5.1
Noethers theorem for fermions
Consider a general Lagrangian L(, ) for a fermionic field .
To incorporate Fermi statistics should be treated as an anticommuting or Grassmann-valued number. Recall that Grassmann numbers behave like ordinary numbers except that multiplication anticommutes: if a and b are two Grassmann numbers then ab = ba.
One can define differentiation in the obvious way; if a and b are
independent Grassmann variables then
a
b
=
=1
a
b
a
b
=
= 0.
b
a
The derivative operators themselves are anticommuting quantities.
When differentiating products of Grassmann variables we need to
56
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
be careful about ordering. For example we can define a derivative
operator that acts from the left, satisfying
L
a
b
(ab) =
ba
= b,
L
a
a
a
or one that acts from the right, satisfying
R
b a
(ab) = a
b = b .
R
a
a a
(i) Show that the Euler-Lagrange equations which make the action
for stationary are
RL
( )
RL
= 0.
R
(ii) Suppose the Lagrangian is invariant under an infinitesimal transformation + . Show that the current
j =
RL
( )R
is conserved. You should treat as a Grassmann number.
5.2
Symmetry breaking in finite volume?
Consider the quantum mechanics of a particle moving in a double
well potential, described by the Lagrangian
1
1
1
L = mx 2 m 2 x2 mx4 .
2
2
4
Were taking the parameter 2 to be negative.
(i) Expand the Lagrangian to quadratic order about the two minima
of the potential, and write down approximate (harmonic oscillator)
ground state wavefunctions
+ (x) = hx|+i
(x) = hx|i
describing unit-normalized states |+i and |i localized in the right
and left wells, respectively. How do your wavefunctions behave as
m ?
(ii) Use the WKB approximation to estimate the tunneling amplitude h|+i. You can make approximations which are valid for
large m (equivalently small ).
Exercises
57
Now consider a real scalar field with Lagrangian density (2 < 0)
1
1
1
L = 2 2 4 .
2
2
4
The symmetry is supposed to be spontaneously broken, with
two degenerate ground states |+i and |i. But cant the field tunnel
from one minimum to the other? To see whats happening consider
the same theory but in a finite spatial volume. For simplicity lets
work in a spatial box of volume V with periodic boundary conditions,
so that we can expand the field in spatial Fourier modes
X
(t, x) =
k (t)eikx
k (t) = k (t) .
k
Here k = 2n/V 1/3 with n Z3 .
R
(iii) Expand the field theory Lagrangian L = d3 x L to quadratic
order about the classical vacua. Express your answer in terms of
the Fourier coefficients k (t) and their time derivatives.
(iv) Use the Lagrangian worked out in part (iii) to write down approximate ground state wavefunctions
+ (k )
(k )
describing |+i
describing |i
How do your wavefunctions behave in the limit V ?
(v) If you neglect the coupling between different Fourier modes
something which should be valid at small then the Lagrangian
for the constant mode k=0 should look familiar. Use your quantum mechanics results to estimate the tunneling amplitude h|+i
between the two (unit normalized) ground states. How does your
result behave as V ?
(vi) How do matrix elements of any finite number of field operators between the left and right vacua h|(t1 , x1 ) (tn , xn )|+i
behave as V ?
Moral of the story: spontaneous symmetry breaking is a phenomenon
associated with the thermodynamic (V ) limit. For a nice
discussion of this see Weinberg QFT vol. II sect. 19.1.
58
5.3
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
O(N ) linear -model
Consider the Lagrangian
1
1
1
L = 2 ||2 ||4
2
2
4
Here is a vector containing N scalar fields. Note that L is invariant
under rotations R where R SO(N ).
(i) Find the conserved currents associated with this symmetry.
(ii) When 2 < 0 the SO(N ) symmetry is spontaneously broken. In
this case identify
the space of vacua
the unbroken symmetry group
the spectrum of particle masses
5.4
O(4) linear -model
Specialize to N = 4 and define = 4 11 +
are Pauli matrices.
P3
k=1 ik k
where k
(i) Show that det = ||2 and = 2 2 .
(ii) Rewrite L in terms of .
(iii) In place of SO(4) transformations on we now have SU (2)L
SU (2)R transformations on . These transformations act by
LR where L, R SU (2). Show that these transformations leave
det invariant and preserve the property = 2 2 .
(iv) Show that one can set = U where > 0 and U SU (2).
(v) Rewrite the Lagrangian in terms of and U . Take 2 < 0 so
the SU (2)L SU (2)R symmetry is spontaneously broken and, in
terms of the fields and U , identify
the space of vacua
the unbroken symmetry group
the spectrum of particle masses
(vi) Write down the low energy effective action for the Goldstone
bosons.
Exercises
5.5
59
SU (N ) nonlinear -model
Consider the Lagrangian L = 41 f 2 Tr U U where f is a
constant with units of (mass)2 and U SU (N ). The Lagrangian is
invariant under U LU R where L, R SU (N ). Identify
the space of vacua
the unbroken symmetry group
the spectrum of particle masses
6
Chiral symmetry breaking
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
Now were ready to see how some of these ideas of symmetries and symmetry
breaking are realized by the strong interactions. But first, some terminology.
If one can decompose
L = L0 + L1
where L0 is invariant under a symmetry and L1 is non-invariant but can
be treated as a perturbation, then one has explicit symmetry breaking
by a term in the Lagrangian. This is to be contrasted with spontaneous
symmetry breaking, where the Lagrangian is invariant but the ground state
is not. Incidentally, one can have both spontaneous and explicit symmetry
breaking, if L0 by itself breaks the symmetry spontaneously while L1 breaks
it explicitly.
Lets return to the quark model of section 3.1. For the time being well
ignore quark masses. With three flavors of quarks assembled into
u
= d
s
we guessed that the strong interaction Lagrangian looked like
+
Lstrong = i
As discussed in section 5.1.1 the quark kinetic terms have an SU (3) symmetry U . Assuming this symmetry extends to all of Lstrong the
corresponding conserved currents are
T a
j a =
where the generators T a are 3 3 traceless Hermitian matrices.
60
Chiral symmetry breaking
61
In fact the quark kinetic terms have a larger symmetry group. To make
this manifest we need to decompose the Dirac spinors u, d, s into their leftand right-handed chiral components. The calculation is identical to what
we did for QED in section 4.1. The result is
Lstrong = L i L + R i R +
Here
1
1
L = (1 5 )
and
R = (1 + 5 )
2
2
are 4-component spinors, although only two of their components are nonzero, and
L (L ) 0
R (R ) 0 .
This chiral decomposition makes it clear that the quark kinetic terms
actually have an SU (3)L SU (3)R symmetry that acts independently on
the left- and right-handed chiral components.
L LL
R RR
L, R SU (3)
(6.1)
Its easy to work out the corresponding conserved currents; theyre just what
we had above except they only involve one of the chiral components:
T a 1 (1 5 )
jL a = L T a L =
2
a
a
a1
jR = R T R = T (1 + 5 )
2
Its often convenient to work in terms of the vector and axial-vector
combinations
a
T a
=
jV a = jL a + jR
5T a
j a = j a + j a =
A
The question is what to make of this larger symmetry group. As weve
seen the vector current corresponds to Gell-Manns flavor SU (3). But what
about the axial current?
The simplest possibility would be for SU (3)A to be explicitly broken by
Lstrong : after all weve only been looking at the quark kinetic terms. I cant
The full symmetry is U (3)L U (3)R . As weve seen the extra vector-like U (1) corresponds to
conservation of baryon number. The fate of the extra axial U (1) is a fascinating story well
return to in section 13.3.
Picky, picky: the symmetry group is really SU (3)L SU (3)R . The linear combination R L
that appears in the axial current doesnt generate a group, since two axial charges commute to
give a vector charge. Ill call the axial symmetries SU (3)A anyways.
62
Chiral symmetry breaking
say anything against this possibility, except that we might as well assume
SU (3)A is a valid symmetry and see where that assumption leads.
Another possibility is for SU (3)A to be a manifest symmetry of the particle
spectrum. We can rule this out right away. The axial charges
Z
0a
QaA = d3 x jA
are odd under parity (see Peskin & Schroeder p. 65), so they change the
parity of any state they act on. If SU (3)A were a manifest symmetry there
would have to be scalar (as opposed to pseudoscalar) particles with the same
mass as the pions.
So were left with the idea that SU (3)A is a valid symmetry of the strong
interaction Lagrangian, but is spontaneously broken by a choice of ground
state. What order parameter could signal symmetry breaking? Its a bit
subtle, but suppose the fermion bilinear acquires an expectation value:
= 3 11flavor 11spin .
h0| |0i
Here is a constant with dimensions of mass, and 11 represents the identity
matrix either in flavor or spinor space. In terms of the chiral components
L , R this is equivalent to
1
hL R i = 3 11flavor (1 5 )spin
2
1
3
hR L i = 11flavor (1 + 5 )spin
2
hL L i = hR R i = 0 .
(6.2)
Whats nice is that this expectation value
is invariant under Lorentz transformations (check!)
is invariant under SU (3)V transformations L U L , R U R
completely breaks the SU (3)A symmetry
That is, in (6.1) one needs to set L = R in order to preserve the expectation value (6.2). So the claim is that strong-coupling effects in QCD cause
q q pairs to condense out of the trivial (perturbative) vacuum; the chiral
condensate (6.2) is supposed to be generated dynamically by the strong
interactions.
In fact, the expectation value can be a bit more general. Whenever a
continuous symmetry is spontaneously broken there should be a manifold
People often characterize the strength of the chiral condensate by the spinor trace of (6.2),
= h
namely h
uui = hddi
ssi = 43 where the sign arises from Fermi statistics.
Chiral symmetry breaking
63
of inequivalent vacua. We can find this space of vacua just by applying
SU (3)L SU (3)R transformations to the vev (6.2). The result is
1
hL R i = 3 U (1 5 )
2
1
hR L i = 3 U (1+ 5 )
2
hL L i = hR R i = 0
where U = LR is an SU (3) matrix. In terms of Dirac spinors this can be
rewritten as
= 3 eia T a 5
h0| |0i
(6.3)
a
where U = ei T . If our conjecture is right, the space of vacua of QCD is
labeled by an SU (3) matrix U . Wed expect to have dim SU (3) = 8 massless
Goldstone bosons that can be described by a field U (t, x). If were at very
low energies then the dynamics of QCD reduces to an effective theory of the
Goldstone bosons. What could the action be? As well discuss in more detail
in the next chapter, theres a unique candidate with at most two derivatives:
the non-linear -model action from the last homework!
1
Leff = f 2 Tr U U
4
This action provides a complete description of the low-energy dynamics of
QCD with three massless quarks.
In the real world various effects in particular quark mass terms explicitly break chiral symmetry. To get an idea of the consequences, current
estimates are that the chiral condensate is characterized by 160 MeV.
This is large compared to the light quark masses
mu 3 MeV
md 5 MeV
ms 100 MeV
but small compared to the heavy quark masses
mc 1.3 GeV
mb 4.2 GeV
mt 172 GeV .
For the light quarks the explicit breaking can be treated as a small perturbation of the chiral condensate, so the strong interactions have an approximate
SU (3)L SU (3)R symmetry. The explicit breaking turns out to give a small
mass to the would-be Goldstone bosons that arise from spontaneous SU (3)A
breaking. Thus in the real world we expect to find eight anomalously light
scalar particles which we can identify with , K, . This explains why the
octet mesons are so light theyre approximate Goldstone bosons! This
also explains Gell-Manns flavor SU (3) symmetry and shows why there is
no useful larger flavor symmetry.
In this discussion we assumed that sets the relevant energy scale. To justify SU (3)A as
an approximate symmetry, it would really be more appropriate to compare the octet meson
64
Chiral symmetry breaking
References
Chiral symmetry breaking is discussed in Cheng & Li sections 5.4 and 5.5,
but using a rather old-fashioned algebraic approach. Peskin & Schroeder
discuss chiral symmetry breaking on pages 667 670.
Exercises
6.1
Vacuum alignment in the -model
Suppose we add an explicit symmetry-breaking perturbation to
our O(4) linear -model Lagrangian of problem 5.4.
1
1
1
L = 2 ||2 ||4 + a
2
2
4
Here 2 < 0 and a is a constant vector; for simplicity you can take it
to point in the 4 direction. What is the unbroken symmetry group?
Identify the (unique) vacuum state and expand about it by setting
= (f + )ei /f
Here f is a constant and and are fields with hi = hi = 0.
Identify the spectrum of particle masses.
6.2
Vacuum alignment in QCD
Strong interactions are supposed to generate a non-zero expectation value that spontaneously breaks SU (3)L SU (3)R SU (3)V .
The space of vacua can be parametrized by a unitary matrix U =
a a
ei T that characterizes the expectation value
= 3 ei
h i
aT a5
Here is a constant with dimensions of mass. The low energy effective Lagrangian for the resulting Goldstone bosons is
1
L = f 2 Tr( U U )
4
where f is another constant with dimensions of mass.
to the un(i) Consider adding a quark mass term Lmass = M
derlying strong interaction Lagrangian. Argue that for small quark
masses, which measure the strength of SU (3)A breaking, to the scale of chiral perturbation
theory discussed on p. 80.
Exercises
65
masses the explicit breaking due to the mass term can be taken
into account by modifying the effective Lagrangian to read
1 2
f Tr( U U ) + 23 Tr(M (U + U )) .
4
(ii) Identify the ground state of the resulting theory. Compute the
matrix of would-be Goldstone boson masses by expanding the action to quadratic order in the fields a , where a is defined by
a a
U = ei T /f with Tr T a T b = 2 ab .
(iii) Use your results to predict the mass in terms of m2 , m20 ,
m2K , m2K 0 , m2K 0 . How does your prediction compare to the data?
(You can ignore small isospin breaking effects and set mu = md .)
7
Effective field theory and renormalization
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
7.1 Effective field theory
In a couple places deriving SU (3) symmetry currents of the quark model,
writing down effective actions for Goldstone bosons weve given arguments
involving dimensional analysis and the notion of an approximate low-energy
description. Id like to discuss these ideas a little more explicitly. Ill proceed
by way of two examples.
7.1.1 Example I: 2 theory
Let me start with the following Lagrangian for two scalar fields.
1
1
1
1
1
L = m2 2 + M 2 2 g2
2
2
2
2
2
(7.1)
Here g is a coupling with dimensions of mass. Well be interested in m M
with g and M comparable in magnitude. To be concrete lets study -
scattering. The Feynman rules are
66
7.1 Effective field theory
67
propagator
i
p2 m2
propagator
i
p2 M 2
2 vertex
ig
At lowest order the diagrams are
M=
g2
g2
g2
+
+
2
2
sM
tM
u M2
Here s = (p1 + p2 )2 , t = (p1 p3 )2 , u = (p1 p4 )2 are the usual Mandelstam
variables.
Suppose a low-energy observer sets out to study - scattering at a center
of-mass energy E = s M . Such an observer cant directly detect
particles. To understand what such an observer does see, lets expand
the scattering amplitude in inverse powers of M (recall that were counting
g = O(M )):
3g 2 g 2 (s + t + u) g 2 (s2 + t2 + u2 )
M= 2
+
4
6
M} |
M
M
| {z
{z
} |
{z
}
O(M 0 )
O(1/M 2 )
(7.2)
O(1/M 4 )
How would our low-energy observer interpret this expansion?
At leading order the scattering amplitude is simply 3g 2 /M 2 . A lowenergy observer would interpret this as coming from an elementary 4 in-
68
Effective field theory and renormalization
teraction that is, in terms of an effective Lagrangian
1
1
1
L4 = m2 2 4 .
2
2
4!
L4 is known as a dimension-4 effective Lagrangian since it includes operators
with (mass) dimension up to 4. This reproduces the leading term in the -
scattering amplitude provided = 3g 2 /M 2 . However note that according
to a low-energy observer the value of just has to be taken from experiment.
More precise experiments could measure the first two terms in the expansion of the amplitude. These terms can be reproduced by the dimension-6
effective Lagrangian
1
1
1
1
L6 = m2 2 4 0 2 2 .
2
2
4!
8
To reproduce (7.2) up to O(1/M 2 ), one has to set = 3g 2 /M 2 and 0 =
g 2 /M 4 .
In this way one can construct a sequence of ever-more-accurate (but evermore-complicated) effective Lagrangians L4 , L6 , L8 , . . . that reproduce the
first 1, 2, 3, . . . terms in the expansion of the scattering amplitude. In fact, in
this simple theory, one can write down an all-orders effective Lagrangian
for that exactly reproduces all scattering amplitudes that only have external particles:
1
1
1
1
L = m2 2 + g 2 2
2 .
2
2
8
+ M2
(7.3)
Here you can regard the peculiar-looking 1/(+M 2 ) as defined by the series
1
1
2
=
+
+ M2
M2 M4 M6
But note that this whole effective field theory approach breaks down for
scattering at energies E M , when particles can be produced.
Moral of the story: think of as describing observable physics at an
energy scale E, while describes some unknown high-energy physics at the
scale M . You might think that has no effect when E M , but as weve
seen, this just isnt true. Rather high-energy physics leaves an imprint on
low-energy phenomena, in a way that can be organized as an expansion in
E/M . The leading behavior for E M is captured by conventional 4
theory!
7.1 Effective field theory
69
7.1.2 Example II: 2 2 theory
As our next example consider
1
1
1
1
1
L = m2 2 + M 2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2
4
Well continue to take m M . So the only real change is that we now
have a 4-point 2 2 interaction; corresponding to this the coupling is
dimensionless. The vertex is
As before well be interested in - scattering at energies E M . Given
our previous example, at leading order wed expect this to be described in
terms of a dimension-4 effective Lagrangian
1
1
1
Leff = m2 2 eff 4
2
2
4!
with some effective 4-point coupling eff . Also we might expect that since
eff is dimensionless it can only depend on the dimensionless quantities in
the problem, namely the underlying coupling and ratio of masses: eff =
eff (, m/M ).
This argument turns out to be a bit too quick. To see whats actually
going on lets do two computations, one in the effective theory and one in the
underlying theory, and match the results. In the effective theory at leading
order - scattering is given by
iM = ieff
Here, just for simplicity, Ive set the external momenta to zero. On the other
hand, in the underlying theory, the leading contribution to - scattering
comes from
This means we arent studying a physical scattering process. If this bothers you just imagine
embedding this process inside a larger diagram. Alternatively, you can carry out the slightly
more involved matching of on-shell scattering amplitudes.
70
Effective field theory and renormalization
1
iM = 3 (i)2
2
d4 k
(2)4
i
k2 M 2
2
(the factor of three comes from the three diagrams, the factor of 1/2 is a
symmetry factor see Peskin & Schroeder p. 93). The two amplitudes agree
provided
Z
3i2
d4 k
1
eff =
.
4
2
2
(2) (k M 2 )2
The integral is, umm, divergent. Well fix this shortly by putting in a
cutoff, but for now lets just push on. The standard technique for doing
loop integrals is to Wick rotate to Euclidean space. Define a Euclidean
momentum
= (ik 0 ; k)
kE
which satisfies
2
kE = (k 0 )2 + |k|2 = k 2 g k k .
kE
kE
By rotating the k 0 contour of integration 90 counterclockwise in the complex plane we can replace
Z i
Z
Z
0
0
0
dk
dk = i
dkE
to obtain
eff
32
=
2
d4 kE
1
.
2
4
(2) (kE + M 2 )2
3 dk
The integrand is spherically symmetric so we can replace d4 kE 2 2 kE
E
2
where 2 is the area of a unit 3-sphere. So finally
Z
3 dk
kE
32
E
eff =
2 + M 2 )2 .
16 2 0 (kE
The integrand vanishes rapidly enough at large k0 to make this rotation possible. Also one has
to mind the is. See Peskin & Schroeder p. 193.
7.1 Effective field theory
71
To make sense of this we need some kind of cutoff, which you can think of
as an ad-hoc, short-distance modification to the theory. A simple way to
introduce a cutoff is to restrict |kE | < . Were left with
Z
3 dk
kE
32
2 + M 2
2
32
E
=
log
.
eff =
2 + M 2 )2
16 2 0 (kE
32 2
M2
2 + M 2
(7.4)
Moral of the story: you need a cutoff to make sense of a quantum
field theory. Low-energy physics can be described by an effective 4 theory
with a coupling eff . The value of eff depends on the cutoff through the
dimensionless ratio /M .
7.1.3 Effective field theory generalities
The conventional wisdom on effective field theories:
By integrating out short-distance, high-energy degrees of freedom one
can obtain an effective Lagrangian for the low energy degrees of freedom.
The (all-orders) effective Lagrangian should contain all possible terms that
are compatible with the symmetries of the underlying Lagrangian (even
if those symmetries are spontaneously broken!). For example, in 2
theory, the effective Lagrangian (7.3) respects the symmetry of
the underlying theory.
The effective Lagrangian has to be respect dimensional analysis. However, in doing dimensional analysis, dont forget about the cutoff scale
of the underlying theory. For example, in 2 2 theory, the effective
dimensionless coupling (7.4) depends on the ratio /M .
As an example of the power of this sort of reasoning, lets ask: what theory
describes the massless Goldstone bosons associated with chiral symmetry
breaking? The Goldstones can be described by a field
U (x) = ei
a T a /f
SU (3) .
Terms in Leff with no derivatives are ruled out (remember U parametrizes
the space of vacua, so the potential energy cant depend on U ). Terms with
one derivative arent Lorentz invariant. Theres only one term with two
derivatives that respects the symmetry U LU R , so up to two derivatives
The term comes from path integrals, where one does the functional integral over first.
72
Effective field theory and renormalization
the effective action is
1
Leff = f 2 Tr U U .
4
(7.5)
The coupling f has units of energy. You can write down terms in the effective Lagrangian with more derivatives. But when you expand in powers
of the Goldstone fields a such terms only contribute at dimension 6 and
higher. So the low energy interactions of the Goldstone bosons, involving
operators up to dimension 4, are completely fixed in terms of one undetermined parameter f .
As a further example of the power of effective field theory reasoning,
recall the O(4) linear -model from the homework. This theory had an
SO(4) SU (2) SU (2) symmetry group which spontaneously broke to
an SU (2) subgroup. Lets compare this to the behavior of QCD with two
flavors of massless quarks. With two flavors QCD has an SU (2)L SU (2)R
chiral symmetry that presumably spontaneously breaks to an SU (2) isospin
subgroup. The symmetry breaking patterns are the same, so the low-energy
dynamics of the Goldstone bosons are the same. This means that, from the
point of view of a low energy observer, QCD with two flavors of massless
quarks cannot be distinguished from an O(4) linear -model. Of course, to
a high energy observer, the two theories could not be more different.
7.2 Renormalization
Its best to think of all quantum field theories as effective field theories. In
particular one should always have a cutoff scale in mind. Its important
to recognize that this cutoff could arise in two different ways.
(i) As a reflection of new short-distance physics (such as new types of
particles or new types of interactions) that kick in at the scale .
In this case the cutoff is physical, in the sense that the theoretical
framework really changes at the scale .
(ii) As a matter of convenience. Its very useful to focus on a certain
energy scale say set by the c.m. energy of a given scattering process
and ignore whats going on at much larger energy scales. To do
this its useful to put in a cutoff, even though its not necessary in
the sense that nothing special happens at the scale .
a
For pions, where U = ei /f is an SU (2) matrix, the coupling is denoted f . Its known
as the pion decay constant for reasons youll see in problem 8.2. Warning: the value for f is
convention-dependent. With the normalizations we are using f = 93 MeV.
7.2 Renormalization
73
Now that we have a cutoff in mind, an important question arises: how
does the cutoff enter into physical quantities? This leads to the subject of
renormalization. Ill illustrate it by way of a few examples.
7.2.1 Renormalization in 4 theory
Suppose we have 4 theory with a cutoff on the Euclidean loop momentum.
1
1
1
L = m2 2 4
2
2
4!
restrict |kE | <
At face value we now have a three-dimensional space of theories labeled
by the mass m, the value of the coupling and the value of the cutoff
. However some of these theories are equivalent as far as any low-energy
observer can tell. Wed like to identify these families of equivalent theories.
To find a particular family think of the parameters in our Lagrangian as
depending on the value of the cutoff: m = m(), = (). The functions
m(), () are determined by changing the cutoff and requiring that lowenergy physics stays the same. For a preview of the results see figure 7.1.
To see how this works, suppose somebody decides to study 4 theory with
a cutoff .
1
1
1
L = m2 2 4
2
2
4!
restrict |kE | <
Someone else comes along and writes down an effective theory with a smaller
cutoff, 0 = . Denoting this theory with primes
1
1
1
L0 = 0 0 m02 02 0 04
2
2
4!
restrict |kE | < 0
These theories will be equivalent at low energies provided we relate the
parameters in an appropriate way. To relate m and m0 we require that the
and 0 propagators have the same behavior at low energy: youll see this
on the homework, so I wont go into details here. To relate and 0 we
require that low-energy scattering amplitudes agree.
With this motivation lets study - scattering at zero momentum. At
tree level in the primed theory we have
74
Effective field theory and renormalization
iM0 = i0
In the unprimed theory lets decompose = 0 + , where the Euclidean
loop momenta of these fields are restricted so that
includes all Fourier modes with |kE | <
includes all modes with |kE | < 0
only has modes with 0 < |kE | <
(7.6)
We get some complicated-looking interactions
1
1
Lint = 4 = 04 + 403 + 602 2 + 40 3 + 4
4!
4!
corresponding to vertices
Here a solid line represents a 0 particle, while a dashed line represents a
particle; the Feynman rules for all these interactions are the same: just i.
In the primed theory we did a tree-level calculation. In the unprimed
theory this corresponds to a calculation where we have no 0 loops but
arbitrary numbers of loops:
+ diagrams with more loops
(were neglecting diagrams such as
that get absorbed into the
relationship between m and m0 ). Ill stop at a single loop. We encountered
7.2 Renormalization
75
these diagrams in our 2 2 example, so we can write down the answer
immediately.
Z
1
3i2 d4 kE
iM = i +
2
4
2 2
2
0 (2) (kE + m )
Note that the range of momenta is restricted according to (7.6).
Our two effective field theories will agree provided M0 = M or equivalently
Z
1
32 d4 kE
0
=
2
4
2 0 (2) (kE + m2 )2
Just to simplify things lets assume m so that
Z
32
dkE
0
=
.
2
16 0 kE
If we take = 0 to be infinitesimal we get
d
32
=
.
d
16 2
Thus weve obtained a differential equation that determines the cutoff dependence of the coupling.
d
32
=
d
16 2
1
3
=
log + const.
()
16 2
Its convenient to specify the constant of integration by choosing an arbitrary
energy scale and writing
1
1
3
log
2
()
() 16
(7.7)
Here is the renormalization scale and () is the one-loop running
coupling or renormalized coupling.
Buzzwords: for each value of () weve found a family of effective field
theories, related by renormalization group flow, whose physical consequences at low energies are the same. Each family makes up a curve or
renormalization group trajectory in the (, ) plane. This is illustrated
in figure 7.1. The scale dependence of the coupling is controlled by the
-function
()
32
d
=
+ O(3 )
d log
16 2
76
Effective field theory and renormalization
()
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1.0e!20
1.0e!10
1.0e+10
1.0e+20
/
Fig. 7.1. One-loop running coupling versus scale for () = 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0.
Each curve represents a single renormalization group trajectory. Note that the
horizontal axis is on a log scale.
The solution to this differential equation, given in (7.7), is absolutely fundamental: it tells you how the coupling has to be changed in order to compensate for a change in cutoff. Equivalently, if you regard and the bare
coupling () as fixed, it tells you how the renormalized coupling has to be
changed if you shift your renormalization scale .
According to (7.7) the bare coupling vanishes as 0. As increases
the degrees of freedom at the cutoff scale become more and more strongly
coupled. In fact, if you take (7.7) seriously, the bare coupling diverges at =
2
max = e16 /3() . Of course our perturbative analysis isnt trustworthy
once the theory becomes strongly coupled. But we can reach an interesting
7.2 Renormalization
77
conclusion: something has to happen before the scale max . At the very
least perturbation theory has to break down.
7.2.2 Renormalization in QED
As a second example lets look at renormalization in QED. Well concentrate
on the so-called field strength renormalization of the electromagnetic field,
since this turns out to be responsible for the running of electric charge.
Consider QED with a cutoff on the Euclidean loop momentum.
1
L = F F + [i ( + ieQA ) m]
4
restrict |kE | <
Here weve generalized the QED Lagrangian slightly, by introducing an arbitrary normalization constant in front of the Maxwell kinetic term. If we
lower the cutoff a bit, to 0 = , wed write down a new theory
1
L0 = 0 F F + i ( + ie0 QA ) m0
4
restrict |kE | < 0
The two theories will agree provided we relate and 0 appropriately. Well
neglect the differences between e, m and e0 , m0 since it turns out they dont
matter for our purposes. Likewise well neglect the possibility of putting a
normalization constant in front of the Dirac kinetic term.
To fix the relation between and 0 we require that the photon propagators computed in the two theories agree at low energy. Rather than match
propagators directly, its a bit simpler to use
0 (0 ) = ()
d
.
d
Plugging this into the primed Lagrangian and comparing the two theories,
the primed Lagrangian has an extra term
1 d
1 d
F F =
A g A
4 d
2 d
which corresponds to a two-photon vertex
Something more dramatic probably has to happen. Its likely that one cant make sense of the
theory when gets too large. See Weinberg, QFT vol. II p. 137.
Ive gotten lazy and havent bothered putting primes on the fields in L0 ; it should be clear from
the context what range of Euclidean momenta is allowed.
78
Effective field theory and renormalization
k
d
g k 2 k k
d
In the unprimed theory, on the other hand, the photon propagator receives
corrections from the vacuum polarization diagram studied in appendix C.
In order for the two theories to agree we must have
k
In equations this means
d
i g k 2 k k = 4e2 Q2 g k 2 k k
d
Z
dx
d4 q
2x(1 x)
4
2
2
(2) (q + k x(1 x) m2 )2
where the electron loop momentum is restricted to 0 < |qE | < . Note
that the projection operators g k 2 k k cancel. Lets do the matching
at k 2 = 0, and for simplicity lets neglect the electron mass relative to the
cutoff. Then Wick rotating we get
d
i = 4e2 Q2
d
Z
|0
id4 qE 1
dx 2x(1 x)
4 q4
0 (2)
E
{z
} | {z
}
2
= 1/3
= i/8
or
d
e2 Q2
= 2 .
d
6
This means the normalization of the Maxwell kinetic term depends on the
cutoff. To see the physical significance of this fact its useful to rescale the
gauge field A 1 A . The rescaled gauge field has a canonical kinetic
term. However from the form of the covariant derivative D = + ieQA
we see that the physical electric charge the quantity that shows up in the
vertex for emitting a canonically-normalized photon is given by ephys =
7.2 Renormalization
79
e/ . This evolves with scale according to
e4phys Q2
d 2
d e2
e2 d
ephys =
= 2
=
.
d
d
d
6 2
Introducing an arbitrary renormalization scale , we can write the solution
to this differential equation as
1
e2phys ()
1
e2phys ()
Q2
log .
2
6
Qualitatively the behavior of QED is pretty similar to 4 theory. Neglecting
the electron mass the physical electric charge goes to zero at long distances,
while at short distances QED becomes more and more strongly coupled.
In the one-loop approximation the physical electric charge blows up when
2 2
2
= max = e6 /ephys ()Q .
7.2.3 Comments on renormalization
The sort of analysis we have done is very powerful. The renormalization
group packages the way in which the cutoff can enter in physical quantities.
By reorganizing perturbation theory as an expansion in powers of the renormalized coupling () rather than the bare coupling () one can express
scattering amplitudes in terms of finite measurable quantities. (Finite in
the sense that () is independent of the cutoff, and measurable in the
sense that () can be extracted from experimental input say the cross
section for scattering measured at some energy scale.)
Thats how renormalization was first introduced: as a tool for handling
divergent Feynman diagrams. But renormalization is not merely a technique
for understanding cutoff dependence. The relationship between () and
() is non-linear. This means renormalization mixes different orders in
perturbation theory. By choosing appropriately one can improve the
reorganized perturbation theory (that is, make the leading term as dominant
as possible). Youll see examples of this on the homework.
Finally let me comment on the relation between Wilsons approach to
renormalization as described here and the more conventional field theory
approach. In the conventional approach one always has the limit in
mind. The Lagrangian at the scale is referred to as the bare Lagrangian,
Were assuming the parameter e2 doesnt depend on . To establish this one has to do some
further analysis: Peskin and Schroeder p. 334 or Ramond p. 256. Alternatively one can bypass
this issue by working with external static charges as in problem 7.4.
80
Effective field theory and renormalization
while the Lagrangian at the scale is the renormalized Lagrangian. One
builds up the difference between L() and L() order-by-order in perturbation theory, by adding counterterms to the renormalized Lagrangian.
In doing this one holds the renormalized couplings () fixed by imposing
renormalization conditions on scattering amplitudes.
References
Effective field theory. There are some excellent review articles on
effective field theory: see D. B. Kaplan, Effective field theories, arXiv:nuclth/9506035 or A. Manohar, Effective field theories, arXiv:hep-ph/9606222.
Renormalization. A discussion of Wilsons approach to renormalization
can be found in chapter 12.1 of Peskin & Schroeder.
Chiral perturbation theory. Weve discussed effective Lagrangians,
which provide a systematic way of describing the dynamics of a theory at
low energies. Given an effective Lagrangian one can compute low-energy
scattering amplitudes perturbatively, as an expansion in powers of the momentum of the external lines. For strong interactions this technique is known
as chiral perturbation theory. The pion scattering of problem 7.1 is an example of lowest-order PT. For a review see Bastian Kubis, An introduction
to chiral perturbation theory, arXiv:hep-ph/0703274.
Scale of chiral perturbation theory. Chiral perturbation theory
provides a systematic low-energy approximation for computing scattering
amplitudes. But we should ask: low energy relative to what? To get a
handle on this, note that in the effective Lagrangian for pions (7.5) 1/f2 acts
as a loop-counting parameter (analogous to in 4 theory, or e2 in QED).
Moreover each loop is usually associated with a numerical factor 1/16 2 , as
explained on p. 102. So the loop expansion is really an expansion in powers
of (energy)2 /(4f )2 . Its usually assumed that higher dimension terms in
the pion effective Lagrangian will be suppressed by powers of the same scale,
namely 4f 1 GeV. See Manohar and Georgi, Nucl. Phys. B234 (1984)
189.
Exercises
7.1
scattering
Exercises
81
If you take the pion effective Lagrangian
1
L = f2 Tr( U U ) + 23 Tr(M (U + U ))
4
and expand it to fourth order in the pion fields you find interaction
terms that describe low-energy scattering. Conventions: U =
a a
ei /f is an SU (2) matrix where a are Pauli matrices and f =
93 MeV. Im working in a Cartesian basis where a = 1, 2, 3. For
simplicity Ill set mu = md so that isospin is an exact symmetry.
The resulting 4-pion vertex is (sorry)
c
k3
b
2
i
2 ab cd (k1 + k2 ) (k3 + k4 ) 2k1 k2 2k3 k4 m2
3f
+ ac bd (k1 + k3 ) (k2 + k4 ) 2k1 k3 2k2 k4 m2
2
ad bc
+ (k1 + k4 ) (k2 + k3 ) 2k1 k4 2k2 k3 m
Note that all momenta are directed inwards in the vertex.
(i) Compute the scattering amplitude for a (k1 ) b (k2 ) c (k3 ) d (k4 ).
Here a, b, c, d are isospin labels and k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 are external momenta.
(ii) Since we have two pions the initial state could have total isospin
I = 0, 1, 2. Extract the scattering amplitude in the various isospin
channels by putting in initial isospin wavefunctions proportional
to
I = 0 : ab
I = 1 : (antisymmetric)ab
I = 2 : (symmetric traceless)ab
(iii) Evaluate the amplitudes in the various channels at threshold
(meaning in the limit where the pions have vanishing spatial momentum).
(iv) Threshold scattering amplitudes are usually expressed in terms
of scattering lengths defined (for s-wave scattering) by a =
M/32m . For I = 0, 2 the experimental values and statistical
errors are (Brookhaven E865 collaboration, arXiv:hep-ex/0301040)
aI=0 = (0.216 0.013)m1
aI=2 = (0.0454 0.0031)m1
How well did you do?
This is in the convention where the sum of Feynman diagrams gives iM. For a complete
discussion of pion scattering see section VI-4 in Donoghue et. al., Dynamics of the standard
model.
82
7.2
Effective field theory and renormalization
Mass renormalization in 4 theory
Lets study renormalization of the mass parameter in 4 theory.
As in the notes we consider
1
1
1
L = m2 2 4
2
2
4!
with a cutoff on the Euclidean loop momentum , and
1
1
1
L0 = 0 0 m02 02 0 04
2
2
4!
with a cutoff 0 = . The idea is to match the tree-level
propagator in the primed theory to the corresponding quantity in
the unprimed theory, namely the sum of diagrams
+ ...
+
(i) In the primed theory the propagator is
i
.
p2 m02
Set m02 = m2 + m2 where m2 = dm
d . Expand the propagator to first order in .
(ii) Match your answer to the corresponding calculation in the unprimed theory. You can stop at a single loop, and for simplicity
you can assume m . You should obtain a trivial differential
equation for the mass parameter and solve it to find m2 ().
7.3
Renormalization and scattering
(i) Write down the one-loop four-point scattering amplitude in
theory, coming from the diagrams
1
4
4!
To regulate the diagrams you should Wick rotate to Euclidean
space and put a cutoff on the magnitude of the Euclidean mo2
mentum: kEuclidean
< 2 . You should keep the external momenta
Exercises
83
non-zero, however you dont need to work at evaluating any loop
integrals.
(ii) Its useful to reorganize perturbation theory as an expansion in
the renormalized coupling (), defined by
1
1
3
log .
()
() 16 2
Rewrite your scattering amplitude as an expansion in powers of
() up to O(()2 ).
(iii) You can improve perturbation theory by choosing in order
to make the O(()2 ) terms in your scattering amplitude as small
as possible. Suppose you were interested in soft scattering, s t
u 0. What value of should you use? Alternatively, suppose
you were interested in the deep Euclidean regime where s, t, u
are large and negative (meaning s t u m2 ). Now what
value of should you use? (Here s, t, u are the usual Mandelstam
variables. The values Im suggesting do not satisfy the mass-shell
condition s + t + u = 4m2 ; if this bothers you imagine embedding
the four-point amplitude inside a larger diagram.)
Moral of the story: its best to work in terms of a renormalized
coupling evaluated at the energy scale relevant to the process youre
considering.
7.4
Renormalized Coulomb potential
Consider coupling the electromagnetic field to a conserved external
current J (x). The Lagrangian is
1
L = F F J A .
4
The Feynman rules for this theory are
k
ig
k2
iJ (k)
R
where J (k) = d4 x eikx J (x). These rules
are set up so the sum of
R
connected Feynman diagrams gives i d4 x Hint where Hint is the
energy density due to interactions.
84
Effective field theory and renormalization
(i) Introduce two point charges Q1 , Q2 at positions x1 , x2 by setting
J 0 (x) = eQ1 3 (x x1 ) + eQ2 3 (x x2 )
Ji = 0
i = 1, 2, 3
Were measuring the charges in units of e = 4. Compute the
interaction energy by evaluating the diagram
Q
You should integrate over the photon momentum. Do you recover
the usual Coulomb potential?
(ii) The photon propagator receives corrections from a virtual e+
e loop via the diagram
As shown in appendix C, this diagram equals
Z
Z
1
d4 q
2x(1 x)
2
2
4e g k k k
dx
.
4
2
2
(2) (q + k x(1 x) m2 )2
0
|qE |<
(7.8)
Here m is the electron mass and is a cutoff on the Euclidean loop
momentum. Note that we havent included photon propagators on
the external lines in (7.8). Use this result to write an expression for
the tree-level plus one-loop potential between two static charges.
Theres no need to evaluate any integrals at this stage.
(iii) Use your result in part (ii) to derive the running coupling constant as follows. Set the electron mass to zero for simplicity. Consider changing the value of the cutoff, . Allow the
electric charge to depend on , e2 e2 (), and show that up
to order e4 the tree plus one-loop potential between two widely
separated charges is independent of provided
de2
e4
= 2
d
6
or equivalently
1
e2 ()
1
e2 ()
log .
2
6
Exercises
85
Here is an arbitrary renormalization scale. Hints: for widely separated charges the typical photon momentum k is negligible compared to the cutoff . Also since the external current is conserved,
k J (k) = 0, you can drop corrections to the photon propagator
proportional to k .
(iv) Similar to problem 7.3: suppose you were interested in the
potential between two unit charges separated by a distance r.
You can still set the electron mass to zero. Working in terms
of the renormalized coupling the tree diagram gives a potential
e2 ()/4r. How should you choose the renormalization scale to
make the loop corrections to this as small as possible? Hint: think
about which photon momentum makes the dominant contribution
to the potential.
(v) Re-do part (iii), but keeping track of the electron mass. Its
convenient to set the renormalization scale to zero, that is, to
solve for e2 () in terms of e2 (0). Expand your answer to find how
e2 () behaves for m and for m. Make a qualitative
sketch of e2 ().
Moral of the story: matching the potential between widely separated
charges provides a way to obtain the physical running coupling in
QED. As always, you should choose to reflect the important energy
scale in the problem. Finally the electron mass cuts off the running
of the coupling, which is why were used to thinking of e as a fixed
constant!
8
Effective weak interactions: 4-Fermi theory
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
A typical weak process is pion decay .
_
_
Another typical process is muon decay + e+ e .
e+
This is closely related to inverse muon decay, or scattering e e .
The amplitudes for muon and inverse muon decay are related by crossing
86
Effective weak interactions: 4-Fermi theory
87
symmetry. Whats nice about IMD is that its experimentally accessible
(you can make beams by letting pions decay in-flight).
Wed like to write an effective Lagrangian which can describe these sorts
of weak interactions at low energies. Unfortunately the general principles
of effective field theory dont get us very far. For example, to describe
muon or inverse muon decay, theyd tell us to write down the most general
Lorentz-invariant coupling of four spinor fields , , e, e (the names of the
particles stand for the corresponding Dirac fields). The problem is there are
many such couplings. Fortunately Fermi (in 1934!) proposed a much more
predictive theory which, with some parity-violating modifications, turned
out to be right.
With no further ado, the effective Lagrangian which describes muon or
inverse muon decay is
1
L1 = GF
(1 5 ) e (1 5 )e + c.c.
(8.1)
2
c.c. = (1 5 ) e (1 5 )e
Here Fermis constant GF = 1.2 105 GeV2 . A very similar-looking
interaction describes pion decay, namely
1
L2 = GF cos C
(1 5 ) u
(1 5 )d + c.c.
2
The only difference in structure between L1 and L2 is that the Cabibbo
angle C = 13 reflects quark mixing, a subject well say more about later.
One can write down similar 4-Fermi interactions for other weak processes.
A crucial feature of all these Lagrangians is that
weak interactions only couple to left-handed chiral spinors
(8.2)
To see this recall that PL = 21 (1 5 ) is a left-handed projection operator.
In terms of L PL , L = (L ) 0
L1 = 2 2 GF [
L L e L eL + c.c.]
which makes it clear that only left-handed spinors enter. This is often referred to as the V A structure of weak interactions (for vector minus
axial vector).
Observational evidence for V A comes from the decay . The
pion is spinless. In the center of mass frame the muon and antineutrino
more precisely this holds for charged current weak interactions. Well get to weak neutral
currents later.
88
Effective weak interactions: 4-Fermi theory
come out back-to-back, with no orbital angular momentum along their direction of motion. So just from conservation of angular momentum there are
two possible final state polarizations: both particles right-handed (positive
helicity) or both particles left-handed (negative helicity).
positive helicity (observed)
negative helicity (not observed)
Its found experimentally that only right-handed muons and antineutrinos
are produced. This seemingly minor fact has far-reaching consequences.
(i) Momentum is a vector and angular momentum is a pseudovector, so
the two final states pictured above are exchanged by parity (plus a
180 spatial rotation). The fact that only one final state is observed
means that weak interactions violate parity, and in fact violate it
maximally.
(ii) For a massless particle such as an antineutrino helicity and chirality
are related. A right-handed antineutrino sits inside a left-handed
chiral spinor, as required to participate in weak interactions according
to (8.2).
(iii) Wait a minute, you say, what about the muon? If the muon were
massless then a right-handed muon would sit in a right-handed chiral spinor and shouldnt participate in weak interactions. Its the
non-zero muon mass that breaks the connection between helicity and
chirality and allows the muon to come out with the wrong polarization.
(iv) This leads to an interesting prediction: in the limit of vanishing muon
mass the decay is forbidden. Of course we cant change
the muon mass. But we can compare the rates for and
e e . The branching ratios are
B.R.( ) 1
B.R.( e e ) = 1.23 104
Pions prefer to decay to muons, even though phase space favors electrons as a decay product!
Effective weak interactions: 4-Fermi theory
89
Having given some evidence for the form of the weak interaction Lagrangian lets calculate the amplitude for inverse muon decay.
p
1
p
4
_
2
i
iM = GF u
(p3 ) (1 5 )u(p1 ) u
(p4 ) (1 5 )u(p2 ) (8.3)
2
1
|M|2 = G2F Tr (p/3 + m ) (1 5 )p/1 (1 + 5 )
2
spins
Tr p/4 (1 5 )(p/2 + me )(1 + 5 )
X
The electron and muon masses drop out since the trace of an odd number
of Dirac matrices vanishes. Also the chiral projection operators can be
combined to give
X
|M|2 = 2G2F Tr p/3 p/1 (1 + 5 ) Tr p/4 p/2 (1 + 5 )
spins
You just have to grind through the remaining traces; for details see Quigg
p. 90. The result is quite simple,
X
|M|2 = 128G2F p1 p2 p3 p4
(8.4)
spins
Dividing by two to average over the electron spin gives h|M|2 i = 64G2F p1
p2 p3 p4 (the s are polarized so we dont need to average over their spin).
At high energies we can neglect the electron and muon masses and take
G2F s
d
h|M|2 i
=
=
d cm
64 2 s
4 2
G2F s
The cross section grows linearly with s. This is hardly surprising: the
90
Effective weak interactions: 4-Fermi theory
coupling GF has units of (energy)2 so on dimensional grounds the cross
section must go like G2F times something with units of (energy)2 .
Although seemingly innocuous, this sort of power-law growth of a crosssection is unacceptable. A good way to make this statement precise is to
study scattering of states with definite total angular momenta. That is, in
place of the scattering angle , well specify the total angular momentum J.
As discussed in appendix B the partial wave decomposition of a scattering
amplitude is
1 X
(2J + 1) PJ (cos ) hf |SJ (E)|ii .
f () =
i s
(8.5)
J=0
Here were working in the center of mass frame, with energy E and angular
momentum J. PJ is a Legendre polynomial and is the center of mass
scattering angle. |ii and |f i are the initial and final states, normalized
to hi|ii = hf |f i = 1. SJ (E) is the S-matrix in the sector with energy E
and angular momentum J. This amplitude is related to the center-of-mass
differential cross section by
d
= |f ()|2 .
d cm
The partial wave decomposition of the cross section is then
Z
2
4 X
2
(2J + 1) hf |SJ (E)|ii
= d |f ()| =
s
J=0
4
where we used d PJ (cos ) PJ 0 (cos ) = 2J+1
JJ 0 . This expresses the total
P
cross section as a sum over partial waves, = J J where
2
4
J =
(2J + 1) hf |SJ (E)|ii .
s
The S-matrix is unitary, so |f i and SJ (E)|ii are both unit vectors, and their
inner product must satisfy |hf |SJ (E)|ii| 1. This gives an upper bound on
the partial wave cross sections, namely
J
4
(2J + 1) .
s
This result is actually quite general: as discussed in appendix B, it holds for
high-energy scattering of states with arbitrary helicities.
This formula is valid for inelastic scattering at high energies, with initial particles that are
either spinless or have identical helicities, and final particles that are either spinless or have
identical helicities. The general decomposition is given in appendix B.
Exercises
91
To apply this to inverse muon decay we first need the cross section for
polarized scattering L e
L L eL . Thats easy, we just multiply our
spin-averaged cross section by 2 to undo the average over electron spins.
To find the partial wave decomposition note that the IMD cross section is
independent of , so only the J = 0 partial wave contributes in (8.5) and
unitarity requires
=
2G2F s
4
This bound is saturated when
s = (2 2 /G2F )1/4 = 610 GeV .
What should we make of this? In principle there are three options for
restoring unitarity.
(i) It could be that perturbation theory breaks down and strong-coupling
effects become important at this energy scale, which would just mean
our tree-level estimate for the cross section is invalid.
(ii) It could be that additional terms in the Lagrangian (operators with
dimension 8, 10, . . .) are important at this energy scale and need to
be taken into account.
(iii) It could be there are new degrees of freedom that become important
at this energy scale. With a bit of luck, the whole theory might
remain weakly coupled even at high energies.
Its hard to say anything definite about the first two possibilities. Fortunately its possibility #3 that turns out to be realized.
References
4-Fermi theory is discussed in section 6.1 of Quigg. Theres a brief treatment
in Cheng & Li section 11.1. The partial wave decomposition of a helicity
amplitude is given in appendix B. Its also mentioned by Quigg on p. 95 and
by Cheng & Li on p. 343.
Exercises
92
8.1
Effective weak interactions: 4-Fermi theory
Inverse muon decay
Consider the following 4-Fermi coupling.
GF
(gV gA 5 ) e (1 5 )e + h.c.
L = p
|gV |2 + |gA |2
Here gV and gA are two coupling constants (vector and axialvector), which can be complex in general. The standard model
values are gV = gA = 1 in which case only left-handed particles (and
their right-handed antiparticles) participate in weak interactions.
(i) Compute h|M|2 i for the inverse muon decay reactions
L e e
R e e
The is polarized (either left-handed or right-handed), but you
should sum over the spins of all the other particles and divide by
2 to average over the electron spin. The easiest way to compute
a spin-polarized amplitude for a massless particle is probably to
insert chiral projection operators 21 (1 5 ) in front of the field,
as in Peskin and Schroeder p. 142.
(ii) Suppose the incoming beam contains a fraction nL of lefthanded neutrinos and nR of right-handed neutrinos (nL +nR = 1).
What is the center-of-mass differential cross section for e
e ? You can neglect the electron mass but should keep track of
the muon mass. Express your answer in terms of and where
is the angle between the outgoing muon and the beam direction
and
)
2 Re (gV gA
=
.
|gV |2 + |gA |2
See Fig. 3 in Mishra et. al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 63 (1989) 132.
8.2
Pion decay
a
(i) Derive the Noether currents jL a , jR
associated with the SU (2)L
SU (2)R symmetry
i
i
R = aR a R
L = aL a L
2
2
of the strong interactions with two flavors of massless quarks. Well
mostly be interested in the vector and axial-vector linear combia
a
a
nations jV a = jL a + jR
, jA
= jL a + jR
.
Exercises
93
(ii) Repeat part (i) for the SU (2) non-linear -model
1
L = f2 Tr U U
4
where the symmetry is
i
i
U = aL a U + U aR a .
2
2
You only need to work out the symmetry currents to first order in
a a
the pion fields a , where U = ei /f .
(iii) The weak interaction responsible for the decay is
1
(1 5 ) u
(1 5 )d + h.c.
Lweak = GF cos C
2
Here C 13 is the Cabibbo angle. Suppose we can identify
the symmetry currents worked out in parts (i) and (ii). Use this
to rewrite Lweak in terms of the fields , , a , again working to
first order in the pion fields.
(iv) If I did it right this leads to a vertex
p
GF cos C f (1 5 )p
Calculate the pion lifetime in terms of GF , C , f , m , m . Given
f = 93 MeV, whats the pion lifetime? How did you do compared
to the observed value 2.6 108 sec?
(v) The decay e e only differs by replacing e, e .
Predict the branching ratio
( e e )
( )
How well did you do?
b
Given your expression for the currents in terms of the pion fields, the relation h a (p)|jA
(x)|0i =
ab
ipx
if p e
given in (5.6) follows.
94
Effective weak interactions: 4-Fermi theory
8.3
Unitarity violation in quantum gravity
Consider two distinct types of massless scalar particles A and B
which only interact gravitationally. The Feynman rules are
p
scalar propagator
i
p2
graviton propagator
i16GN g g + g g g g
k2
scalar graviton vertex
i p p0 + p p0 g p p0
Here GN = 6.7 1039 GeV2 is Newtons constant and g =
diag(+) is the Minkowski metric. The vertices and propagators
are the same whether the scalar particle is of type A or type B.
(i) Compute the tree-level amplitude and center-of-mass differential
cross section for the process AA BB.
(ii) The partial-wave expansion of the scattering amplitude is
1 X
f () =
(2l + 1) Pl (cos ) Sl (E)
i s
l=0
where Pl is a Legendre polynomial. This is related to the centerof-mass differential cross section by
d
= |f ()|2 .
d cm
Compute the partial-wave S-matrix elements Sl (E). For which
values of l are they non-zero?
(iii) At what center-of-mass energy is the unitarity bound |Sl (E)|
1 violated?
9
Intermediate vector bosons
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
9.1 Intermediate vector bosons
Wed like to regard the 4-Fermi theory of weak interactions as an effective
low-energy approximation to some more fundamental theory in which at
an energy of order 1/ GF new degrees of freedom become important and
cure the problems of 4-Fermi theory.
A good example to keep in mind is the 2 theory discussed in chapter
7, where exchange of a massive particle between quanta gave rise to
an effective 4 interaction at low energies. For further inspiration recall the
QED amplitude for e e elastic scattering.
_
p
2
iM = u
(p3 )(ieQ )u(p1 )
ig
u
(p4 )(ieQ )u(p2 )
(p1 p3 )2
The amplitude is built from two vector currents connected by a photon
propagator. We saw this diagram on its side, when we calculated the
QED cross section for e+ e + and obtained the well-behaved result
e4
d
2
=
1
+
cos
.
d e+ e +
64 2 s
95
96
Intermediate vector bosons
This suggests that to describe inverse muon decay e e we should
pull apart the 4-Fermi vertex and write the IMD amplitude as
p
2
ig
ig
iM = u
(p3 ) (1 5 ) u(p1 )D (p1 p3 )
u(p4 ) (1 5 ) u(p2 )
2 2
2 2
(9.1)
In this expression g is the weak coupling constant; the factors of 1/2 2 are
included to match the conventions of the standard model. The two charged
weak currents are assumed to have a V A form in which only left-handed
chiral spinors enter. Finally D (k) is the propagator for a new degree of
freedom: an intermediate vector boson W .
To reproduce the successes of 4-Fermi theory the W must have some
unusual properties.
(i) It must be massive, with mW = O(1/ GF ), so that at energies
mW we recover the point-like interaction of 4-Fermi theory.
(ii) It must carry 1 unit of electric charge, so that electric charge is
conserved at each vertex in the IMD diagram.
(iii) It must have spin 1 so that it can couple to the Lorentz vector index
on the V A currents.
9.2 Massive vector fields
At this point we need to develop the field theory of a free (non-interacting)
massive vector particle. This material can be found in Mandl & Shaw chapter 11.
Lets begin with a vector field W which well take to be complex since
we want to describe charged particles. The field strength of W is defined
in the usual way, G = W W . The Lagrangian is
1
L = G G + m2W W W
2
9.2 Massive vector fields
97
Aside from the mass term this looks a lot like a (complex version of) electromagnetism. The equations of motion from varying the action are
G + m2W W = 0 .
Acting on this with implies W = 0. Then G = ( W
W ) = W and the equations of motion can be summarized as
+ m2W W = 0
a set of decoupled massive wave equations . . .
W = 0
. . . obeying a Lorentz gauge condition
(When mW 6= 0 this theory does not have a gauge symmetry. The Lorentz
gauge condition is an equation of motion, not a gauge choice.)
There are three independent polarization vectors that satisfy the Lorentz
condition k = 0 with k 2 = m2W . For a W-boson moving in the +z direction
with
q
k = (, 0, 0, k)
k 2 + m2W
a convenient basis of polarization vectors is
=
0 =
1 (0, 1, i, 0)
2
1
mW (k, 0, 0, )
two transverse polarizations
longitudinal polarization
The transverse polarizations have helicity 1, while the longitudinal polarization has helicity 0. These obey the orthogonality / completeness relations
X
i j = ij
X
i
i i = g +
k k
m2W
To get the W-boson propagator we first integrate by parts to rewrite the
Lagrangian as
L = W O W
O = ( + m2W )g
Following a general rule the vector boson propagator is i times the inverse of
the operator that appears in the quadratic part of the Lagrangian: D =
i(O1 ) . To compute the inverse we go to momentum space,
O (k) = ( k 2 + m2W ) + k k .
Note that, regarded as a 4 4 matrix, O has eigenvalue k 2 + m2W when
it acts on any vector orthogonal to k, and eigenvalue m2W when it acts on k
98
Intermediate vector bosons
itself. Then with the help of some projection operators
1 k k
k k
1
1
+
(O ) =
k2
k 2 + m2W
m2W k 2
(k 2 + m2W )k k
1
k k
=
2 +
k
k 2 + m2W
m2W k 2
k k
1
k 2 + m2W
m2W
and the propagator is
1
D (k) = iO
(k) =
k k
)
m2W
m2W
i(g
k2
9.3 Inverse muon decay revisited
Now that we know the W propagator, the amplitude for inverse muon decay
is
k k
g + m2
g2
5
W
M= u
(p3 ) (1 )u(p1 ) 2
u
(p4 ) (1 5 )u(p2 ) .
8
k m2W
Here k = p1 p3 . First lets consider the low energy behavior. At small k
the factor in the middle from the W propagator reduces to g /m2W and the
amplitude becomes
M=
g2
u
(p3 ) (1 5 )u(p1 )
u(p4 ) (1 5 )u(p2 )
8m2W
(9.2)
This reproduces our old 4-Fermi amplitude (8.3) provided we identify
GF = g 2 /4 2 m2W .
(9.3)
Now lets see what happens at high energies. We can regard the amplitude
as a sum of two terms, M = M1 + M2 , where M1 comes from the g part
of the W propagator and M2 comes from the k k /m2W part of the W
propagator. Lets look at M1 first.
M1 =
=
g2
u
(p3 ) (1 5 )u(p1 )
u(p4 ) (1 5 )u(p2 )
8(k 2 m2W )
m2W
1
GF u
(p3 ) (1 5 )u(p1 )
u(p4 ) (1 5 )u(p2 )
2
2
k mW
2
This is our old 4-Fermi amplitude (8.3) times a factor m2W /(k 2 m2W ).
9.4 Problems with intermediate vector bosons
99
The extra factor goes to one at small k and suppresses the amplitude at
large k. So far, so good. However the other contribution to the amplitude
is
g2
u
(p3 )k/(1 5 )u(p1 )
u(p4 )k/(1 5 )u(p2 )
M2 =
8m2W (k 2 m2W )
At first glance this doesnt look suppressed at large k, but here we get lucky:
its not only suppressed at large k, its negligible compared to M1 . To see
this note that
u
(p3 )k/(1 5 )u(p1 ) = u
(p3 )(1 + 5 )p/1 u(p1 ) u
(p3 )p/3 (1 5 )u(p1 )
= m u
(p3 )(1 5 )u(p1 )
where in the second step we used the Dirac equation for the external line
factors
p/1 u(p1 ) = 0
u
(p3 )p/3 = u
(p3 )m
(the neutrino is massless!). Likewise we have
u
(p4 )k/(1 5 )u(p2 ) = me u
(p4 )(1 + 5 )u(p2 )
which means that
M2 =
me m
g2
u
(p3 )(1 5 )u(p1 )
u(p4 )(1 + 5 )u(p2 ) .
8(k 2 m2W ) m2W
So M2 is not only suppressed at large k, its down by a factor me m /m2W
compared to M1 .
To summarize, up to corrections of order me m /m2W , the amplitude for
inverse muon decay is (4 Fermi) (m2W /(k 2 m2W )). Neglecting the
electron and muon masses, the cross section is
G2 m4 s
G2F m4W s
d
= 2 F2 W 2 2 = 2
d
4 (k mW )
4 (s sin2 (/2) + m2W )2
Fixed-angle scattering falls off like 1/s. This is a huge improvement over
the 4-Fermi cross section, and its almost compatible with unitarity.
9.4 Problems with intermediate vector bosons
So, have we succeeded in constructing a well-behaved theory of the weak
interactions? Unfortunately the answer is no. Despite the nice features
Scattering near = 0 isnt suppressed at large s, which in principle causes unitarity violations
at incredibly large energies.
100
Intermediate vector bosons
that intermediate vector bosons bring to the IMD amplitude, the theory
has other problems. A classic example is e+ e W + W , which in IVB
theory is given by
W
e+
+
p
ig
iM = v(p1 ) (1 5 )
2 2
i(p/1 p/3 )
(p1 p3 )2
W
4
ig
5
(1 ) u(p2 ) (p3 ) (p4 )
2 2
When you work out the amplitude in detail (Quigg p. 102) you find that the
cross section grows linearly with s:
G2 s sin2
d
= F
.
d
128 2
The cross section for producing transversely-polarized W s is well-behaved;
its longitudinally-polarized W s that cause trouble. Another way of seeing
the difficulty with IVB theory is to note that the W propagator has bad highenergy behavior; it isnt suppressed at large k which leads to divergences in
loops.
At this point the situation might seem a little hopeless; weve fixed inverse
muon decay at the price of introducing problems somewhere else. Clearly
we need a systematic procedure for constructing theories of spin-1 particles
that are compatible with unitarity. Fortunately, such a procedure exists:
theories based on local gauge symmetry turn out to have good high-energy
behavior. More precisely, theyre free from the sort of power-law growth
in cross-sections that we encountered above. Well start constructing such
theories in the next chapter.
9.5 Neutral currents
Theres one more ingredient I want to mention before we go on. Weve spent
a lot of time on inverse muon decay, e e .
For more discussion of this point see Peskin & Schroeder, last paragraph of section 21.2.
9.5 Neutral currents
101
But what about elastic scattering e e ? Based on what weve said
so far wed expect this to be a second-order process, a box diagram involving
exchange of a pair of W s.
If this is right then at energies much below mW elastic scattering should
be very suppressed (see below for an estimate). But in fact the low-energy
cross sections for IMD and elastic scattering seem to have the same energy
dependence and are roughly comparable in magnitude: measurements by
the CHARM II collaboration give
elastic
0.09 .
IMD
Similar behavior is seen in neutrino nucleon scattering, where one finds
R =
( N anything)
0.31 .
( N anything)
This means we need to postulate the existence of an electrically neutral IVB,
the Z 0 , which can mediate these sorts of processes at tree level.
2 + g 2 + g g )/3 where g = 0.035 and
Phys. Lett. B335 (1994) 246. The prefactor is (gV
v
V A
A
gA = 0.503.
CDHS collaboration, Z. Phys. C45 (1990) 361.
102
Intermediate vector bosons
Lets return to estimate the suppression factor associated with the box
diagram for elastic scattering. First lets neglect the k k /m2W terms in the
W propagator. This gives an amplitude that, for small external momenta,
is schematically of the form
Z
1
d4 k
4
5
5
.
Mg u
(1 )u u
(1 )u
4
2
2
(2) k (k m2W )2
2 = k 2 )
The (Euclidean) loop integral gives (recall d4 kE = id4 k, kE
Z 4
1
1
d kE
2 (k 2 + m2 )2 = 16 2 m2 .
(2)4 kE
W
E
W
So compared to the amplitude for inverse muon decay (9.2), which is schematically of the form g 2 u
(1 5 )u u
(1 5 )u/m2W , wed expect the elastic
scattering amplitude to be suppressed by a factor g 2 /16 2 . The cross
section should then be suppressed by (g 2 /16 2 )2 105 , where weve
used the value of the weak coupling constant discussed in chapter 12. The
k k /m2W terms that we neglected make a similar contribution, provided
2 m2 .
one cuts off the loop integral at kE
W
This calculation illustrates a general feature, that a factor g 2 /16 2 is
usually associated with each additional loop in a Feynman diagram. The
factor of g 2 can be understood from the topology of the diagram, while the
numerical factor 1/16 2 results from doing a typical loop integral.
References
Intermediate vector bosons are discussed in section 6.2 of Quigg. Theyre
also mentioned briefly in section 11.1 of Cheng & Li. For a nice field theory
treatment of IVBs see chapter 11 of Mandl & Shaw, Quantum field theory.
A more careful procedure is to add an elementary 4-Fermi interaction to the theory and absorb
these divergences by renormalizing the 4-Fermi coupling. This behavior is typical of nonrenormalizeable theories and illustrates the difficulties with loops in IVB theory.
R d4 p 1
For example, working in Euclidean space, another typical loop integral is
=
(2)4 p4
R 22 p3 dp 1
1
2
=
log
.
(2)4
p4
16 2
2
Exercises
103
Exercises
9.1
Unitarity and AB theory
Recall the calculation of AB scattering in the ABC theory
of problem A.1.
A
C
Suppose C has a very large mass. Then a low-energy observer would
interpret this scattering in terms of an elementary quartic vertex
with Feynman rule
A
iG
B
This rule defines AB theory the low energy effective theory for
the underlying ABC.
(i) Compute the amplitude for AB scattering in AB theory.
Theres no need to average over spins at this stage.
(ii) Match your result to the low-energy behavior of the same amplitude calculated in ABC theory. Use this to fix the value of
the coupling G in terms of g1 , g2 and mC .
(iii) Find the differential cross-section for AB R R in the low
energy effective theory, where both outgoing particles are righthanded (positive helicity). How does the cross section behave at
high energies? Which partial waves contribute? At what energy
is unitarity violated?
(iv) In the underlying ABC theory, how does the same cross section behave at high energies? Is it compatible with unitarity?
10
QED and QCD
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
10.1 Gauge-invariant Lagrangians
After all these preliminaries were finally ready to write down a Lagrangian
which describes the electromagnetic and strong interactions of quarks. For
the electromagnetic interaction its easy: we introduce a collection of Dirac
spinor fields
qi
i = u, d, s for three flavors of quarks
and couple them to electromagnetism in the standard way, via a Lagrangian
i
X h
1
LQED =
qi i ( + ieQi A ) mi qi F F
(10.1)
4
i
Here F = A A is the Maxwell field strength and the various quarks
have charges
2
1
Qu =
Qd = Qs =
3
3
in units of e = 4.
Theres a formal way of motivating this Lagrangian, which has the advantage of directly generalizing to the strong interactions. Start with three
free quarks, described by
Lfree = Lkinetic + Lmass
Q
Q
Lkinetic = Qi
Lmass = QM
u
mu 0
0
Q= d
M = 0 md 0
s
0
0 ms
104
10.1 Gauge-invariant Lagrangians
105
Lkinetic has a U (3) flavor symmetry Q U Q which is generically broken to
U (1)3 by Lmass . Lets focus on the particular transformation Q eieT Q
where is an angle that parametrizes the transformation and
2/3
0
0
T = 0 1/3
0
0
0
1/3
T is a Hermitian matrix. Its one of the generators of the unbroken U (1)3
U (3) flavor symmetry.
Suppose we want to promote this global symmetry to a local invariance,
7 (x). We can do this by gauging the symmetry, namely replacing
the ordinary derivative with a covariant derivative D = + ieA T .
This replacement turns the free Lagrangian into
(i D M ) Q .
Lgauged = Q
This interacting Lagrangian has a local gauge invariance
Q(x) eie(x)T Q(x)
A A + .
To see this its useful to note that D Q transforms covariantly under gauge
transformations (meaning in the same way as Q itself): that is D Q
eie(x)T D Q. Although this theory is perfectly gauge invariant, it lacks
kinetic terms for the gauge fields. We can remedy this by adding the (gaugeinvariant) Maxwell Lagrangian.
1
LMaxwell = F F
F = A A
(10.2)
4
This takes us back to the QED Lagrangian (10.1). One says that we have
constructed this theory by gauging a U (1) subgroup of the global symmetry
group.
How should we describe strong interactions of quarks? Inspired by electromagnetism, lets identify a global symmetry and gauge it. What global
symmetry should we use? Recall that quarks come in three colors, so that
each quark flavor is really a collection of three Dirac spinors.
qi,red
qi = qi,green
qi,blue
Focusing for the moment on a single quark flavor, this means the free quark
Lagrangian has an SU (3)color symmetry. That is,
Lfree = q (i m) q
106
QED and QCD
is invariant under q U q where U SU (3). This symmetry is the basis for
our theory of strong interactions (QCD, for quantum chromodynamics).
Lets gauge SU (3)color , following the procedure we used for electromagnetism. Were after a local color symmetry
a (x)T a
q(x) eig
q(x)
where weve introduced a coupling constant g and a set of eight 33 traceless
Hermitian matrices T a the generators of SU (3)color . A gauge-invariant
Lagrangian is
Lgauged = q (i D m) q
where the covariant derivative
D = + igBa T a
involves a collection of eight color gauge fields Ba . This Lagrangian is invariant under
q(x) U (x)q(x)
a (x)T a
U (x) = eig
provided the gauge fields transform according to
i
B (x) U (x)B (x)U (x) + ( U )U .
g
Here B (x) = Ba (x)T a is a traceless Hermitian matrix-valued field. To
verify the invariance one should first show that under a gauge transformation
D q transforms covariantly, D q U D q.
To get a complete theory we need to add some gauge-invariant kinetic
terms for the fields B . Its not so obvious how to do this. The correct
Lagrangian turns out to be
1
LYangMills = Tr (G G )
2
where the field strength associated with B is
G = B B + ig[B , B ]
(the last term is a matrix commutator). This generalizes the Maxwell Lagrangian (10.2) to a non-abelian gauge group. Under a gauge transformation
you can check that G transforms covariantly in the adjoint representation:
G U G U . This transformation might seem surprising in electrodynamics were used to the field strength being gauge invariant but combined
with the cyclic property of the trace it suffices to make the Yang-Mills Lagrangian gauge invariant.
10.1 Gauge-invariant Lagrangians
107
Going back to three flavors, the strong and electromagnetic interactions of
the u, d, s quarks are described by the following SU (3) U (1) gauge theory.
h
i
i ( + ieA T + igBa T a ) M Q 1 F F 1 Tr (G G )
L=Q
4
2
Here the U (1) generator of electromagnetism is
2/3
0
0
T = 0 1/3
11color
0
0
0
1/3 flavor
while the SU (3) color generators are really
a
T a = 11flavor Tcolor
and the mass matrix is
mu 0
0
11color .
M = 0 md 0
0
0 ms flavor
As we discussed in chapter 6, the free quark kinetic terms actually have an
SU (3)L SU (3)R global flavor symmetry that acts on the chiral components
of Q.
QL (Lflavor 11color ) QL
QR (Rflavor 11color ) QR
L, R SU (3)
A very nice observation: if we neglect the quark masses and electromagnetic couplings, and take the gauge fields to be invariant, then the entire
Lagrangian is invariant under this symmetry. This is just what we needed
for our ideas about spontaneous chiral symmetry breaking by the strong
interactions to make sense!
The Feynman rules are straightforward, at least at tree level. One conventionally normalizes Tr(T a T b ) = 12 ab and sets T a = 12 a ; the Gell-Mann
matrices a are the SU (3) analogs of the Pauli matrices. The Feynman rules
are
Additional rules are needed to handle gluon loop diagrams.
108
QED and QCD
p
quark propagator
i(p/ + m)
ij
p2 m2
photon propagator
ig
k2
gluon propagator
ig
ab
k2
quark photon vertex
ieTij
quark gluon vertex
a
igij T
k
a
j
i
j
a
i
Here i, j = u, d, s are quark flavor labels, , = r, g, b are quark color labels,
a = 1, . . . , 8 is a gluon color label, and is a Lorentz vector index denoting
the photon or gluon polarization. Additional gluon 3-point and 4-point
couplings arise from the cubic and quartic terms in the Yang-Mills action.
a
p
r
c
q
b
h
i
gf abc g (p q) + g (q r) + g (r p)
10.2 Running couplings
a
109
h
ig 2 f abe f cde (g g g g )
+f ace f bde (g g g g )i
+f ade f bce (g g g g )
c
The SU (3) structure constants are defined by [T a , T b ] = if abc T c ; theyre
given explicitly in Quigg, p. 197. In the 4-gluon vertex , , , denote
Lorentz vector indices I hope that makes the structure of the vertex clearer.
10.2 Running couplings
Given these Feynman rules its straightforward (at least in principle) to
do perturbative QCD calculations. For example, taking both photon and
gluon exchange into account, at lowest order the quark quark scattering
amplitude is (time runs upwards)
+ crossed diagrams
Youll see these diagrams on the homework.
The most interesting thing one can compute in perturbation theory is
the running coupling. It can be extracted from the behavior of scattering
amplitudes. Recall that in 4 theory at one loop we studied the diagrams
Evaluating these diagrams with a UV cutoff , in section 7.2.1 we found the
running coupling
1
1
3
log .
2
()
() 16
110
QED and QCD
The coupling goes to zero in the infrared, and diverges in the UV at a scale
2
max = e16 /3() .
The analogous calculation in QED is to study e e scattering at one
loop, from the diagrams
+
There are other one-loop diagrams that contribute to the scattering process,
but the renormalization of electric charge arises solely from the vacuum
polarization diagram drawn above. As we saw in section 7.2.2 and problem
7.4, this leads to the running coupling
1
1
1
= 2
log .
e2 ()
e () 6 2
Qualitatively, this is pretty similar to 4 theory: the coupling goes to zero
2 2
in the infrared, and diverges at max = e6 /e () .
In QCD quark quark scattering arises from the diagrams
+
Several one-loop diagrams contribute to the running coupling; not all are
shown. Summing them up leads to
11Nc 2Nf
1
1
= 2
+
log .
g 2 ()
g ()
24 2
Here Nc is the number of quark colors (three, in the real world) and Nf is
the number of quark flavors (three if you count the light quarks, six if you
include c, b, t). A few comments:
This is not to say theres not a lot of interesting physics in the other diagrams. A detailed
discussion can be found in Sakurai, Advanced quantum mechanics, section 4-7.
10.2 Running couplings
111
In deriving the -functions we neglected quark masses, so really Nf counts
the number of quarks with m . As in problem 7.4, quarks with m
dont contribute to the running.
To recover the QED result from QCD one should set Nc = 0 (to get rid of
the extra non-abelian interactions), Nf = 1 (since a single Dirac fermion
runs around the electron bubble), and g 2 = 2e2 (compare the quark
gluon vertex
for a U (1) gauge group, where our normalizations require
T = 1/ 2, to the quark photon vertex).
The crucial point is that the coefficient of the logarithm on the right hand
side is positive. This means the behavior of the QCD coupling is opposite
to QED or 4 theory: the coupling goes to zero at short distances, and
increases in the infrared. If you take the one-loop running seriously the
renormalized coupling g 2 () diverges when
= QCD e24
2 /(11N
c 2Nf )g
2 ()
This is known as the QCD scale. The notation QCD is standard, but as
you can see its not the same as the UV cutoff scale .
The idea is that we can take the continuum limit by sending
and g 2 () 0 while keeping QCD fixed. In this limit we should think of
QCD as the unique (dimensionful!) quantity which characterizes the strong
interactions. For example you can express the running coupling in terms of
QCD .
S ()
g 2 ()
6
=
4
(11Nc 2Nf ) log(/QCD )
The particle data group (2002 version) gives the value QCD = 216 +25
24 MeV.
To summarize our basic picture of QCD:
Its weakly coupled at short distances. In this regime perturbation theory
can be trusted. For example gluon exchange gives rise to a short-distance
Coulomb-like potential between quarks.
Its strongly coupled at long distances. In this regime non-perturbative
effects take over and give rise to phenomena such as quark confinement
and spontaneous chiral symmetry breaking. In principle quantities that
appear in the pion effective Lagrangian such as f and can be calculated
in terms of QCD .
112
QED and QCD
9. Quantum chromodynamics 17
required, for example, to facilitate the extraction of CKM elements from measurements
of charm and bottom decay rates. See Ref. 169 for a recent review.
!s()
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1
10
GeV
10
Figure 9.2: Summary of the values of s () at the values of where they are
measured. The lines show the central values and the 1 limits of our average.
The figure clearly shows the decrease in s () with increasing . The data are,
in increasing order of , width, decays, deep inelastic scattering, e+ e event
shapes at 22 GeV from the JADE data, shapes at TRISTAN at 58 GeV, Z width,
and e+ e event shapes at 135 and 189 GeV.
9.13. Conclusions
The need for brevity has meant that many other important topics in QCD
phenomenology have had to be omitted from this review. One should mention in
particular the study of exclusive processes (form factors, elastic scattering, . . .), the
behavior of quarks and gluons in nuclei, the spin properties of the theory, and QCD
effects in hadron spectroscopy.
We have focused on those high-energy processes which currently offer the most
quantitative tests of perturbative QCD. Figure 9.1 shows the values of s (MZ ) deduced
September 8, 2004
15:07
Exercises
113
References
The basic material in this chapter is covered nicely in Quigg, chapter 4 and
sections 8.1 8.3. Griffiths chapter 9 does some tree-level calculations in
QCD. A more complete treatment can be found in Peskin & Schroeder:
sections 15.1 and 15.2 work out the Yang-Mills action, section 16.1 gives the
Feynman rules, and section 16.5 does the running coupling.
Gluon loops. Additional Feynman rules are required to compute gluon
loop diagrams. The additional rules ensure that unphysical gluon polarizations do not contribute in loops. The details are worked out in Peskin &
Schroeder section 16.2.
Photon and gluon polarization sums. The completeness relation we
P i i
have been using to perform photon polarization sums,
i = g ,
implicitly requires a sum over four linearly independent polarization vectors
(the two physical polarizations of a photon plus two unphysical polarizations). Such a sum can be used in QED: thanks to a cancellation discussed
in Peskin & Schroeder p. 159, the unphysical polarizations do not contribute
to scattering amplitudes. However the analogous cancellation does not always hold in QCD, so for gluons one should only sum over physical polarizations. The appropriate completeness relation is in Cheng & Li p. 271. The
issue with gluon polarization sums is closely related to the additional rules
for gluon loops, as nicely explained by Aitchison and Hey Gauge theories in
particle physics (second edition, 1989) section 15.1.
Partons. The rules we have developed are adequate to describe the interactions of quarks and gluons. However to study scattering off a physical
hadron one needs to work in terms of its constituent partons. The necessary machinery is developed in Peskin & Schroeder chapter 17.
Exercises
10.1
Tree-level q q interaction potential
(i) Compute the tree-level q q q q scattering amplitude arising from
the one-photon and one-gluon exchange diagrams
+
(time runs upwards). Just write down the amplitude you dont
114
QED and QCD
need to average over spins. Were assuming the quarks have distinct flavors so theres no diagram in which the q q annihilate to
an intermediate photon or gluon.
(ii) The one-photon-exchange diagram generates the usual Coulomb
potential VQED (r) = Q1 Q2 /r. Comparing the normalization of
the two diagrams, what is the analogous QCD potential VQCD (r)?
(iii) Evaluate the QCD interaction potential when the q q are in a
color singlet state.
10.2
Three jet production
The process e+ e 3 jets can be thought of as a two-step process,
+
e e followed by q qg where is an off-shell photon.
(i) At leading order the diagrams for q qg give
k
iM qqg =
q
k3
_
q
2
Compute h|M qqg |2 i. You should average over the photon spin
and sum over the spins, colors, and quark flavors in the final state.
A few tips:
You should allow the photon to be off-shell, q 2 6= 0. However
for simplicity you can take the other particles to be massless,
ki2 = 0.
You can sum over the photon and gluon spins using
X
= g .
polarizations
To average over the photon spin you should divide your result
by 3 for the three possible polarizations of a massive vector.
You can sum over colors using Tr a b = 2 ab .
You cant always perform gluon spin sums in such a simple way. See p. 113.
k3
_
q
Exercises
115
You should express your answer in terms of the kinematic variables
2ki q
.
xi =
q2
In the center of mass frame xi is twice the energy fraction carried
by particle i, xi = 2Ei /Ecm . Note that x1 + x2 + x3 = 2.
(ii) Compute the spin-averaged |amplitude|2 for e+ e from
e+
iMe+ e =
_
e
(iii) The spin-averaged |amplitude|2 for the whole process is
h|M|2 i = h|Me+ e |2 i
1
h|M qqg |2 i
q4
where the 1/q 4 in the middle is from the intermediate photon
propagator. Plug this into the cross-section formula
d
1
=
h|M|2 i
dx1 dx2
256 3
and find the differential cross-section for 3-jet events. You should
reproduce Peskin & Schroeder (17.18).
For a justification of this formula, including the factor of 3 for averaging over photon spins, see
Peskin & Schroeder p. 261.
11
Gauge symmetry breaking
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
The only well-behaved theories of spin1 particles are thought to be gauge
theories. So wed like to fit our IVB theory of weak interactions into the
gauge theory framework. In trying to do this, there are a couple of obstacles.
The Lagrangian for free W -bosons is
1
L = G G + m2W W W
2
G = W W .
However the mass term explicitly breaks the only real candidate for a
gauge symmetry, namely invariance under W W + .
We know that W -bosons are charged, and should therefore couple to the
photon.
_
W
This sounds like the sort of gauge boson self-interactions one has in nonabelian gauge theory. So it seems reasonable to look for an SU (2) (say)
Yang-Mills theory of weak interactions. To match IVB theory we expect
to find vertices
116
11.1 Abelian Higgs model
117
This suggests that we should group leptons and neutrinos into doublets
under the gauge group.
e
SU (2) doublets
e
But it seems silly to group leptons and neutrinos in this way: theyre obviously not related by any type of symmetry, let alone gauge symmetry
(they have different masses, charges, . . .).
To write a gauge theory for the weak interactions we need a way of disguising the underlying gauge symmetry the Lagrangian should be invariant,
but the symmetry shouldnt be manifest in the particle spectrum. Were
going to spontaneously break gauge invariance!
11.1 Abelian Higgs model
To illustrate the basic consequences of spontaneously breaking gauge invariance, lets return to the model we used in chapter 5 to study spontaneous
breaking of a continuous global symmetry.
1 ~ ~ 1 2 ~ 2 1 ~ 4
|| ||
2
2
4
= 2 ( )2
L =
~
In
the
first line were working in terms of a real two component field =
1
1
2 , in the second line we introduced the complex combination = 2 (1 +
i2 ). Lets gauge the global U (1) symmetry ei . Following the usual
procedure we define a covariant derivative D = + ieA . Replacing
D and adding a Maxwell term gives a Lagrangian
1
L = D D 2 ( )2 F F
4
This discussion is just to illustrate the idea; when we get to the standard model well see that
the actual gauge structure is somewhat different. Also the choice of SU (2) is just for simplicity
we could use a larger group and put more, possibly undiscovered, particles into the multiplets.
118
Gauge symmetry breaking
which is invariant under gauge transformations
eie(x)
A A + .
If 2 > 0 we have the usual situation: a massless photon coupled to a
complex scalar field with quartic self-interactions. What happens for 2 < 0?
In this case the potential has a circle of degenerate minima, located at
= 2 /2,
phase of arbitrary .
Clearly something interesting is going to happen, because these vacua arent
really distinct: theyre related by gauge transformations!
To see whats going on lets take a pedestrian approach, and expand about
one of the minima. Without loss of generality we choose the minimum where
is real and positive, and set = 12 (0 +)ei . Here and are real scalar
p
fields and 0 = 2 /. Then
1
1
= ei + (0 + )ei i
2
2
1
ieA = (0 + )ei ieA
2
1
D = ei + i(0 + )( + eA )
2
and the Lagrangian becomes
1
1
+ (0 + )2 ( + eA )( + eA )
2
2
1 2
1
1
(0 + )2 (0 + )4 F F
2
4
4
This looks awfully complicated. To get a handle on whats going on lets
expand to quadratic order in the fields, since we can identify the spectrum
of particle masses by studying small oscillations about the minimum.
L =
1
1
1
L = + 20 ( + eA )( + eA ) F F
2
2
4
+ const. + 2 2 + cubic, quartic interaction terms (11.1)
The field has a familiar mass, m2 = 22 . The field looks massless.
Thats no surprise, since wed expect to be the Goldstone boson associated
with spontaneously breaking the U (1) symmetry. Expanding the terms in
parenthesis it looks like theres a mass term for A , but it also looks like
there are A cross-terms which give rise to mixing between A and .
In terms of diagrams theres a vertex
11.1 Abelian Higgs model
119
To understand whats going on, recall the gauge symmetry
eie
A A + .
In terms of and this becomes
invariant
A A + .
Lets choose (x) = 1e (x). In this so-called unitary gauge we have = 0.
The Lagrangian in unitary gauge is just given by setting = 0 in (11.1).
Dropping a constant
Lunitary =
1
1
1
+ 2 2 F F + e2 20 A A
2
4
2
+ cubic, quartic interaction terms .
(11.2)
We ended up with a massive scalar field coupled to a massive vector field
A , and the would-be Goldstone boson has disappeared! This is known as
the Higgs mechanism. We can read off the masses
m2 = 22
m2A = e2 20 .
Its interesting to count the degrees of freedom in the two phases,
2 > 0:
two real scalars
massless photon (two polarizations)
2 < 0:
one real scalar
massive photon (three polarizations)
In both cases there are a total of four degrees of freedom. A few comments:
Due to the photon mass term, the Lagrangian (11.2) is not manifestly
gauge invariant. But thats perfectly okay because Lunitary is written in a
particular gauge.
Spontaneously broken gauge theories are renormalizable. This is hard to
see in unitary gauge. It can be shown by working in a different class of
gauges known as R gauges. See Peskin & Schroeder section 21.1.
A related claim is that spontaneously broken gauge theories have wellbehaved scattering amplitudes. In the abelian Higgs model a scattering
process like AA should be compatible with unitarity. This will be
discussed in the context of the standard model in section 14.1.
120
Gauge symmetry breaking
In a very precise way one can identify the extra longitudinal polarization
of the vector boson in the Higgs phase with the eaten Goldstone boson.
See Peskin & Schroeder section 21.2.
Weve spontaneously broken an abelian gauge symmetry. The Higgs mechanism has a straightforward generalization to Yang-Mills theory, which
well see when we construct the standard model.
References
The abelian Higgs model is discussed in Quigg section 5.3.
Exercises
11.1
Superconductivity
Consider the abelian Higgs model at low energies, where we can
ignore radial
fluctuations in the Higgs field. In unitary gauge we set
= 0 / 2 and the Lagrangian reduces to
1
1
L = F F + e2 20 A A .
4
2
This is the free massive vector field discussed in section 9.2. It turns
out to describe superconductivity.
(i) Compare the vector field equations of motion to Maxwells equations F = j and express the current j in terms of A . This
is known as the London equation.
(ii) Consider the following ansatz for a static solution to the equations of motion.
A = (V, A)
V (t, x) = 0
A(t, x) = aekx
Here a and k are constant vectors. Show that this ansatz satisfies
the equations of motion provided |k|2 = e2 20 and a k = 0.
(iii) Compute the electric and magnetic fields, and the current and
charge densities, associated with this solution. (Recall E = V
0 A, B = A, j = (, j).)
Comments: this exercise shows that spontaneously breaking an abelian
gauge symmetry gives rise to superconductivity. Your solution illustrates the Meissner effect, that magnetic fields decay exponentially
in a superconductor. The current also decays exponentially, showing
Exercises
121
that currents in a superconductor are carried near the surface. Finally the resistance vanishes since we have a current with no electric
field! (Recall Ohms law J = E where is the conductivity.)
12
The standard model
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
So far weve been taking a quasi-historical approach to the subject, constructing theories from the bottom up. Now were going to switch to a
top-down approach and derive the standard model from a set of postulates.
Well first discuss the electroweak interactions of a single generation of leptons, then treat the electroweak interactions of a single generation of quarks.
Finally well put it all together in a 3-generation standard model.
12.1 Electroweak interactions of leptons
12.1.1 The Lagrangian
The first order of business is to postulate a gauge group. To accommodate
W + , W , Z, we need a group with four generators. Well take the gauge
group to be
SU (2)L U (1)Y .
SU (2)L is only going to couple to left-handed spinors (hence the subscript
L), while U (1)Y is a hypercharge U (1) gauge symmetry that should not
be confused with the gauge group of electromagnetism. Well see how electromagnetism emerges later on.
Next we need to postulate the matter content. At this point well focus on
a single generation of leptons (the electron and the electron neutrino). Well
treat the left- and right-handed parts of the fields separately, and assign
them the SU (2)L U (1)Y quantum numbers
L=
SU (2)L doublet with hypercharge Y = 1
e L
R = eR
SU (2)L singlet with hypercharge Y = 2
122
12.1 Electroweak interactions of leptons
123
Just to clarify the notation, this means the SU (2)L generators TLa are
a
/2
when acting on L
a
TL =
0
when acting on R
while the hypercharge generator acts according to
Y L = L
Y R = 2R .
Furthermore eR is a right-handed Dirac spinor (that is, a Dirac spinor that
is only non-zero in its bottom two components), while L and eL are lefthanded Dirac spinors. Note that the left- and right-handed spinors are
assigned different U (1)Y as well as SU (2)L quantum numbers. Also note
that we havent introduced a right-handed neutrino R .
We need a mechanism for spontaneously breaking SU (2)L U (1)Y down to
the U (1) gauge group of electromagnetism. The minimal way to accomplish
this is to introduce a Higgs doublet
+
=
SU (2)L doublet with hypercharge Y = +1.
0
Here + and 0 are complex scalar fields; as well see the superscripts indicate their electric charges. The standard model is defined as the most
general renormalizable theory with these gauge symmetries and this matter
content.
Its straightforward to write down the standard model Lagrangian; its
the most general Lagrangian with operators up to dimension four. Its a
sum of four terms,
LSM = LDirac + LYangMills + LHiggs + LYukawa .
LDirac contains gauge-invariant kinetic terms for the fermions,
D L + Ri
D R
LDirac = Li
0
0
+ ig B Y R .
+ ig W a a + ig B Y L + Ri
= Li
2
2
2
In the second line weve written out the covariant derivatives explicitly.
Wa are the SU (2)L gauge fields, with generators TLa and coupling constant
g. Also B is the hypercharge gauge field, with generator Y and coupling
constant g 0 /2.
Theres no real reason to insist on renormalizability, and we will explore what happens when
you add higher-dimension operators to the standard model Lagrangian. Also it might be worth
pointing out something we didnt postulate, namely lepton number conservation. As well see,
lepton number is conserved due to an accidental symmetry.
The peculiar normalization of g 0 is chosen for later convenience.
124
The standard model
LYangMills contains the gauge kinetic terms,
1
1
LYangMills = Tr (W W ) B B
2
4
where
1 a a
W = W
= W W + ig[W , W ]
2
is the SU (2)L field strength, built from the gauge fields W = 12 Wa a , and
B = B B
is the U (1)Y field strength.
LHiggs includes gauge-covariant kinetic terms plus a potential for .
LHiggs = D D + 2 ( )2
Here D = +
acquires a vev.
ig
a a
2 W
ig 0
2 B Y
. Well assume that 2 > 0 so that
Theres one more term we can write down. Note that L is an SU (2)L
is an SU (2)L singlet
singlet with hypercharge Y = 1 1 = 2, while R
with hypercharge Y = +2. So we can write an invariant
L + c.c.
LYukawa = e R
L + LR)
= e (R
Here e is the electron Yukawa coupling (not to be confused with the Higgs
self-coupling ). If necessary we can redefine L and R by independent phases
R ei R, L ei L to make e real and positive.
12.1.2 Mass spectrum and interactions
The model weve written down has an obvious phenomenological difficulty:
the electron and all three W bosons seem to be massless. Remarkably, the
problem is cured by symmetry breaking. The Higgs potential is minimized
when = 2 /2. Under an SU (2)L U (1)Y gauge transformation we
have
a (x)T a
L
eig
g0
ei 2 (x)Y .
Glashow, 1961: It is a stumbling block we must overlook. I would have given up, he got the
Nobel prize.
12.1 Electroweak interactions of leptons
125
As far as the Higgs is concerned this is a U (2) transformation which can be
used to put the expectation value into the standard form
0
h0||0i =
(12.1)
v/ 2
p
where the Higgs vev v
2 /. Now, whats the symmetry breaking
pattern? We need to check which generators annihilate the vacuum:
0
0 1
v/ 2
1
=
hi =
6= 0
1 0
0
v/ 2
0
0 i
iv/ 2
2
6= 0
hi =
=
i 0
0
v/ 2
0
0
1 0
3
hi =
=
6= 0
0 1
v/ 2
v/ 2
0
6= 0
Y hi = hi =
v/ 2
It might look like the gauge group is completely broken, but in fact theres
one linear combination of generators which leaves the vacuum invariant,
namely Q TL3 + 21 Y .
1 3 1
1 0
acting on : Q = + (+1) =
0 0
2
2
Qhi = 0
Q generates an unbroken U (1) subgroup of SU (2)L U (1)Y , which well
identify with the gauge group of electromagnetism. That is, well identify
the eigenvalue of Q with electric charge.
To see that this makes sense, lets see how Q acts on our fields. We just
have to keep in mind that TL3 = 21 3 when acting on a left-handed doublet,
while TL3 = 0 when acting on a singlet.
1 3
2
Q=
acting on R:
Q = 0 + 12 (2) = 1
1 0
1 3
1
Q = 2 + 2 (+1) =
0 0
A few comments are in order.
0 0
0 1
acting on L:
acting on :
1
2 (1)
matches L =
L
matches R = eR
+
matches =
0 L
126
The standard model
(i) We got the expected electric charges for our fermions. This is no
miracle: the hypercharge assignments were chosen to make this work.
(ii) A gauge-invariant statement is that there is a negatively-charged lefthanded spinor in the spectrum. Of course we identify this spinor with
eL . However the fact that eL appears in the bottom component of a
doublet is connected to our gauge choice (12.1). If we made adifferent
gauge choice wed have to change notation, as setting L = e L would
no longer be appropriate.
What about the spectrum of masses? As usual, we expand about our
choice of vacuum (12.1), setting
!
0
.
=
1 (v + H(x))
2
Here H(x) is a real scalar field, the physical Higgs field. When we plug this
into the Yukawa Lagrangian we find
L + LR)
LYukawa = e (R
"
L
= e eR 0 12 (v + H)
+
eL
L eL
0
1
(v + H)
2
e
= (v + H)(
eR eL + eL eR )
2
e
= (v + H)
ee .
2
In the last line we assembled eL and eR into a single Dirac spinor e. This
gives the electron (but not the neutrino!) a mass,
e v
me = ,
2
as well as a Yukawa coupling to the Higgs field:
e
H
i
e
2
e
This is no loss of generality, as writing in this way defines our choice of gauge for the broken
symmetry generators. Its the standard model analog of the unitary gauge we adopted in
section 11.1.
!
eR
12.1 Electroweak interactions of leptons
127
Next we look at the Higgs Lagrangian,
LHiggs = D D + 2 ( )2
where
D =
0
1 (v + H)
2
+
ig 0
B
2
igv
2
H +
ig
+
2
0
+ H)
W3
W1 iW2
W1 + iW2
W3
!
0
1 (v + H)
2
1 (v
2
W1 iW2
iv
2
g 0 B gW3
+ (terms quadratic in fields)
This means that
2 1
2
1
1
LHiggs =
H H + g 2 v 2 W1 iW2 + v 2 g 0 B gW3 2 H 2
2
8
8
+(interaction terms) .
Defining the linear combinations
1
W1 iW2
2
g 0 B gW3
= p
g 2 + g 02
gB + g 0 W3
p
=
g 2 + g 02
W =
Z
A
we have
1
1
1
LHiggs = H H2 H 2 + g 2 v 2 W+ W + (g 2 +g 02 )v 2 Z Z +interactions
2
4
8
and we read off the masses
m2H
m2W
m2Z
m2A
= 22
1 2 2
=
g v
4
1 2
=
(g + g 02 )v 2
4
= 0
(12.2)
We have a massless photon (as required by the unbroken electromagnetic
U (1)), plus a massive Higgs scalar and a collection of massive intermediate
vector bosons! Expanding LHiggs beyond quadratic order, one finds a slew
128
The standard model
of interactions between the Higgs scalar and W and Z bosons; the Feynman
rules are given in appendix E.
At this point its convenient to introduce some standard notation. In place
of the SU (2)L U (1)Y gauge couplings g, g 0 well often work in terms of the
electromagnetic coupling e and the weak mixing angle W , 0 W /2,
defined by
gg 0
e= p
g 2 + g 02
p
cos W = g/ g 2 + g 02
p
sin W = g 0 / g 2 + g 02
I also like introducing the Z coupling, defined by
p
gZ = g 2 + g 02 .
In terms of these quantities note that
A = cos W B + sin W W3
Z = sin W B +
(12.3)
cos W W3
while the Z mass is
1
m2Z = gZ2 v 2 .
4
Now lets consider the Yang-Mills part of the action. Expanding in powers
of the fields
1
1
LYangMills = Tr (W W ) B B
2
4
1 a a 1
= W W
B B
4
4
1
1
a
= W Wa ( W a W a ) ( B B ) ( B B )
4
4
+(interaction terms)
The quadratic terms have an SO(4) symmetry acting on (W1 , W2 , W3 , B ).
So the SO(2) rotation (12.3) which mixes W3 with B just gives canonical
kinetic terms for the fields W , Z , A . (We implicitly assumed this was
the case when we read off the masses (12.2).) Expanding beyond quadratic
order one finds a slew of gauge boson self-couplings: see appendix E for the
Feynman rules.
12.1 Electroweak interactions of leptons
129
Finally we consider the Dirac part of the action,
0
0
ig
ig
ig
a
a
+ W +
+
LDirac = Li
B Y L + Ri
B Y R .
2
2
2
This gives the fermions canonical kinetic terms, plus couplings to the gauge
bosons
1
LDirac = gjLa Wa g 0 jY B
2
where the SU (2)L and hypercharge currents are
1
with T a = a
2
= L Y L + R Y R
W1 iW2 this gives the charged-current couplings
T aL
jLa = L
jY
In terms of W =
1
2
1
2
1
2
LW
Dirac = gjL W gjL W
g
= (jL1 + ijL2 )W+ + (jL1 ijL2 )W
2
g +
LW
= L LW+ + L
2
g
= (1 5 )eW+ + e (1 5 )W
2 2
where in the third line + = 00 10 , = 01 00 . These are exactly the couplings that appeared in our old IVB amplitude (9.1)! Finally the couplings
to , Z are given by
1 0
3
3
L,Z
Dirac = gjL W g jY B
2
1 0
1 0
3
3
= g cos W jL g sin W jY Z g sin W jL + g cos W jY A
2
2
1
1
= gZ cos2 W jL3 sin2 W jY Z e jL3 + jY A
2
2
Its convenient to eliminate the hypercharge current jY in favor of the elec
tromagnetic current jQ
, using the definition jQ
= jL3 + 12 jY . This leads
to
3
2
L,Z
=
g
j
sin
j
Z
W
Dirac
L
Q Z ejQ A .
As advertised, the photon indeed couples to the vector-like electromagnetic
current with coupling constant e. Something like this was guaranteed to
meaning the left- and right-handed part of the electron have the same electric charge
130
The standard model
happen the massless gauge field A must couple to the unbroken generator
Q. One can write out the couplings a bit more explicitly in terms of a sum
over fermions i , i = , e:
X
X
,Z
1
5
3
2
LDirac = e
i Qi i A gZ
i
(1 )TLi sin W Qi i Z
2
i
i
X
1 X
= e
i Qi i A gZ
i cV i cAi 5 i Z
2
i
where the vector and axial-vector couplings for each fermion are defined by
cV = TL3 2 sin2 W Q
cA = TL3 .
Here TL3 is the eigenvalue of 12 3 acting on the left-handed part of the field
and Q is the electric charge of the field. So for example the electron has
1
1
cV e = 2 sin2 W (1) = + 2 sin2 W
2
2
1
cAe =
2
while the neutrino has
cV = cA =
1
.
2
The Feynman rules from LDirac can be found in appendix E.
12.1.3 Standard model parameters
Lets look at the parameters which appear in the standard model. With one
generation of leptons there are only five parameters:
p
Two gauge couplings g, g 0 (or equivalently the electric charge e = gg 0 / g 2 + g 02
and the weak mixing angle tan W = g 0 /g).
Two parameters
p , (or equivalently the Higgs
in the Higgs potential
mass mH = 2 and Higgs vev v = 2 /).
The
electron Yukawa coupling e (or equivalently the electron mass me =
e v/ 2).
What do we know about the values of these parameters?
The electric charge is known, of course: e2 /4 = 1/137.
12.2 Electroweak interactions of quarks
131
The weak mixing angle is determined by the ratio of the W and Z masses,
m2W
80.4 GeV 2
g2
2
2
= 1 2 = 1
= 0.223 .
sin W = 1cos W = 1 2
g + g 02
91.2 GeV
mZ
To get the Higgs vev recall our old determination (9.3) of the Fermi constant in IVB theory,
g2
1
GF = 2 =
4 2mW
2v 2
1
1/4
v=
(1.17 105 GeV2 )1/2 = 246 GeV .
1/2 = 2
2GF
Its kind of remarkable that the muon lifetime directly measures the Higgs
vev.
The electron mass determines the Yukawa coupling
2me
2 0.511 MeV
e =
=
= 3 106 .
v
246 GeV
One of the mysteries of the standard model is why the electron Yukawa
is so small.
The Higgs mass is the one parameter which has not been measured. Assuming the minimal standard model Higgs exists we only have limits on
its mass. Theres a lower limit
mH > 114.4 GeV
at 95% confidence
from a direct search at LEP, and an upper limit
mH < 219 GeV
at 95% confidence
from a global fit to electroweak observables.
12.2 Electroweak interactions of quarks
To describe the electroweak interactions of a single generation of quarks
the main challenge is to give a mass to the up quark. This is easier than
one might have thought. We introduce left- and right-handed up and down
quarks and assign them the SU (2)L U (1)Y quantum numbers
hep-ex/0306033
hep-ex/0511027 p. 133. Also see table 10.2, but beware the large error bars.
132
The standard model
Q=
u
d
SU (2)L doublet with hypercharge Y = 1/3
L
uR
SU (2)L singlet with hypercharge Y = 4/3
dR
SU (2)L singlet with hypercharge Y = 2/3
The hypercharges are chosen so that Q = TL3 + 21 Y gives the quarks the
correct electric charges. To break electroweak symmetry we have the Higgs
doublet with hypercharge +1. But we can also define
=
where = ( 10 10 ). Note that is an SU (2)L doublet with hypercharge 1.
This lets us build some invariants
dR
SU (2)L doublet with Y = 1/3
R
Qd
invariant
R
u
SU (2)L doublet with Y = 1/3
R
u
Q
invariant
(There is no analog of the second invariant in the lepton sector, just because we didnt introduce a right-handed neutrino.) The general Yukawa
Lagrangian is
R + c.c.
R u Q
u
LYukawa = d Qd
Here d , u are independent Yukawa couplings for the up and down quarks.
Plugging in the Higgs vev this becomes
!
!
1 (v + H)
0
2
LYukawa = d u
dR u u
uR + c.c.
L dL
L dL
1 (v + H)
0
2
1
1
= d (v + H)(dL dR + dR dL ) u (v + H)(
uL uR + u
R uL )
2
2
1
1 u (v + H)
= d (v + H)dd
uu
2
2
In the last line we assembled the chiral components uL , uR and dL , dR into
Dirac spinors u and d. We read off the masses
u v
mu =
2
d v
md = .
2
Theres also a Yukawa coupling to the Higgs; the Feynman rule is in appendix E. In a way were fortunate here the hypercharge assignments are
such that the same Higgs doublet which gives a mass to the electron can
also be used to give a mass to the up and down quarks.
In SU (2) index notation i = ij j = ij j
complex conjugation.
. The hypercharge changes sign due to the
12.3 Multiple generations
133
12.3 Multiple generations
Now lets write the standard model with three generations of quarks and
leptons. Its basically a matter of sprinkling generation indices i, j = 1, 2, 3
on our quark and lepton fields. Including color for completeness, the gauge
quantum numbers are
SU (3)C SU (2)L U (1)Y
quantum numbers
field
left-handed leptons Li =
Li
eLi
right-handed leptons eRi
u
Li
left-handed quarks Qi =
dLi
right-handed up-type quarks uRi
right-handed down-type quarks dRi
(1, 2, 1)
(1, 1, 2)
(3, 2, 1/3)
(3, 1, 4/3)
(3, 1, 2/3)
The standard model Lagrangian is written in appendix E. The main new
wrinkle is that the Yukawa couplings get promoted to 33 complex matrices
eij , dij , uij .
Rj + c.c.
i eRj dij Q
i dRj uij Q
i u
LYukawa = eij L
+ c.c.
e e Q
d d Q
u u
= L
In the second line we adopted matrix notation and suppressed the generation
indices as well as the subscripts R on the right-handed fields.
Wed like to diagonalize the fermion mass matrices. To do this we use
the fact that a general complex matrix can be diagonalized by a bi-unitary
transformation,
= UL UR
where UL and UR are unitary and is a diagonal matrix with entries that
are real and non-negative. Then
+ c.c.
e e U e e QU
d d U d d QU
u u U u u
LYukawa = LU
L
R
L
R
L
R
Now lets redefine our fermion fields
L ULe L
Proof: is Hermitian with non-negative eigenvalues, so = UR 2 UR
for some unitary
matrix UR and some diagonal, real, non-negative matrix . Then = UR
UR
= UL UR
for some unitary UL .
134
The standard model
e URe e
u
uL
UL 0
Q=
Q
dL
0 ULd
d URd d
u URu u
Note that were transforming the up-type and down-type components of Q
differently. Keeping in mind that with our gauge choice only one component
of the Higgs doublet is non-zero, this transformation makes the Yukawa
Lagrangian flavor-diagonal.
+ c.c.
e e Q
d d Q
u u
LYukawa L
So in terms of these redefined fermions we have diagonal mass matrices and
flavor-diagonal couplings to the Higgs. What happens to the rest of the
standard model Lagrangian? The transformation doesnt affect the Higgs
or Yang-Mills sectors, of course. And the Dirac Lagrangian
D d
D L + ei D e + Qi
D Q + u
LDirac = Li
i D u + di
is invariant when L, e, u, d are multiplied by unitary matrices, so terms involving those fields arent affected. The only terms in LDirac that are affected
involve Q. Writing out the SU (2)L part of the covariant derivative explicitly
D Q
LDirac = + Qi
u
u
ig 0
ig
W3
W1 iW2
UL 0
UL
0
Q
+
B Y
+ Qi
+ igs G +
0 ULd
W1 + iW2
W3
0
ULd
2
2
0
3
1 iW 2 )U u U d
ig
ig
W
(W
L
L
= + Qi
+ igs G +
+
B Y Q
(W1 + iW2 )ULd ULu
W3
2
2
So in fact the only place the transformation shows up is in the quark quark
W couplings.
g
0
(W1 iW2 )ULu ULd
uL
LqqW
=
d
L
L
Dirac
(W1 + iW2 )ULd ULu
0
dL
2
g
g
(1 5 )W V u
= u
(1 5 )W+ V d d
2 2
2 2
Here V ULu ULd is the CKM matrix. Its a 3 3 unitary matrix that
governs intergenerational mixing in charged-current weak interactions. The
Feynman rules are
One of the peculiar things about the standard model is that for no particularly good reason
the weak neutral current is flavor-diagonal.
12.4 Some sample calculations
u
135
i
W+
1 5 Vij
2ig
2
dj
i
_
1 5 (V )ij
2ig
2
W
uj
This leads to flavor-changing processes such as the decay K ,
_
W
where the s uW vertex is proportional to Vus .
One last thing how many parameters appear in the CKM matrix? As
a 3 3 unitary matrix it has nine real parameters, which you should think
of as six complex phases on top of the three real angles that characterize
a 3 3 orthogonal matrix. However not all nine parameters are physical.
We are still free to redefine the phases of our quark fields, ui eii ui ,
di eii di since this preserves the fact that weve diagonalized the Yukawa
couplings. Under this transformation Vij ei(i j ) Vij . In this way we
can remove five complex phases from the CKM matrix (the overall quark
phase corresponding to baryon number conservation leaves the CKM matrix
invariant). So were left with three angles and 6 5 = 1 complex phase.
The three angles characterize the strength of intergenerational mixing by the
weak interactions, while the complex phase is responsible for CP violation.
12.4 Some sample calculations
Well conclude by discussing a few calculations in the standard model: decay
of the Z, e+ e annihilation near the Z pole, Higgs production and decay.
136
The standard model
12.4.1 Decay of the Z
The Z decays to a fermion antifermion pair, via the tree-level diagram
p1
k
Z
p2
_
f
The amplitude is easy to write down.
igZ
5
v(p2 )
iM = u
(p1 )
cV cA
2
Summing over the spins in the final state, and neglecting all fermion masses
for simplicity, we have
X
1 2
|M|2 =
gZ Tr (cV cA 5 )p/2 (cV cA 5 )p/1
4
final spins
1 2
=
gZ Tr p/2 p/1 (c2V + c2A + 2cV cA 5 )
4
P
k k
We now average over Z polarizations, using
= g + m
2 , and
Z
evaluate the Dirac traces, using
Tr = 4 g g g g + g g
Tr 5 = 4i
Traces involving 5 drop out since theyre antisymmetric on and . Were
left with
k k
1 2 2
h|M|2 i =
gZ (cV + c2A ) 4(p2 p1 g p1 p2 + p1 p2 ) g + 2
12
mZ
1 2 2
2k p1 k p2
=
gZ (cV + c2A ) p1 p2 +
3
m2Z
where we used k 2 = m2Z . In the rest frame of the Z we have
m
m
mZ
mZ
Z
Z
k = (mZ , 0, 0, 0)
p1 =
, 0, 0,
p2 =
, 0, 0,
2
2
2
2
m2Z
k p1 = k p2 = p1 p2 =
2
12.4 Some sample calculations
137
and the amplitude is simply
1
h|M|2 i = gZ2 c2V + c2A m2Z .
3
The partial width for the decay Z f f is then
Zf f =
|p|
1
h|M|2 i = Z mZ (c2V + c2A )
2
3
8mZ
where weve introduced the Z analog of the fine structure constant Z =
(gZ /2)2
= 1/91. Summing over fermions we find the total width of the Z
4
X
1
Z mZ
c2V f + c2Af
3
f
h
i
= 0.334 GeV |3 {z0.50} + |3 {z
0.251} + |6 {z
0.287} + |9 {z
0.370}
=
uc
dsb
where the contributions of the various fermions are indicated (dont forget
to sum over quark colors!). This gives a total width Z = 2.44 GeV, not
bad compared to the observed value obs = 2.50 GeV. The invisible width
of the Z can be inferred quite accurately, since (as well discuss) the total
width shows up in the cross section for e+ e hadrons near the Z pole.
In the standard model the invisible width comes from decays to neutrinos
which escape the detector. Knowing the invisible width allows us to count
the number of neutrino species N which couple to the Z and have masses
less than mZ /2. The particle data group gives N = 2.92 0.07.
MARK I: J.E. Augustin et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 34, 764 (1975); and J.L. Siegrist et al., Phys. Rev. D26, 969 (1982).
MARK I + Lead Glass Wall: P.A. Rapidis et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 39, 526 (1977).
MARK II: R.H. Schindler, SLAC-Report-219 (1979).
CRYSTAL BALL: A. Osterheld et al., SLAC-Pub-4160 (1986).
DASP: R. Brandelik et al., Phys. Lett. 76B, 361 (1978).
PLUTO: L. Criegee and G. Knies, Phys. Reports 83, 151 (1982).
BES: J.Z. Bai et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 594 (2000); and J.Z. Bai et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 88, 101802 (2002).
Not shown (J/ peak) :
MARK I: A.M. Boyarski et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 34, 1357 (1975).
BES: J.Z. Bai et al., Phys. Lett. B355, 374 (1995).
138
The standard model
Annihilation Cross Section Near MZ
40
35
2 's
3 's
4 's
30
ALE P H
DE LP H I
L3
OP AL
25
(n b)
Figure 39.9: Data from the ALEPH, DELPHI, L3, and OPAL
Collaborations for the cross section in e+ e annihilation into
hadronic final states as a function of c.m. energy near the Z. LEP
detectors obtained data at the same energies; some of the points
are obscured by overlap. The curves show the predictions of the
Standard Model with three species (solid curve) and four species
(dashed curve) of light neutrinos. The asymmetry of the curves is
produced by initial-state radiation. References:
20
15
ALEPH: D. Decamp et al., Z. Phys. C53, 1 (1992).
DELPHI: P. Abreu et al., Nucl. Phys. B367, 511 (1992).
L3: B. Adeva et al., Z. Phys. C51, 179 (1991).
OPAL: G. Alexander et al., Z. Phys. C52, 175 (1991).
10
5
0
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
s = E cm (GeV)
94
95
96
12.4.2 e+ e annihilation near the Z pole
At energies near mZ the process e+ e f f is dominated by the formation
of an intermediate Z resonance.
e+
k
1
p
4
_
f
The amplitude for this process is
k k
i
g
2
igZ
mZ
(cV e cAe 5 ) u(p1 )
iM = v(p2 )
2
k 2 m2Z
igZ
5
u
(p3 )
(cV f cAf ) v(p4 )
2
For simplicity lets neglect the external fermion masses. Then, just as in our
calculation of inverse muon decay in section 9.3, the k k /m2Z term in the
12.4 Some sample calculations
139
Z propagator can be neglected. To see this note that k = p1 + p2 = p3 + p4
and use the Dirac equation for the external lines. This leaves
iM =
igZ2
v(p2 )(cV e cAe 5 )u(p1 ) u
(p3 )(cV f cAf 5 )v(p4 ) .
4(k 2 m2Z )
Its convenient to work in terms of chiral spinors. Suppose all the spinors
appearing in our amplitude are right-handed. Recalling the connection between chirality and helicity for massless fermions, this means the amplitude
for polarized scattering e+
L eR fR fL is
iMe+ e fR fL =
L R
igZ2
(cV e cAe )(cV f cAf )
vL (p2 ) uR (p1 ) u
R (p3 ) vL (p4 )
4(k 2 m2Z )
where the subscripts L, R indicate particle helicities. Using the explicit form
of the spinors given in section 4.1 we have
vL (p2 ) uR (p1 ) u
R (p3 ) vL (p4 ) = k 2 (1 + cos )
where is the center of mass scattering angle. (We worked out this angular
dependence in section 4.2. Here were keeping track of the normalization as
well.) This means
|M|2e+ e f
L R
R fL
gZ4 k 4
16(k 2 m2Z )2
(cV e cAe )2 (cV f cAf )2 (1 + cos )2 .
At this point we need to take the finite lifetime of the Z into account.
As usual in quantum mechanics we can regard the width of an unstable
state as an imaginary contribution to its energy, so we can take the width
of the Z into account by replacing mZ mZ iZ /2. This modifies the Z
propagator,
k2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
k (mZ iZ /2)
mZ
k mZ + imZ Z
where we assumed the width was small compared to the mass. With this
modification
|M|2e+ e f
L R
R fL
gZ4 k 4
(cV e cAe )2 (cV f cAf )2 (1+cos )2 .
2
2
2
2
2
16 (k mZ ) + mZ Z
Now we can work at resonance and set k 2 = m2Z to find
|M|2e+ e f
L R
R fL
gZ4 m2Z
(cV e cAe )2 (cV f cAf )2 (1 + cos )2 .
162Z
140
The standard model
2
|M|
d
Plugging this into d
= 64
2 s and integrating over angles gives the cross
section for polarized scattering at the Z pole.
e+ e fR fL =
L R
2
4Z
(cV e cAe )2 (cV f cAf )2
32Z
The other polarized cross sections are almost identical, one just gets signs
depending on the spinor chiralities.
e+ e fL fR =
2
4Z
(cV e cAe )2 (cV f + cAf )2
2
3Z
e+ e fR fL =
2
4Z
(cV e + cAe )2 (cV f cAf )2
2
3Z
e+ e fL fR =
2
4Z
(cV e + cAe )2 (cV f + cAf )2
2
3Z
L R
R L
R L
Averaging over initial spins and summing over final spins, the unpolarized
cross section is
2
4Z
=
(c2 + c2Ae )(c2V f + c2Af ) .
32Z V e
Now we can compute the cross section for e+ e hadrons by summing
over f = u, c, d, s, b. Using our result for the Z width wed estimate
(e+ e hadrons) = 1.1 104 GeV2 = 43 nb
which isnt bad compared to the PDG value had = 41.5 nb. We can also
estimate the cross section ratio
R=
(e+ e hadrons)
.
(e+ e + )
Recalling that the QED cross section is (e+ e + ) = 42 /3s wed
estimate that near the Z pole
R=
2 m2
Z
Z
c2V e + c2Ae
2
2
Z
X
f =u,c,d,s,b
c2V f + c2Af 3510
which again is pretty close to the observed value (see the plot in chapter 3).
12.4.3 Higgs production and decay
Finally, a few words on Higgs production and decay. At an e+ e collider
the simplest production mechanism
12.4 Some sample calculations
141
e+
H
e
is negligible due to the small electron Yukawa coupling. The dominant
production mechanism is e+ e Z ZH via the diagram
e+
Z
Z
At a hadron collider the main production mechanism is gluon fusion, in
which two gluons make a Higgs via a quark loop.
g
g
H
g
The biggest contribution comes from a loop of top quarks: the enhancement
of the diagram due to the large top Yukawa coupling turns out to win over
the suppression due to the large top mass.
For a light Higgs (meaning mH < 140 GeV) the most important decay is
H bb; the b quark is favored since it has the largest Yukawa coupling.
b
H
_
b
142
The standard model
For a heavy Higgs (meaning mH > 140 GeV) the decays H W + W and
H ZZ become possible and turn out to be the dominant decay modes.
W
_
W
(If mH < 2mW or mH < 2mZ one of the vector bosons is off-shell.) The
nature of the Higgs depends on its mass. A light Higgs is a quite narrow
resonance, but the Higgs width increases rapidly above the W + W threshold.
What might we hope to see at the LHC? For a light Higgs the dominant
bb decay mode is obscured by QCD backgrounds and one has to look for
rare decays. A leading candidate is H which can occur through
a top quark triangle (similar to the gluon fusion diagrams drawn above)
or through a W loop. Somewhat counter-intuitively its easier to find a
heavy Higgs. If mH > 2mZ there are clean signals available, most notably
H ZZ + + .
References
Theres a nice development of the standard model in Quigg, section 6.3 for
leptons and section 7.1 for quarks. Cheng & Li covers the standard model
in section 11.2 and treats quark mixing in section 11.3. Higgs physics and
electroweak symmetry breaking is reviewed in S. Dawson, Introduction to
electroweak symmetry breaking, hep-ph/9901280 and in L. Reina, TASI 2004
lecture notes on Higgs boson physics, hep-ph/0512377. The standard model
is summarized in appendix E of these notes.
12.4 Some sample calculations
143
From Reina, p. 35:
FIG. 9: SM Higgs decay branching ratios as a function of MH . The blue curves represent tree-level
decays into electroweak gauge bosons, the red curves tree level decays into quarks and leptons, the
green curves one-loop decays. From Ref. [6].
FIG. 10: SM Higgs total decay width as a function of MH . From Ref. [6].
boson can decay into pairs of electroweak gauge bosons (H W +W , ZZ), and into pairs
144
The standard model
Exercises
12.1
W decay
The W can decay to a weak doublet pair of fermions via the
diagram
_
W
Use this to compute the total width of the W . How did you do
compared to the observed value 2.085 0.042 GeV? A few hints:
aside from the top quark, its okay to neglect fermion masses
see if you can write your answer in terms of and sin2 W , where
at the scale mW these quantities have the values
= 1/128
(not 1/137!)
sin W = 0.231
when summing over quarks in the final state, it helps to remember
that the CKM matrix is unitary, (V V )ij = ij
12.2
Polarization asymmetry at the Z pole
SLAC studied e e+ f f at the Z pole with a polarized e beam.
The polarization asymmetry is defined by
ALR
+
+
(e
L eR f f ) (eR eL f f )
=
+
+
(eL eR f f) + (eR eL f f)
where the subscripts indicate the helicity of the particles. For simplicity you can neglect the mass of the electron, but you should keep
mf 6= 0.
(i) Write down the amplitude for the basic process
e+
f
Z
_
f
Exercises
145
(ii) Write down the amplitude when the incoming electron is polarized, either left-handed 5 u(p1 ) = u(p1 ) or right-handed 5 u(p1 ) =
+u(p1 ).
(iii) Compute ALR in terms of sin2 W . You can do this without
using any trace theorems!
(iv) The observed asymmetry in e e+ hadrons is ALR = 0.1514
0.002. How well did you do?
12.3
Forward-backward asymmetries at the Z pole
Consider unpolarized scattering e+ e f f near the Z pole. The
diagram is
e+
f
Z
_
f
The forward-backward asymmetry AfF B is defined in terms of the
cross sections for forward and backward scattering by
Z 1
d
F = 2
d(cos )
d
0
e+ e f f
Z 0
d
B = 2
d(cos )
d e+ e f f
1
F B
AfF B =
F + B
Here is the scattering angle measured in the center of mass frame
between the outgoing fermion f and the incoming positron beam.
(i) Write down the differential cross sections for the polarized processes
e+
L eR fL fR
e+ e fR fL
L R
e+
R eL fL fR
e+ e fR fL
R L
You can neglect the masses of the external particles. Also you
dont need to keep track of any overall normalizations that would
146
The standard model
end up cancelling out of AfF B . Hint: rather than use trace theorems, you should use results from our discussion of polarized
scattering e+ e + in QED.
(ii) Compute AfF B for f = e, , , b, c, s. How well did you do, compared to the particle data book? (See table 10.4 in the section
Electroweak model and constraints on new physics, where AfF B
(0,f )
is denoted AF B .)
12.4
e+ e ZH
Compute the cross section for e+ e ZH from the diagram
e+
Z
Z
For simplicity you can neglect the electron mass. You should find
2 1/2 ( + 12m2 /s)
Z
2
2
Z
1
+
(1
4
sin
)
=
W
12s(1 m2Z /s)2
where
2
m2Z + m2H
4m2Z m2H
= 1
.
s
s2
12.5
H f f, W + W , ZZ
(i) Compute the partial width for the decay H f f from the diagram
f
H
_
f
For leptons you should find
(H f f) =
m2f
8m2H v 2
m2H 4m2f
3/2
while for quarks the color sum enhances the width by a factor of
three.
Exercises
147
(ii) Compute the partial widths for the decays H W + W and
H ZZ from the diagrams
W
_
W
The Feynman rules are in appendix E. You should find
m3H
3 2
1/2
+
(H W W ) =
(1 rW )
1 rW + rW
16v 2
4
3
mH
3 2
1/2
(1 rZ )
1 rZ + rZ
(H ZZ) =
32v 2
4
where rW = 4m2W /m2H and rZ = 4m2Z /m2H .
(iii) Show that a heavy Higgs particle will decay predominantly to
longitudinally-polarized vector bosons. That is, show that for
large mH the total width of the Higgs is dominated by H
WL+ WL and H ZL ZL . You can base your considerations on
the diagrams in parts (i) and (ii).
12.6
H gg
The Higgs can decay to a pair of gluons. The leading contribution
comes from a top quark loop.
k
k1
1
a
H
b
k
k
2
For mH mt this process can be captured by a low-energy effective
148
The standard model
Lagrangian with an interaction term
1
Lint = A H Tr (G G ) .
2
(12.4)
Here A is a coupling constant, H is the Higgs field, and G is the
gluon field strength. The corresponding interaction vertex is
a
k1
iA ab (k1 k2 g k1 k2 )
k2
b
(i) Write down the amplitude for the two triangle diagrams. No
need to evaluate traces or loop integrals at this stage.
(ii) Set q = 0 so that k1 = k2 k and show that
t
m
t
2
Here t is the top quark Yukawa coupling and mt is the top quark
mass. Is there a simple reason youd expect such a relation to
hold?
(iii) Use the results from appendix C to show that the vacuum polarization diagram is equal to
"
#
Z
d4 p
1
1
2 2 ab 2
g (g k k k )
+O(k 4 ) .
3
(2)4 (p2 m2t )2 (p2 M 2 )2
Here were doing a Taylor series expansion in the external momentum k, and M is a Pauli-Villars regulator mass. (Alternatively you
could work with a momentum cutoff and send .) Use
this to compute the amplitude for H gg at q = 0. Match to
the amplitude you get from the effective field theory vertex and
determine the coupling A.
(iv) Use the effective Lagrangian to compute the partial width for
the decay H gg. You should work on-shell, with q 2 = m2H .
Exercises
149
Express your answer in terms of s , the Higgs mass mH , and the
Higgs vev v.
A few comments: the effective Lagrangian (12.4) can also be used
to describe the gluon fusion process gg H which is the main
mechanism for producing the Higgs boson at a hadron collider. Note
that the width weve obtained is independent of the top mass. In
fact the calculation is valid in the limit mt . This violates the
decoupling of heavy particles mentioned at the end of problem C.2.
The reason is that large mt indeed suppresses the loop, but large t
enhances the vertex, and these competing effects leave a finite result
in the limit mt t .
13
Anomalies
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
Symmetries have played a crucial role in our construction of the standard
model. So far by a symmetry weve meant a transformation of the fields
that leaves the Lagrangian invariant. This was our definition of a symmetry in chapter 5. Although perfectly sensible in classical field theory, this
definition misses a key aspect of the quantum theory, namely that quantum field theory requires both a Lagrangian and a cutoff procedure to be
well-defined. It could be that symmetries of the Lagrangian are violated
by the cutoff procedure. Sometimes such violations are inevitable, in which
case the symmetry is said to be anomalous. The prototype for this sort of
phenomenon is the chiral anomaly: the breakdown of gauge invariance in
chiral spinor electrodynamics.
13.1 The chiral anomaly
Consider a free massless chiral fermion, either right- or left-handed. We
will describe it using a Dirac spinor with either the top two or bottom
has an
two components of vanishing. The free Lagrangian L = i
i
obvious U (1) symmetry e . The corresponding Noether current
is classically conserved; one can easily check that the Dirac
j =
equation / = 0 implies j = 0. Following the standard procedure you
might think we can gauge this symmetry, introducing a vector field A and
a covariant derivative to obtain a theory
( + ieQA )
L = i
(13.1)
which is invariant under position-dependent gauge transformations
eieQ(x)
A A + .
As usual, Q is the charge of the field measured in units of e =
150
4.
13.1 The chiral anomaly
151
It might seem weve described one of the simplest gauge theories imaginable massless chiral spinor electrodynamics. The classical Lagrangian
(13.1) is certainly gauge invariant. But as well show, gauge invariance is
spoiled by radiative corrections at the one loop level. This phenomenon is
variously known as the chiral, triangle, or ABJ anomaly, after its discoverers
Adler, Bell and Jackiw.
Before discussing the breakdown of gauge invariance, its important to
realize that were going to use the vector field in two different ways.
(i) We might regard A as a classical background field. In this case the
vector field has no dynamics of its own; rather its value is prescribed
externally to the system by some agent. We can then use A to probe
the behavior of the system. For example, we can obtain the current
by varying the action with respect to the vector field.
j =
j (x) =
1
S
eQ A (x)
(13.2)
(ii) We might try to promote A to a dynamical field, adding a Maxwell
term to the action and giving it a life (or at least, equations of motion)
of its own.
Given the breakdown of gauge invariance, the second possibility cannot be
realized.
13.1.1 Triangle diagram and shifts of integration variables
We now turn to the breakdown of gauge invariance. The problem with gauge
invariance is rather subtle and unexpected (hence the name anomaly): it
arises in, and only in, the one-loop triangle graph for three photon scattering.
The Lagrangian (13.1) corresponds to a vertex
ieQ 12 (1 5 )
Theres a projection operator in the vertex to enforce that only a single
spinor chirality participates. Throughout this chapter the upper sign corresponds to a right-handed spinor, the lower sign to left-handed. This vertex
leads to three photon scattering at one loop via the diagrams
S. Adler, Phys. Rev. 177 (1969) 2426, J. Bell and R. Jackiw, Nuovo Cim. 60A (1969) 47.
152
Anomalies
k2
k1
p + k2
p
pk
crossed diagram
(k2 , ) (k3 , )
k3
The scattering amplitude is easy to write down.
Z
d4 p
i
i
i
1
5
iM = (1)
Tr ieQ
( ieQ ) ( ieQ )
(1 )
(2)4
p/ + k/2
p/
p/ k/3 2
i
i
1
i
5
( ieQ ) ( ieQ )
(1 ) (13.3)
+Tr ieQ
p/ + k/3
p/
p/ k/2 2
All external momenta are directed inward, with k1 + k2 + k3 = 0. Also we
combined the projection operators in each vertex into a single 21 (1 5 )
which enforces the fact that only a single spinor chirality circulates in the
loop.
What properties do we expect of this amplitude?
(i) Current conservation at each vertex, or equivalently gauge invariance.
This implies that photons with polarization vectors proportional to
their momentum should decouple,
k1 M = k2 M = k3 M = 0 .
(ii) Bose statistics. Photons have spin 1, so the amplitude should be
invariant under permutations of the external lines.
Theres a simple argument which seems to show that Bose symmetry is
satisfied. Invariance under exchange (k2 , ) (k3 , ) is manifest; given our
labelings it just corresponds to exchanging the two diagrams. However we
should check invariance under exchange of say (k1 , ) with (k2 , ). Making
this exchange in (13.3) we get
Z
d4 p
i
i
i
1
5
iM = (1)
Tr
ieQ
(
ieQ
)
(
ieQ
)
(1
(2)4
p/ + k/1
p/
p/ k/3 2
i
i
i
1
5
+Tr ieQ
( ieQ ) ( ieQ )
(1 )
p/ + k/3
p/
p/ k/1 2
13.1 The chiral anomaly
153
Shifting the integration variable p p + k3 in the first line, and p
p k3 in the second, and making some cyclic permutations inside the trace,
we seem to recover our original expression (13.3).
Theres a similar argument for current conservation. Lets check whether
= 0. Dotting the amplitude into k1 and using the trivial identities
k1 M
k/1 = p/ k/3 (p/ + k/2 )
k/1 = p/ k/2 (p/ + k/3 )
in the first line
in the second
(13.4)
we obtain
ik1 M
= e Q
n 1
d4 p
1 1
1
1 1
Tr
(1 5 )
(1 5 )
4
(2)
p/ + k/2 p/ 2
p/ k/3 p/ 2
o
1
1
1
1
1
1
(1 5 )
(1 5 )
+
p/ p/ + k/3 2
p/ p/ k/2 2
After shifting p pk2 in the first term, it seems the first and fourth terms
cancel. Likewise after shifting p p + k3 in the second term, it seems the
second and third terms cancel.
This makes it seem we have both current conservation and Bose statistics.
However our arguments relied on shifting the loop momentum and this is
the subtle point one cant necessarily shift the integration Rvariable in a
d4 p
divergent integral. To see this consider a generic loop integral (2)
4 f (p +
a ). Suppose we expand the integrand in a Taylor series.
Z
Z
d4 p
1
d4 p
f
(p
+
a
)
=
f (p) + a f (p) + a a f (p) +
4
4
(2)
(2)
2
If the integral converges, or is at most log divergent, then f (p) falls off
rapidly enough at large p that we can drop total derivatives. This is the
usual situation, and corresponds to the fact that usually the integral is
independent of a . But if the integral diverges we need to have a cutoff in
mind, say a cutoff on the magnitude of the Euclidean 4-momentum |pE | < .
For linearly divergent integrals f (p) 1/p3 and the order a term in the
Taylor series generates a finite surface term. This invalidates the naive
arguments for Bose symmetry and current conservation given above.
For future reference its useful to be explicit about the value of the surface
term. For a linearly divergent integral
Z
Z
d4 p
d4 pE
a
f
(p)
=
i
a
f (pE )
4 E p
(2)4
|pE |< (2)
E
Z
Z
d
3
= iaE
pE dpE
f (pE )
4
(2) pE
0
154
Anomalies
iaE
d 2
p
p
f
(p
)
E
E
E
4
(2)
pE =
1
lim hp2 p f (pE )i
8 2 pE E E
1
= ia 2 lim hp2 p f (p)i
8 p
= iaE
(13.5)
In the first line we Wick rotated to Euclidean space. In the second line
we switched to spherical coordinates. In the third line we did the radial
integral, picking up a unit outward normal vector pE /pE . In the fourth
line we rewrote the angular integral as an average over a unit 3-sphere with
area 2 2 and took the limit . In the last line we rotated back
to Minkowski space; the angle brackets now indicate an average over the
Lorentz group.
13.1.2 Triangle diagram redux
Now that weve understood the potential difficulty, lets return to the triangle diagrams. Rather than study the violation of Bose symmetry in detail,
were simply going to demand that the scattering amplitude be symmetric.
The most straightforward way to do this is to define the scattering amplitude to be given by averaging over all permutations of the external lines.
Equivalently, we average over cyclic permutations of the internal momentum
routing. That is, we define the Bose-symmetrized amplitude
=
iMsymm
1
3
"
#
+ crossed diagrams
Explicitly this gives
iMsymm
1
= e3 Q3
6
d4 p
1
1
1
1
1
1
Tr
5 +
5
4
(2)
p/ p/ k/2 p/ + k/1
p/ + k/2 p/ p/ k/3
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
5 +
5
p/ k/1 p/ + k/3 p/
p/ p/ k/3 p/ + k/1
1
1
1
1
1
1 5
5
+
+
p/ + k/3 p/ p/ k/2
p/ k/1 p/ + k/2 p/
13.1 The chiral anomaly
155
Here weve used the fact that only terms involving 5 contribute to the scattering amplitude. The amplitude is divergent; to regulate it well impose a
cutoff on the Euclidean loop momentum |pE | < .
Having enforced Bose symmetry, lets check current conservation by dotting this amplitude into k1 . Using identities similar to (13.4) to cancel the
propagators adjacent to k/1 , it turns out that most terms cancel, leaving only
Z
1
1 3 3
d4 p
1
1
1
Tr
ik1 Msymm
=
e
Q
6
(2)4
p/ + k/2 p/ k/1
p/ + k/1 p/ k/2
1
1
1
1
5
5
+
p/ k/1 p/ + k/3
p/ k/3 p/ + k/1
Shifting p p + k2 k1 in the second term it seems to cancel the first,
and shifting p p + k3 k1 in the fourth term it seems to cancel the third.
This naive cancellation means the whole expression is given just by a surface
term.
Z
1 3 3
d4 p
1
1
symm
5
(k k1 ) Tr
ik1 M = e Q
6
(2)4 2
p
p/ p/ + k/3
1
1
5
+ (k3 k1 ) Tr
p
p/ + k/2 p/
Using our result for the surface term (13.5), evaluating the Dirac traces
with Tr 5 = 4i , and averaging over the Lorentz group with
hp p i = 14 g p2 we are left with a finite, non-zero, anomalous result.
ik1 Msymm
=
e3 Q3
k2 k3
12 2
(13.6)
Current conservation is violated by the triangle diagrams!
13.1.3 Comments
This breakdown of current conservation is quite remarkable, and theres
quite a bit to say about it. Let me start by giving a few different ways to
formulate the result.
(i) One could imagine writing down an effective action for the vector field
[A] which incorporates the effect of fermion loops. The amplitude
Terms without a 5 would describe three photon scattering in ordinary QED. But in ordinary
QED the photon is odd under charge conjugation and the amplitude for three photon scattering
vanishes (Furrys theorem).
156
Anomalies
weve computed corresponds to the following rather peculiar-looking
term in the effective action.
Z
e3 Q3
A (x) 1 (x y) F F (y)
[A] = d4 xd4 y
96 2
(13.7)
Here 1 (x y) should be thought of as a Greens function, the
inverse of the operator , and F is the field strength of A . To
verify this, note that the term weve written down in [A] corresponds
to a 3-photon vertex
k2
k1
e3 Q3
12 2
k3
1
k1 k2 k3 + cyclic perms
k12
When dotted into one of the external momenta, this amplitude reproduces (13.6).
(ii) One can view the anomaly as a violation of current conservation.
Without making A dynamical, we can regard it as an externally
prescribed background field, and we can use it to define a quantum1
corrected current via j = eQ
A (this parallels the classical current
definition (13.2)). Given the term (13.7) in the effective action, the
quantum-corrected current satisfies
j =
e2 Q2
=
F F .
eQ A
96 2
(13.8)
(iii) One can also view the anomaly as a breakdown of gauge invariance.
Clearly the effective action (13.7) isnt gauge invariant. This means
the gauge invariance of the classical Lagrangian is violated by radiative corrections. Since the gauge invariance is broken, it would not
be consistent to promote A to a dynamical gauge field.
Theres a connection between current conservation and gauge invariance:
the divergence of the current measures the response of the effective action
to a gauge transformation. To see this note that under A A + we
13.1 The chiral anomaly
157
have
Z
=
=
d x
A
4
d x
= eQ
A
4
d4 x j .
(13.9)
Next let me make a few comments on how robust our results are.
(i) Due to the 1/, the effective actionR weve written down is non-local
(it cant be written with a single d4 x). Although seemingly obscure, this is actually a very important point. Imagine modifying
the behavior of our theory at short distances while keeping the longdistance behavior the same. To be concrete you could imagine that
some new heavy particles, or even quantum gravity effects, become
important at short distances. By definition such short-distance modifications can only affect local terms in the effective action. Since the
term we wrote down is non-local, the anomaly is independent of any
short-distance change in the dynamics!
(ii) As we saw, the anomaly arises from the need to introduce an ultraviolet regulator, which can be thought of as an ad hoc short-distance
modification to the dynamics. But given our statements above, the
details of the regulator dont matter any cutoff procedure will give
the same result for the anomaly! (See however section 13.2.)
(iii) The anomaly weve computed at one loop is not corrected by higher
orders in perturbation theory. Our result for the divergence of the
current (13.8) is exact! This is known as the Adler-Bardeen theorem.
The proof is based on showing that only the triangle diagram has the
divergence structure necessary for generating an anomaly.
Its worth amplifying on the cutoff dependence. Field theory requires both
an underlying Lagrangian and a cutoff scheme. A symmetry of the Lagrangian will be a symmetry of the effective action provided the symmetry is
respected by the cutoff. Otherwise symmetry-breaking terms will be generated in the effective action. We saw an example of this in appendix C, where
we used a momentum cutoff to compute the vacuum polarization diagram
and found that an explicit photon mass term was generated. It could be that
the symmetry breaking terms are local, as in appendix C, in which case they
can be canceled by adding suitable local counterterms to the underlying
action. Alternatively one could avoid generating the non-invariant terms in
the first place by using a cutoff that respects the symmetry. But it could be
that the symmetry-breaking terms in the effective action are non-local, as
S. Adler and W. Bardeen, Phys. Rev. 182 (1969) 1517.
158
Anomalies
we found above for the anomaly. In this case no change in cutoff can restore
the symmetry.
13.1.4 Generalizations
There are a few important generalizations of the triangle anomaly. First
lets consider non-abelian symmetries. Take a chiral fermion, either rightor left-handed, in some representation of the symmetry group. Let T a be a
set of Hermitian generators. The label a could refer to global as well as to
gauge symmetries. The current of interest is promoted to
T a
j a =
and the vertex becomes
ig T a 12 (1 5 )
Were denoting the gauge coupling by g. The triangle graph can be evaluated
just as in the abelian case and gives
g 2 abc
b
b
A
j a =
A
Ac Ac
triangle only
d
2
96
where dabc = 12 Tr T a {T b , T c } . However for non-abelian symmetries the
triangle graph isnt the end of the story: square and pentagon diagrams also
contribute. If T a generates a global symmetry, while T b and T c are gauge
generators, then the full form of the anomalous divergence is easy to guess.
We just promote the triangle result to the following gauge invariant form.
j a =
g 2 abc b c
d
F F
96 2
global
(13.10)
If T a is one of the gauge generators then the full form of the anomaly is
somewhat more involved. It turns out that the current is not covariantly
conserved, but rather satisfies
1 cde b d e
g 2 abc
a
b
c
D j =
d
A A + gf A A A
gauge
24 2
4
where the structure constants of the group f abc are defined by [T a , T b ] =
if abc T c . In any case note that the anomaly is proportional to dabc .
13.2 Gauge anomalies
159
One can also get an anomaly from a triangle graph with one photon and
two gravitons.
graviton
+ crossed diagram
graviton
. With a chiral fermion
The photon couples to the current j =
running in the loop, this diagram generates an anomalous divergence
1
R R
8 96 2
is the Riemann curvature.
j =
where R
13.2 Gauge anomalies
In order to gauge a symmetry we must have a valid global symmetry to
begin with. To see how this might be achieved suppose we have two spinors,
one right-handed and one left-handed. Assembling them into a Dirac spinor
, the currents
1 (1 + 5 )
=
jR
2
have anomalous divergences
1 (1 5 )
jL =
2
e2 Q2
e2 Q2
R
R
j
=
L L .
(13.11)
L
96 2
96 2
Here R and L are background vector fields which couple to the chiral
components of , and quantities with two indices are the corresponding field
strengths. Note that weve taken the right- and left-handed components of
to have the same charge. The vector and axial currents
j R
=
j = jR
+ jL =
5
j 5 = jR
jL =
( + 1 ab ab ) where ab
More precisely: in curved space the Dirac Lagrangian is L = i
2
1
is the spin conection and ab = 4 [a , b ] are Lorentz generators. For a chiral fermion the A
1
( ab ab )(
triangle graphs give j = 896
ab ab ) which can be
2
1
R
.
promoted to the generally-covariant form j = 896
R
2
160
Anomalies
couple to the linear combinations
1
1
V = (R + L )
A = (R L ) .
2
2
As a consequence of (13.11) these currents have divergences
e2 Q2
V A
24 2
e2 Q2
j 5 =
(V V + A A ) .
48 2
At first sight this seems no better than having a single chiral spinor. But
consider adding the following local term to the effective action for V and
A .
Z
ce3 Q3
S =
d4 x V V A
6 2
j =
Here c is an arbitrary constant. This term violates both vector and axial
gauge invariance, so it contributes to the divergences of the corresponding
currents.
(S)
ce2 Q2
1
=
V A
eQ
V
24 2
(S)
1
ce2 Q2
V V .
( j 5 ) =
=+
eQ
A
24 2
( j ) =
So if we add this term to the effective action and set c = 1, we have a
conserved vector current but an anomalous axial current.
e2 Q2
1
5
j = 0
j =
V V + A A
(13.12)
16 2
3
Given the conserved vector current we can add a Maxwell term to the action
and promote V to a dynamical gauge field. The resulting theory is ordinary
QED.
QED is a simple example of gauge anomaly cancellation: the field content is adjusted so that the gauge anomalies cancel (that is, so that the
effective action is gauge invariant). A similar cancellation takes place in
any vector-like theory in which the right- and left-handed fermions have
the same gauge quantum numbers. Anomaly cancellation in the standard
model is more intricate because the standard model is a chiral theory: the
left- and right-handed fermions have different gauge quantum numbers. In
To make V dynamical the choice c = 1 is mandatory and we have to live with the resulting
anomalous divergence in the axial current. If we dont make V dynamical then other choices
for c are possible. This freedom corresponds to the freedom to use different cutoff procedures.
13.3 Global anomalies
161
the standard model there are ten possible gauge anomalies, plus a gravitational anomaly, and we just have to check them all.
First lets consider the U (1)3 anomaly. A triangle diagram with three
external U (1)Y gauge bosons is proportional to Y 3 , where Y is the hypercharge of the fermion that circulates in the loop and the sign depends on
whether the fermion is right- or left-handed. For the anomaly to cancel this
must vanish when summed over all standard model fermions. For a single
generation we have
X
Y 3 = (1)3 + (1)3 + 3 (1/3)3 + 3 (1/3)3 = 16/9
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
left
X
right
eL
uL
dL
= (2) + 3 (4/3) + 3 (2/3) = 16/9
| {z } | {z } | {z }
eR
uR
dR
U (1)3
The
anomaly cancels! Note that three quark colors are required for
this to work.
The full set of anomaly cancellation conditions are listed in the table.
In general one has to show that the anomaly coefficient dabc vanishes when
appropriately summed over standard model fermions. In some cases the condition is rather trivial, since the SU (2)L generators TLa = 12 a and SU (3)C
generators TCa = 12 a are both traceless (Im being sloppy and using a to
denote a generic group index). A few details: for the U (1)SU (2)2 anomaly
right-handed fermions dont contribute, while Tr a b = 2 ab is the same for
every left-handed fermion, so we just get a condition on the sum of the lefthanded hypercharges. Similarly for the U (1)SU (3)2 anomaly leptons dont
contribute, while Tr a b = 2 ab for every quark, so we just get a condition
on the quark hypercharges.
Remarkably all conditions in the table are satisfied: the fermion content of
the standard model is such that all potential gauge anomalies cancel. This
cancellation provides some rational for the peculiar hypercharge assignments
in the standard model. Its curious that both quarks and leptons are required
for anomaly cancellation to work. However the anomalies cancel within each
generation, so this provides no insight into Rabis puzzle of who ordered the
second generation.
13.3 Global anomalies
Gauge anomalies must cancel for a theory to be consistent. However anomalies in global symmetries are perfectly permissible, and indeed can have
162
Anomalies
anomaly
U (1)3
U (1)2 SU (2)
U (1)2 SU (3)
cancellation P
condition
P
3
3
Y
=
left
right Y
Tr a = 0
SU (2)3
Tr a = 0
P
left Y = 0
Tr a = Tr a = 0
P
P
Y = right quarks Y
left quarks
Tr a b , c = Tr ( a ) 2 bc = 0
SU (2)2 SU (3)
Tr a = 0
SU (2)SU (3)2
Tr a = 0
vector-like (left- and right-handed
quarks in same representation)
P
P
left Y = right Y
U (1)SU (2)2
U (1)SU (2)SU (3)
U (1)SU (3)2
SU (3)3
U (1) (gravity)2
important physical consequences. To illustrate this Ill discuss global symmetries of the quark model. Well encounter another example in section 14.2
when we discuss baryon and lepton number conservation.
Recall the quark model symmetries
discussed in chapter 6. With two
flavors of massless quarks = ud wed expect an SU (2)L SU (2)R chiral
symmetry. Taking vector and axial combinations, the associated conserved
currents are
1
T a
5T a
j a =
j 5a =
T a = a .
2
To couple the quark model to electromagnetism we introduce the generator
of U (1)em which is just a matrix with quark charges along the diagonal.
2/3
0
Q=
0 1/3
However generalizing (13.12) to non-Abelian symmetries, along the lines of
(13.10), we see that there is an SU (2)A U (1)2em anomaly.
Nc e2
Tr T a Q2 F F
2
16
Here Nc = 3 is the number of colors of quarks that run in the loop and F
is the electromagnetic field strength. The anomaly is non-vanishing for the
neutral pion (a = 3). As youll show on the homework, this is responsible
for the decay 0 .
j 5a =
The anomaly also lets us address a puzzle from chapter 6. With two flavors
13.3 Global anomalies
163
of massless quarks the symmetry is really U (2)L U (2)R . The extra diagonal
U (1)V corresponds to conservation of baryon number. But what about the
extra U (1)A ? Its not a manifest symmetry of the particle spectrum, since
the charge associated with U (1)A would change the parity of any state it
acted on and there are no even-parity scalars degenerate with the pions. Nor
does U (1)A seem to be spontaneously broken. The only obvious candidate
for a Goldstone boson, the , has a mass of 548 MeV and is too heavy to be
regarded as a sort of fourth pion.
The following observation helps resolve the puzzle: the current associated
5 , has a triangle anomaly with two
with the U (1)A symmetry, j 5 =
outgoing gluons.
j 5 =
Nf g 2
Tr (G G )
16 2
Here G is the gluon field strength and Nf = 2 is the number of quark
flavors. Since U (1)A is not a symmetry of the quantum theory it would
seem there is no need for a corresponding Goldstone boson. There are twists
and turns in trying to make this argument precise, but in a weak-coupling
expansion t Hooft showed that the anomaly combined with topologically
non-trivial gauge fields eliminates the need for a Goldstone boson associated
with U (1)A .
References
Many classic papers on anomalies are reprinted in S.B. Treiman, R. Jackiw,
B. Zumino and E. Witten, Current algebra and anomalies (Princeton, 1985).
A textbook has been devoted to the subject: R. Bertlmann, Anomalies in
quantum field theory (Oxford, 1996). The anomaly was discovered in studies
of the decay 0 by S. Adler, Phys. Rev. 177 (1969) 2426 and by J. Bell
and R. Jackiw, Nuovo Cim. 60A (1969) 47. The fact that the anomaly receives no radiative corrections was established by S. Adler and W. Bardeen,
Phys. Rev. 182 (1969) 1517. The non-abelian anomaly was evaluated by
W. Bardeen, Phys. Rev. 184 (1969) 1848. Gravitational anomalies were
studied by L. Alvarez-Gaume and E. Witten, Nucl. Phys. B234 (1983) 269.
A thorough discussion of anomaly cancellation can be found in Weinberg
section 22.4. The role of the anomaly in resolving the U (1)A puzzle was
emphasized by G. t Hooft, Phys. Rev. Lett. 37 (1976) 8. Topologically
This objection can be made precise, see Weinberg section 19.10. A similar puzzle arises with
three flavors of light quarks, where the 0 with a mass of 958 MeV is too heavy to be grouped
with members of the pseudoscalar meson octet.
164
Anomalies
non-trivial gauge fields play a crucial role in t Hoofts analysis, as reviewed
by S. Coleman, Aspects of Symmetry (Cambridge, 1985) chapter 7. A sober
assessment of the status of the U (1)A puzzle can be found in Donoghue
section VII-4.
Wess-Zumino terms. The anomalous interactions of Goldstone bosons
are described by so-called Wess-Zumino terms in the effective action. The
structure of these terms was elucidated by E. Witten, Nucl. Phys. B223
(1983) 422; for a path integral derivation see Donoghue section VII-3. For
applications to 0 see problem 13.1 and Donoghue section VI-5.
Real representations and safe groups. Consider a group G and a
a a
representation D(g) = ei T , g G. To have a unitary representation,
DD = 11, the generators T a must be Hermitean. If we further require
that the representation be real, D = D , then the generators T a must be
imaginary and antisymmetric. For a real representation
Tr T a T b T c = Tr (T a T b T c )T = Tr T c T b T a = Tr T a T c T b
and the anomaly coefficient dabc = 12 Tr T a {T b , T c } vanishes. The same conclusion holds if T a = U (T a )T U for some unitary matrix U ; this covers
both real representations (where one can take U = 11) and pseudo-real representations (where one cant). All SU (2) representations are either real or
pseudo-real, since one can map a representation to its complex conjugate
using two-index tensors. So SU (2) is an example of a safe group: the
SU (2)3 anomaly vanishes in any representation. For a list of safe groups see
H. Georgi and S. L. Glashow, Phys. Rev. D6 (1972) 429 and F. Gursey, P.
Ramond and P. Sikivie, Phys. Lett. B60 (1976) 177.
Exercises
13.1
0
Recall that at low energies pions are described by the effective
Lagrangian
1
L = f2 Tr U U
4
where f = 93 MeV and U = ei~~/f is an SU (2) matrix. This
action has an SU (2)L SU (2)R symmetry U LU R .
(i) Consider an infinitesimal SU (2)A transformation for which
L 1 ia a /2
R 1 + ia a /2 .
Exercises
165
How do the pion fields a behave under this transformation? How
does the effective action behave under this transformation? Hint:
plug the divergence of the axial current (13.12) into (13.9). You
only need to keep track of terms involving two photons.
(ii) Show that the anomaly can be taken into account by adding the
following term to the effective Lagrangian.
1
L = a 3 F F
(13.13)
8
Determine the constant a by matching to your results in part (i).
(iii) The anomalous term in the effective action corresponds to a
vertex
k1
ia k1 k2
k2
Use this to compute the width for the decay 0 . How did
you do compared to the observed width 7.7 0.5 eV?
A few comments on the calculation:
Note that the 0 width is proportional to the number of quark
colors.
The anomaly dominates 0 decay because it induces a direct (nonderivative) coupling between the pion field and two Maxwell field
strengths. Without the anomaly the pion would be a genuine
Goldstone boson, with a shift symmetry a a + a that only
allows for derivative couplings. The decay would then proceed via
a term in the effective action of the form 3 F F . As
discussed by Weinberg p. 361 this would suppress the decay rate
by an additional factor (m /4f )4 , where 4f 1 GeV is
the scale associated with chiral perturbation theory introduced on
p. 80.
As discussed in the references, the term (13.13) in the effective
action can be extended to a so-called Wess-Zumino term which
fully incorporates the effects of the anomaly in the low energy
dynamics of Goldstone bosons.
166
13.2
Anomalies
Anomalous U (1)s
In QED the gauge anomaly cancels between the left- and righthanded components of the electron. Theres another way to cancel
anomalies in U (1) gauge theories, discovered by Green and Schwarz
in the context of string theory. Consider an abelian gauge field A
coupled to a chiral fermion, either left- or right-handed, so that the
effective action has the anomalous gauge variation (13.8) and (13.9).
Introduce a scalar field which shifts under gauge transformations:
when
A A + .
Here is a parameter with units of mass.
(i) Add the following higher-dimension term to the action.
e3 Q3
F F
96 2
Show that under a gauge transformation the variation of S exactly cancels the anomalous variation of the effective action due
to the triangle graph.
(ii) Potential terms for are ruled out by the shift symmetry. Add a
kinetic term for to the action, 12 D D where D is a suitable
covariant derivative. Go to unitary gauge by setting = 0 and
determine the mass spectrum of the theory.
S =
14
Additional topics
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
There are a few more features of the standard model Id like to touch on
before concluding. Each of these topics could be developed in much more
detail. Some aspects are discussed in the homework; for further reading see
the references.
14.1 High energy behavior
In section 9.4 we showed that the IVB theory of weak interactions suffers
from bad high-energy behavior: although the IVB cross section for inverse
muon decay is acceptable, the cross section for e+ e W + W is in conflict
with unitarity. We went on to construct the standard model as a spontaneously broken gauge theory, claiming that this would guarantee good high
energy behavior. Here Ill give some evidence to support this claim. Rather
than give a general proof of unitarity, Ill proceed by way of two examples.
Our first example is e+ e W + W . In the standard model, provided
one neglects the electron mass, there are three diagrams that contribute.
W
W
e+
_
e+
167
e+
168
Additional topics
The first diagram, involving neutrino exchange, was studied in section 9.4 in
the context of IVB theory. The other two diagrams, involving photon and Z
exchange, are new features of the standard model. Each of these diagrams
individually gives an amplitude that grows linearly with s at high energy.
But the leading behavior cancels when the diagrams are added: the sum is
independent of s in the high-energy limit, as required by unitarity. While
theoretically satisfying, this cross section has also been measured at LEP.
As can be seen in Fig. 14.1 the predictions of the standard model are borne
out. This measurement can be regarded as a direct test of the ZW W and
W W couplings. It shows that the weak interactions really are described
by a non-abelian gauge theory!
The story becomes theoretically more interesting if we keep track of the
electron mass. Then the diagrams above have subleading behavior me s1/2
which does not cancel in the sum. Fortunately in the standard model there is
an additional diagram involving Higgs exchange which contributes precisely
when me 6= 0.
W
e+
This diagram precisely cancels the s1/2 growth of the amplitude. The Higgs
particle is necessary for unitarity! Unfortunately the electron mass is so
small that we cant see the contribution of this diagram at LEP energies.
Another process, more interesting from a theoretical point of view but less
accessible to experiment, is scattering of longitudinally-polarized W bosons,
WL+ WL WL+ WL . In the standard model the tree-level amplitude for this
process has the high-energy behavior
m2H
s
t
M= 2
+
.
(14.1)
v
s m2H
t m2H
M. Duncan, G. Kane and W. Repko, Nucl. Phys. B272 (1986) 517.
WW (pb)
14.1 High energy behavior
30
169
02/08/2004
LEP
PRELIMINARY
20
10
YFSWW/RacoonWW
no ZWW vertex (Gentle)
only e exchange (Gentle)
160
180
200
s (GeV)
Fig. 14.1. The cross section for e+ e W + W as measured at LEP. Data points
and error bars are indicated. The solid blue curve is the standard model prediction.
The dotted curves show what happens if the contributions of the and Z bosons
are neglected. From the LEP electroweak working group, via C. Quigg arXiv:hepph/0502252.
To see the consequences of this result, its useful to think about it in two
different ways.
First way: suppose we require that the tree-level result (14.1) be compatible with unitarity at arbitrarily high energies. To study this we send
s, t and find M 2m2H /v 2 . The unitarity bound on an s-wave crosssection 0 4/s translates into a bound on the corresponding amplitude,
170
Additional topics
|M0 | 8. Imposing this requirement gives an upper bound on the Higgs
mass,
(14.2)
mH 4v = 870 GeV .
If the Higgs mass satisfies this bound the standard model could in principle
be extrapolated to arbitrarily high energies while remaining weakly coupled.
Of course this may not be a sensible requirement to impose; if nothing else
gravity should kick in at the Planck scale.
Second way: lets discard the physical Higgs particle by sending mH ,
and ask if anything goes wrong with the standard model. At large Higgs
mass the amplitude (14.1) becomes
M
1
s
(s + t) = 2 1 sin2 (/2) .
2
v
v
The s-wave amplitude is given by averaging this over scattering angles,
Z
s
1
d M = 2 .
M0 =
4
2v
The unitarity bound |M0 | 8 then implies s 16v = 1.7 TeV. That
is, throwing out the standard model Higgs particle means that tree-level
unitarity is violated at the TeV scale. Something must kick in before this
energy scale in order to make W W scattering compatible with unitarity.
This is good news for the LHC: at the TeV scale either the standard model
Higgs will be found, or some other new particles will be discovered, or at
the very least strong-coupling effects will set in. However we should keep in
mind that the LHC cant directly study W W scattering, and unitarity
bounds in other channels are weaker.
14.2 Baryon and lepton number conservation
We constructed the standard model by postulating a set of fields and writing
down the most general gauge-invariant Lagrangian. However we only considered operators with mass dimension up to 4. One might argue that this
is necessary for renormalizability, however theres no real reason to insist
that the standard model be renormalizable. A better argument for stopping
at dimension 4 is that any higher dimension operators we might add will
have a negligible effect at low energies, provided theyre suppressed by a
sufficiently large mass scale.
Stopping with dimension-4 operators does have a remarkable consequence:
14.2 Baryon and lepton number conservation
171
the standard model Lagrangian is invariant under U (1) symmetries corresponding to conservation of baryon and lepton number, as well as to conservation of the individual lepton flavors Le , L , L . Note that we never had to
postulate any of these conservation laws, rather they arise as a by-product
of the field content of the standard model and the fact that we stopped at
dimension 4. Such symmetries, which arise only because one restricts to
renormalizable theories, are known as accidental symmetries.
These accidental symmetries of the standard model are phenomenologically desirable, of course, but theres no reason to think theyre fundamental.
There are two aspects to this.
(i) Its natural to imagine adding higher-dimension operators to the standard model, perhaps to reflect the effects of some underlying shortdistance physics. Theres no reason to expect these higher-dimension
operators to respect conservation of baryon or lepton number.
(ii) The accidental symmetries of the dimension-4 Lagrangian lead to
classical conservation of baryon and lepton number. However theres
no reason to expect that these conservation laws are respected by the
quantum theory there could be an anomaly.
Well see an explicit example of lepton number violation by higher dimension
operators when we discuss neutrino masses in the next section. So let me
focus on the second possibility, and show that the baryon and lepton number
currents in the standard model indeed have anomalies.
is one
To set up the problem, recall that the baryon number current jB
third of the quark number current. It can be written as a sum of left- and
right-handed pieces.
jB
=
1X
Qi Qi + u
Ri uRi + dRi dRi
3
i
Here Qi contains the left-handed quarks and i = 1, 2, 3 is a generation index.
There are also individual lepton flavor numbers, as well as the total lepton
number, corresponding to currents
i Li + eRi eRi
jLi
=L
jL =
jLi
These currents have anomalies with electroweak gauge bosons. Making use
172
Additional topics
of the anomaly (13.10), the baryon number current has a divergence
X
(g 0 /2)2
2
X
1
g
jB
= Nc Ng
B B
Tr (W W )
Y2
Y2
3
96 2
96 2
right
left
(14.3)
where Nc = 3 is the number of colors, Ng = 3 is the number of generations,
and the hypercharges of a single generation of quarks contribute a factor
X
X
Y2
Y 2 = (4/3)2 + (2/3)2 (1/3)2 (1/3)2 = 2 .
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
right
left
uR
uL
dR
dL
Likewise the individual lepton number currents have anomalous divergences
X
X (g 0 /2)2
g 2
Y2
Y2
jLi =
B
B
Tr (W W )
96 2
96 2
right
left
(14.4)
where a single generation of leptons gives
X
X
Y2
Y 2 = (2)2 (1)2 (1)2 = 2 .
| {z } | {z } | {z }
right
left
eR
eL
Curiously the right hand side of (14.4) is the same as the right hand side of
(14.3), aside from an overall factor of 31 Nc Ng .
This shows that baryon number, as well as the individual lepton numbers,
are all violated in the standard model. So why dont we observe baryon and
lepton number violation? For simplicity lets focus on baryon number violation by hypercharge gauge fields. Given the anomalous divergence (14.3)
we can find the change in baryon number between initial and final times ti ,
tf by integrating
Z
Z
Z tf
Z tf
3
dt d3 x B B .
B =
dt d x jB
ti
ti
But noting the identity
h
i
B B = 4 B B
we see that the change in baryon number is the integral of a total derivative.
Its tempting to discard surface terms and conclude that baryon number is
conserved. A more careful analysis shows that baryon number really is
violated, but only in topologically non-trivial field configurations where the
fields do not fall off rapidly enough at infinity to justify discarding surface
terms. t Hooft studied the resulting baryon number violation and showed
14.3 Neutrino masses
173
that at low energies it occurs at an unobservably small rate. Its worth
noting that the differences Li Lj are exactly conserved in the standard
model, as is the combination B L.
14.3 Neutrino masses
Another accidental feature of the (renormalizable, dimension-4) standard
model is that neutrinos are massless. This is due to the field content of the
standard model, in particular the fact that we never introduced right-handed
neutrinos. However the observed neutrino flavor oscillations seem to require
non-zero neutrino masses at the sub-eV level. To accommodate neutrino
masses one approach is to extend the standard model by introducing a set
of right-handed neutrinos Ri which we take to be singlets under the standard
model gauge group (and therefore very hard to detect). We could then add
a term to the standard model Lagrangian
Rj + c.c.
i
L mass = ij L
After electroweak symmetry breaking this would give the neutrinos a conventional Dirac mass term, via the same mechanism used for the up-type
quarks. In this approach the small neutrino masses would be due to tiny
Yukawa couplings ij . But extending the standard model in this way is
somewhat awkward: we have no evidence for right-handed neutrinos, and
its hard to see why their Yukawa couplings should be so small.
Theres a more appealing approach, in which we stick with the usual
standard model field content but consider the effects of higher-dimension
operators. The leading effects should come from dimension-5 operators.
Remarkably, theres a unique operator one can write down at dimension
5 thats gauge invariant and built from the usual standard model fields.
To construct the operator, note that and Li have exactly the same gauge
quantum numbers. Then Li is a left-handed spinor that is invariant under
gauge transformations. Charge conjugation on a Dirac spinor acts by C =
i 2 and has the effect of changing spinor chirality (see appendix D).
This lets us build a gauge-invariant right-handed spinor
Li
= T LiC .
C
G. t Hooft, Phys. Rev. Lett. 37 (1976) 8.
Strictly speaking the B L current has a gravitational anomaly which could be canceled by
adding right-handed neutrinos to the standard model.
174
Additional topics
Putting these spinors together, we can make a gauge-invariant bilinear
T LiC
Lj = LiC Lj .
So a possible dimension-5 addition to the standard model Lagrangian in
fact the only dimension-5 term allowed by gauge symmetry is
ij
ij
LiC
Lj
Li T Lj C .
Ldim. 5 =
X
X
(14.5)
Here ij is a matrix of dimensionless coupling constants, X is a quantity with
units of mass, and we added the complex conjugate to keep the Lagrangian
real.
electroweak symmetry breaking
After
can plug in the Higgs vev hi =
we
v/ 2
Li
and the lepton doublet Li = eLi to find that Ldim. 5 reduces to
0
v2
v2
ij LiC Lj
Li Lj C .
2X
2X ij
This is a so-called Majorana mass term for the neutrinos. It can be written
more cleanly using the two-component notation introduced in appendix D,
as
v2
v2
ij iT j
(14.6)
2X
2X ij i j
where the Dirac spinor Li 0i . In any case we can read off the neutrino
mass matrix
v2
mij = ij .
X
Assuming the energy scale X is much larger than the Higgs vev v, small
Majorana neutrino masses m v 2 /X are to be expected in the standard
model.
A few comments:
(i) The dimension-5 operator we wrote down violates lepton number by
two units, and generically also violates conservation of the individual lepton flavors Le , L , L . This illustrates the fact that these
quantities were only conserved due to accidental symmetries of the
renormalizable standard model.
The notation is a little overburdened: for example LiC (LiC ) 0 = i 2 Li 0 .
LiC Lj is symmetric on i and j due to Fermi statistics, so we can take ij to be symmetric as
well.
14.4 Quark flavor violation
175
(ii) Once the neutrinos acquire a mass their gauge eigenstates and mass
eigenstates can be different. This provides a mechanism for the observed phenomenon of neutrino flavor oscillations. (By gauge eigenstates I mean the states e , , that form SU (2)L doublets with
the charged leptons.)
14.4 Quark flavor violation
As weve seen, lepton flavor is accidentally conserved in the standard model.
Quark flavor, on the other hand, is violated at the renormalizable level. But
the flavor violation has a rather restricted form: as we saw in section 12.3
it only occurs via the CKM matrix in the quark quark W couplings.
A surprising feature of the standard model that the couplings of the Z
conserve flavor that is, that there are no flavor-changing neutral currents
in the standard model.
The absence of flavor-changing neutral currents means that certain flavorviolating processes, while allowed, can only occur at the loop level. Whats
more, the loop diagrams often turn out to be anomalously small, due to
an approximate cancellation known as the GIM mechanism. This can be
nicely illustrated with kaon decays. First consider the decay K + 0 e+ e ,
which has an observed branching ratio of around 5%. At the quark level
this decay occurs via a tree diagram involving W exchange.
(
K+
)
0
e+
W
+
e
Compare this to the decay K + + e e . Due to the absence of flavor-
176
Additional topics
changing neutral currents, this decay can only take place via a loop diagram.
K+
u
W
_
s
+
_
u,c,t
_
Z
e
e
Since the diagram involves two additional vertices and one additional loop
integral, one might expect that the amplitude is down by a factor g 2 /16 2 =
W /4 where W = g 2 /4 = 1/29 is the weak analog of the fine structure
constant. The branching ratio should then be down by a factor (W /4)2
105 . But current measurements give a branching ratio, summed over neutrino flavors, of
10
.
BR(K + + ) = 1.5+1.3
0.9 10
Clearly some additional suppression is called for. This is provided by the
GIM mechanism. To see how it works, look at the contribution to the
amplitude coming from the lower quark line.
X Z d4 p
ig
i
igZ
5
5
v(s) (1 )(V )si
(cV i cAi )
(2)4
p/ mi
2
2 2
i=u,c,t
i
ig
(1 5 )Vid v(d)
p/ q/ mi
2 2
P
If the quark masses were equal this would be proportional to i (V )si Vid ,
which vanishes by unitarity of the CKM matrix. More generally the amP
plitude picks up a GIM suppression factor, M i (V )si Vid f (m2i /m2W ).
One can estimate the behavior of the function f (x) by expanding the quark
propagator in powers of the quark mass,
p/
mi m2 p/
1
= 2 + 2 + i4 + .
p/ mi
p
p
p
The zeroth order terms all cancel, since they correspond to having equal
(vanishing) quark masses. The first order terms vanish by chirality, since
A factor 1/16 2 is usually associated with each loop integral, as discussed on p. 102.
14.5 CP violation
177
(1 5 )(odd # s)(1 5 ) = 0. The second order terms leave you with a
P
GIM suppression factor i (V )si Vid m2i /m2W . This factor suppresses the
contributions of the up and charm quarks; the top quark contribution is suppressed by the small mixing with the third generation. Taking all this into
account leads to the current theoretical estimate for the branching ratio,
BR(K + + ) = (8.4 1.0) 1011 .
This might seem like a remarkable but obscure prediction of the standard
model. But experimental tests of this small branching ratio have far-reaching
consequences. Almost every extension of the standard model introduces new
sources of flavor violation, which could easily overwhelm the tiny standard
model prediction. So limits on rare flavor-violating processes provide some
of the most stringent constraints on beyond-the-standard model physics.
14.5 CP violation
As weve seen the CKM matrix involves three mixing angles between the
different generations plus one complex phase. The complex phase turns out
to be the only source for CP violation in the standard model. Its remarkable that with two generations the considerations of section 12.3 would show
that the CKM matrix is real: a 2 2 orthogonal matrix parametrized by
the Cabibbo angle. So in this sense CP violation is a bonus feature of the
standard model associated with having three generations.
To see that CP is violated consider a tree-level decay ui dj W + . Both
the up-type and down-type quarks ui , dj must sit in left-handed spinors to
couple to the W . Neglecting quark masses for simplicity, this means theyre
both left-handed particles. So indicating helicity with a subscript, we can
denote this decay uLi dLj W + . Under a parity transformation the quark
momentum changes sign, while the quark spin is invariant, so the helicity
flips and the parity-transformed process is
P : uRi dRj W + .
This decay doesnt occur at tree level, which should be no surprise parity is
maximally violated by the weak interactions. Charge conjugation exchanges
One also has to worry about the divergence structure of the remaining loop integral, which in
the case at hand turns out to give an extra factor of log m2i /m2W .
The theoretical status is reviewed in C. Smith, arXiv:hep-ph/0703039.
Leaving aside a topological term built from the gluon field strength Tr (G G ) that
can be added to the QCD Lagrangian.
178
Additional topics
particles with antiparticles while leaving helicity unchanged. So the charge
conjugate of our original process is
C : u
Li dLj W .
But this decay doesnt occur at tree level either (the left-handed antiparticles
sit in right-handed spinors which dont couple to the W ). Again, no surprise,
since C is also maximally violated by the weak interactions. If we apply the
combined transformation CP we get an allowed tree-level process, u
Ri
dRj W . Does this mean CP is a symmetry? Compare the amplitudes:
W
u
(V )ji = Vij
Li
d Lj
_
u Ri
Vij
_
dRj
If the CKM matrix is not real then CP is violated. One can reach the
same conclusion, of course, by studying how CP acts on the standard model
Lagrangian.
The classic evidence for CP violation comes from the neutral kaon system.
0 transform into each other under
The strong-interaction eigenstates K 0 , K
CP .
0i
0 i = |K 0 i
CP |K 0 i = |K
CP |K
We can form CP eigenstates
1
0i
|Keven i = |K 0 i + |K
2
1
0i .
|Kodd i = |Ki0 |K
2
For the particular process we are considering we could redefine the phases of our initial and final
states to make the amplitude real. To have observable CP violation all three generations of
quarks must be involved so the complex phase cant be eliminated by a field redefinition. Also
more than one diagram must contribute, so that relative phases of diagrams can be observed
through interference.
14.6 Custodial SU (2)
179
If there were no CP violation then |Keven i and |Kodd i would be the exact
mass eigenstates. But the weak interactions which generate mixing between
0 violate CP . The actual mass eigenstates K 0 , K 0 are not CP
K 0 and K
L
S
eigenstates, as shown by the fact that KL0 decays to both 2 and 3 final
states (CP even and odd, respectively) with branching ratios
BR(KL0 ) = 3.0 103
BR(KL0 ) = 34%
This mixing gives rise to a mass splitting mK 0 mK 0 = 3.5 106 eV.
L
S
This is another example of a GIM-suppressed quantity, as one can see by
examining the diagrams responsible for the mixing:
W
_
s
u,c,t
u,c,t
_
d
W
s
u,c,t
W
s
d
u,c,t
With equal quark masses the diagram would vanish by unitarity of the CKM
matrix.
14.6 Custodial SU (2)
The sector of the standard model which is least satisfactory (from a theoretical point of view) and least well-tested (from an experimental point of
view) is the sector associated with electroweak symmetry breaking. In the
standard model the Higgs doublet seems put in by hand, for no other reason
than to break electroweak symmetry, and we have no direct experimental evidence that a physical Higgs particle exists. You might think the only thing
we know for sure is that the gauge symmetry is broken from SU (2)L U (1)Y
to U (1)em , with three would-be Goldstone bosons that get eaten to become
the longitudinal polarizations of the W and Z bosons.
This is a little too pessimistic: there are some robust statements we can
make about the nature of electroweak symmetry breaking. To see this its
useful to begin by rewriting the Higgs Lagrangian. Normally, neglecting all
gauge couplings, wed write the pure Higgs sector of the standard model in
180
Additional topics
terms of an SU (2)L doublet =
+
0
Lpure Higgs = + 2 ( )2
0
The conjugate Higgs doublet is defined by = =
. Although
is not an independent field, its useful to treat and on the same footing.
To do this we define a 2 2 complex matrix
0 +
= 2 , = 2
.
0
This matrix satisfies
= 2 11
det = 2
= 2 2
(the last relation is a pseudo-reality condition). In any case, in terms of
, the pure Higgs Lagrangian is
1
2
1
1
Lpure Higgs = Tr + 2 Tr Tr( ) .
4
4
16
Written in this way its clear that Lpure Higgs has an SU (2)L SU (2)R
global symmetry which acts on as LR for L, R SU (2). In fact
Lpure Higgs is nothing but the O(4) linear -model from problem 5.4! The
curious fact is that Lpure Higgs has a larger symmetry group than is strictly
necessary larger, that is, than the SU (2)L U (1)Y gauge symmetry of the
standard model.
Lets proceed to couple Lpure Higgs to the electroweak gauge fields. An
SU (2)L U (1)Y gauge transformation of ,
a (x) a /2
(x) eig
eig (x)/2 (x) ,
corresponds to the following transformation of .
a (x) a /2
(x) eig
(x)eig (x)
3 /2
This shows that the SU (2)L gauge symmetry of the standard model is identified with the SU (2)L symmetry of Lpure Higgs , while U (1)Y is embedded
as a subgroup of SU (2)R . The covariant derivative becomes
ig 0
ig a a
W
B 3 .
2
2
In this notation the Higgs sector of the standard model is
1
2
1
1
LHiggs = Tr D D + 2 Tr Tr( ) .
4
4
16
D = +
14.6 Custodial SU (2)
181
The analysis of electroweak symmetry breaking is straightforward: the Higgs
potential is minimized when = 21 v 2 , or equivalently when = v 2 11.
The space of vacua is given by
{ = vU : U SU (2)} .
All these vacua are gauge-equivalent.
breaks SU (2)L U (1)Y U (1)em .
Choosing any particular vacuum
The interesting observation is that the pure Higgs sector of the standard
model has a larger symmetry than required for gauge invariance. The extra
SU (2)R symmetry of the pure Higgs Lagrangian is known as custodial
SU (2). It is not a symmetry of the entire standard model its broken
explicitly by the couplings of the hypercharge gauge boson, which pick out
a U (1)Y subgroup of SU (2)R , as well as by the quark Yukawa couplings.
Despite this explicit breaking, custodial SU (2) has observable consequences.
In particular, as youll show on the homework, it enforces the tree-level relation
m2
2 W2
= 1.
mZ cos W
The observed value is
= 1.0106 0.0006 .
The fact that the tree-level relation is satisfied to roughly 1% accuracy
is strong evidence that the mechanism for electroweak symmetry breaking
must have a custodial SU (2) symmetry. (Small deviations from = 1 can
be understood as arising from radiative corrections in the standard model.)
To appreciate these statements lets be completely general in our approach
to electroweak symmetry breaking. We dont really know that the standard
model Higgs doublet exists, but we are certain that the gauge symmetry is
broken. On general grounds there must be three would-be Goldstone bosons
that get eaten to provide the longitudinal polarizations of the W and Z
bosons. The Goldstones can be packaged into a matrix U SU (2). Up to
two derivatives, the most general action for the Goldstones with SU (2)L
U (1)Y symmetry is
1
1
LGoldstone = v 2 Tr D U D U + cv 2 Tr U D U 3 Tr U D U 3 .
4
4
Note that some authors use the term custodial SU (2) to refer to the diagonal subgroup of
SU (2)L SU (2)R .
The quoted value is for the quantity denoted in the particle data book.
The space of vacua is (SU (2)L U (1)Y ) /U (1)em , which is topologically a three dimensional
sphere. Points on a 3-sphere can be labeled by SU (2) matrices.
182
Additional topics
Here v and c are constants and the covariant derivative is
D U = U +
ig 0
ig a a
W U
U B 3 .
2
2
The first term in the Lagrangian is exactly what we get from the standard
model by setting = vU in LHiggs . It has custodial SU (2) symmetry if you
neglect the hypercharge gauge boson. The second term in the Lagrangian
violates custodial SU (2). In the standard model it only arises from operators
of dimension 6 or higher; for this reason custodial SU (2) should be regarded
as an accidental symmetry of the standard model. The key point is that
in a model for electroweak symmetry breaking without custodial SU (2) one
would expect c to be O(1). This would make O(1) corrections to the relation
= 1, in drastic conflict with observation.
References
High energy behavior. A general discussion of the good high energy
behavior of spontaneously broken gauge theories is given in J. Cornwall,
D. Levin and G. Tiktopoulos, Phys. Rev. D10 (1974) 1145. Peskin &
Schroeder p. 750 work out the cancellations in e+ e W + W for vanishing electron mass. Things get more interesting when you keep the electron
mass non-zero: then the Higgs particle becomes necessary, as discussed by
Quigg on p. 130. Longitudinal W scattering is discussed in S. Dawson, Introduction to electroweak symmetry breaking, hep-ph/9901280, pp. 47 51.
Its hard to compute longitudinal W scattering directly its similar to the
process e+ e W + W studied above. But if youre only interested in
high energy behavior you can use the equivalence theorem mentioned in
Dawson and developed more fully in Peskin & Schroeder section 21.2.
Baryon and lepton number conservation. Baryon and lepton number
violation in topologically non-trivial gauge fields was studied by G. t Hooft,
Phys. Rev. Lett. 37 (1976) 8. Discussions of gauge field topology can be
found in Weinberg chapter 23 and in S. Coleman, Aspects of symmetry
(Cambridge, 1985) chapter 7.
Neutrino masses. A good reference is the review article by GonzalezGarcia and Nir, Neutrino masses and mixings: evidence and implications,
hep-ph/0202058. For a classification of higher-dimension electroweak operators see W. Buchmuller and D. Wyler, Nucl. Phys. B268 (1986) 621.
Quark flavor violation. For elementary discussions of the GIM mechanism see Halzen & Martin p. 282 or Quigg p. 150; for a more detailed
Exercises
183
treatment see Cheng & Li section 12.2. Rare kaon decays were studied by
Gaillard and Lee, Phys. Rev. D10, 897 (1974). The decay K + +
is discussed in Donoghue; for a recent review of the theoretical status see
C. Smith, arXiv:hep-ph/0703039.
CP violation. Cheng & Li discuss CP violation in the kaon system in
section 12.2. CP violation in the B mesons is covered in the review articles
hep-ph/0411138 and hep-ph/0410351.
Custodial SU (2). A pedagogical discussion of custodial SU (2) can be
found in the TASI lectures of S. Willenbrock, hep-ph/0410370.
S and T parameters. The S and T parameters were introduced by Peskin
and Takeuchi, Phys. Rev. D46 (1992) 381. They have been discussed in
terms of effective field theory in many places. T. Appelquist and G.-H. Wu,
arXiv:hep-ph/9304240, relate them to parameters in the effective Lagrangian
for the electroweak Goldstone bosons. C.P. Burgess, S. Godfrey, H. Konig,
D. London and I. Maksymyk, arXiv:hep-ph/9312291 give a procedure for
relating the effective Lagrangian to observable quantities. The state of the
art in this sort of analysis can be found in Z. Han and W. Skiba, arXiv:hepph/0412166. The current experimental bounds on S and T are given in
Fig. 8 of J. Erler, arXiv:hep-ph/0604035.
Exercises
14.1
Unitarity made easy
At very high energies it shouldnt matter whether the standard
model gauge symmetry is broken or unbroken. Suppose its unbroken
(if you like, take 2 < 0 in the Higgs potential).
(i) Use tree-level unitarity to bound the Higgs coupling by considering + scattering coming from the diagram
+
Here were writing the Higgs doublet as =
+
0
with =
184
Additional topics
(+ ) . Other diagrams contribute, but this one dominates for
large .
(ii) Is your result equivalent to the bound on the Higgs mass (14.2)
we obtained from studying WL+ WL WL+ WL ?
14.2
See-saw mechanism
Theres an appealing extension of the standard model which generates small Majorana neutrino masses. Introduce a collection of
ns right-handed neutrinos, described by a collection of right-handed
gauge singlet spinor fields Ra , a = 1, . . . , ns (s stands for sterile).
Since these fields are gauge singlets they can have Majorana mass
terms. The general renormalizable, gauge-invariant Lagrangian describing the left- and right-handed neutrinos and their couplings to
the Higgs is then
1
Ra + c.c.
i
L = Mab RaC Rj ia L
2
Lets imagine that the right-handed neutrinos are very heavy, with
Mab v (theres no reason for Mab to be tied to the electroweak
symmetry breaking scale). Use the equations of motion for the rightL
handed neutrinos
= 0 to write down a low-energy effective LaRa
grangian involving just the Higgs field and the left-handed doublets.
If you want to think in terms of Feynman diagrams, this is equivalent
to evaluating the diagram
where were neglecting the momentum dependence of the right-handed
neutrino propagator. Show that this procedure induces precisely the
operator (14.5), and read off the mass matrix for the left-handed
neutrinos. This is known as the see-saw mechanism: the heavier
the right-handed neutrinos are, the lighter the left-handed neutrinos
become.
Exercises
14.3
Custodial SU (2) and the parameter
Consider the most general two-derivative action for the Goldstone
bosons associated with electroweak symmetry breaking.
1
1
L = v 2 Tr D U D U + cv 2 Tr U D U 3 Tr U D U 3
4
4
Here U SU (2) is the field describing the Goldstones, with covariant
derivative
ig
ig 0
D U = U + Wa a U
U B 3 .
2
2
Evaluate the W and Z masses in this model. Express the paramm2
eter = m2 cosW2 in terms of c.
Z
14.4
185
Quark masses and custodial SU (2) violation
Suppose we require that custodial SU (2) be a symmetry of the
quark Yukawa Lagrangian
Rj + c.c.
i dRj uij Q
i u
Lquark Yukawa = dij Q
What would this imply about the spectrum of quark masses? What
would this imply about the CKM matrix?
14.5
Strong interactions and electroweak symmetry breaking
Consider a theory which resembles the standard model in every
respect except that it doesnt have a Higgs field. You can get the
Lagrangian for this theory by setting = 0 in the standard model
Lagrangian; the Dirac and Yang-Mills terms survive while the Higgs
and Yukawa terms drop out. In such a theory, what are the masses
of the W and Z bosons?
Before your answer zero, recall the effective Lagrangian for chiral
symmetry breaking by the strong interactions, L = 14 f 2 Tr U U .
Lets concentrate on the up and down quarks so that U is an SU (2)
matrix. As discussed in chapter 6 its related to the chiral condensate
by
1
u
h0|L R |0i = 3 U (1 5 )
=
d
2
where weve indicated the flavor spin structure of the condensate
on the right hand side.
(i) By introducing a suitable covariant derivative, write the effective Lagrangian which describes the couplings between U and the
SU (2)L U (1)Y gauge fields W , B .
186
Additional topics
(ii) Compute the W and Z masses in terms of f and the SU (2)L
U (1)Y gauge couplings g, g 0 .
(iii) In this model, what particles get eaten to give the W and Z
bosons a mass?
(iv) Does this model have a custodial SU (2) symmetry?
(v) In the real world, taking both the Higgs field and QCD effects
into account, what are the masses of the W and Z bosons? Express
your answer in terms of f, g, g 0 and the Higgs vev v. Hint: think in
terms of effective Lagrangians for the would-be Goldstone bosons.
This sort of idea generating masses from underlying stronglycoupled gauge dynamics is the basis for what are known as technicolor models of electroweak symmetry breaking.
14.6
S and T parameters
A useful way to think about beyond-the-standard-model physics is
to encode the effects of any new physics in the coefficients of higherdimension operators which are added to the standard model Lagrangian. At dimension 5 theres a unique operator one can add
which we encountered when we discussed neutrino masses. At dimension 6 there are quite a few possible operators. The two which
have attracted the most attention correspond to the S and T parameters of Peskin and Takeuchi. They can be defined by the dimension
6 Lagrangian
gg 0
2
a
S a W
B 2 T ( D )(D ) .
Ldim 6 =
2
16v
v
Here g and g 0 are standard model gauge couplings, v is the Higgs
a
vev, is the fine structure constant, is the Higgs doublet, W
and B are field strengths, and the constants S and T parametrize
new physics.
(i) In the notation of section 14.6 a particular vacuum state can be
characterized by = vU for some U SU (2). Evaluate Ldim 6
at low energies and show that it reduces to
1
gg 0
a
S Tr (U a U 3 )W
B + v 2 T Tr (U D U 3 )Tr (U D U 3 ) .
64
8
(ii) In unitary gauge one conventionally sets U = 11. Evaluate your
Theyre classified in W. Buchmuller and D. Wyler, Nucl. Phys. B268 (1986) 621.
Exercises
187
result from part (i) in unitary gauge and show that to quadratic
order in the fields it reduces to
1
1
cos2 W sin2 W
m2Z T Z Z .
F Z
S F F Z Z +
8
cos W sin W
2
Here F is the field strength of electromagnetism and Z is the
abelian field strength associated with the Z boson. The fields
A and Z have their usual standard model definitions; note that
when Ldim 6 is added they no longer have canonical kinetic terms.
Also mZ is the usual standard model definition of the Z mass; note
that when Ldim 6 is added it no longer corresponds to the physical
Z mass.
14.7
B L as a gauge symmetry
The standard model has an accidental global symmetry corresponding to conservation of B L. This symmetry can be gauged
as follows. Consider the electroweak interactions of a single generation of quarks and leptons and promote the gauge symmetry to
SU (2)L U (1)Y U (1)BL . To the usual standard model fields add
a right-handed neutrino R and a complex scalar field . Overall we
have fields with quantum numbers
L
eR
Q
uR
dR
(2, 1, 1)
(1, 2, 1)
(2, 1/3, 1/3)
(1, 4/3, 1/3)
(1, 2/3, 1/3)
(2, 1, 0)
(2, 1, 0)
(1, 0, 1)
(1, 0, 1)
So for instance the covariant derivative of R is
D R = R + i
g (1)C R
where C is the U (1)BL gauge field and g is its coupling constant.
(i) Show that, thanks to R , the U (1)BL symmetry is anomaly-free.
(ii) If left unbroken U (1)BL would mediate a Coulomb-like force
with B L playing the role of electric charge. To cure this suppose
the Higgs Lagrangian
LHiggs = D D + D D V ( , )
188
Additional topics
is such that the scalar fields acquire vevs.
0
h0||0i =
h0||0i = v/ 2
v/ 2
Well have in mind that v v. Add additional kinetic terms to
the Yang-Mills Lagrangian:
1
1
LYangMills = (standard model) C C aB C
4
2
Here C is the U (1)BL field strength. The parameter a represents kinetic mixing between the hypercharge and B L gauge
fields. Expand about the vacuum state and write down the quadratic
action for the gauge bosons W3 , B , C .
(iii) To have positive-definite kinetic terms we must have 1 < a <
1. Set a = sin and show that the kinetic terms can be diagonalized by setting
3
W
W3
1 0
0
B = 0 1 tan
B
0 0 1/ cos
C
C
Show that the mass matrix can then be diagonalized by setting
A
A
1
0
0
Z = 0 cos sin Z
Z0
0 sin cos
C
where
3 + gB
g0W
A = p
g 2 + g 02
3 g0B
gW
Z = p
g 2 + g 02
are the standard model photon and Z. Assuming v v show that
gg 0 v 2 sin(2)/8
g 2 v2 .
(iv) For v v the mixing angle is small. At leading order in
determine
the masses of the A, Z and Z 0 bosons
the currents to which they couple
Are these results corrected at higher orders in ?
Remarks: additional U (1) gauge groups arise in many extensions
of the standard model. In general anomaly cancellation tightly constrains the allowed matter content and quantum numbers. Since
B L is an accidental symmetry of the standard model, it can be
Exercises
189
spontaneously broken without significant observable consequences:
theres no way to directly couple the symmetry-breaking vev v to the
standard model at the renormalizeable level. At leading order in
the Z boson behaves just as in the standard model, but this gets corrected at higher orders. Finally in this model a term in the Yukawa
R + c.c. could give neutrinos a large Dirac mass.
Lagrangian L
Possible cures for this problem are reviewed in P. Langacker, The
physics of heavy Z 0 gauge bosons, arXiv:0801.1345.
15
Epilogue: in praise of the standard model
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
A good figure of merit for a theory is the ratio of results to assumptions.
By this measure the standard model is impressive indeed. Given a fairly
short list of assumptions just the gauge group and matter content the
standard model is the most general renormalizable theory consistent with
Lorentz and gauge invariance. The assumptions are open to criticism, for
example
the choice of gauge group seems a little peculiar
the fermion representations are more complicated than one might have
wished
its not clear why there should be three generations
aside from simplicity, postulating a single Higgs doublet has very little
motivation (experimental or otherwise)
Given these assumptions one gets a quite predictive theory. It depends on
a total of 18 parameters.
3
2
9
4
gauge couplings
parameters in the Higgs potential
quark and lepton masses
parameters in the CKM matrix
This isnt entirely satisfactory. The fermion masses and mixings, in particular, introduce more free parameters than one would like, and their observed
values seem to exhibit peculiar hierarchies. The Higgs mass parameter 2
is also a puzzle. What sets its value? In fact, why should it be positive
leaving aside certain topological terms in the action
190
Epilogue: in praise of the standard model
191
(equivalently, why should electroweak gauge symmetry get broken)? But
given these inputs look at what we get out:
cancellation of gauge anomalies
accidental baryon and lepton number conservation
accidental conservation of electron, muon, and tau number
with three light quarks, an approximate SU (3)L SU (3)R symmetry of
the strong interactions
with a single Higgs doublet, a custodial SU (2) symmetry of the electroweak symmetry breaking sector
massless neutrinos at the renormalizable level
a natural explanation for small neutrino masses from dimension-5 operators
absence of tree-level flavor changing neutral currents
the GIM mechanism for suppressing flavor violation in loops
with three generations, a mechanism for CP violation by the weak interactions
In the end, of course, the best thing about the standard model is that it fits
the data. At low energies it incorporates all the successes of 4-Fermi theory
and the SU (3)L SU (3)R symmetry of the strong interactions, and at high
energies it fits the precision electroweak measurements carried out at LEP
and SLC.
I wish I could say there was an extension of the standard model that was
nearly as compelling as the standard model itself. Various extensions of
the standard model have been proposed, each of which has some attractive
features, but all of which have drawbacks. So far no one theory has emerged
as a clear favorite. Only time, and perhaps the LHC, will tell us what lies
beyond the standard model.
Note added: On July 4, 2012 the ATLAS and CMS experiments announced the discovery of a particle with a mass of 125 GeV which appears
to be the Higgs boson predicted by the standard model: ATLAS Collaboration, Observation of a new particle in the search for the standard model
Higgs boson with the ATLAS detector at the LHC, Phys. Lett. B716, 1
(2012), arXiv:1207.7214; CMS Collaboration, Observation of a new boson
at a mass of 125 GeV with the CMS experiment at the LHC, Phys. Lett.
B716, 30 (2012).
strictly speaking B + L is violated by a quantum anomaly
Appendix A
Feynman diagrams
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
Perhaps the simplest example is a real scalar field with Lagrangian
1
1
1
L = m2 2 4 .
2
2
4!
In this case the Feynman rules are
p
propagator
i
p2 m2
4 vertex
Here p is the 4-momentum flowing through the line. QED is somewhat
more complicated: its a Dirac spinor field coupled to a gauge field with
Lagrangian
h
i
1
L = i ( + ieQA ) m F F .
4
The corresponding Feynman rules are (with the notation p/ p )
192
Feynman diagrams
193
electron propagator
i(p/ + m)
p2 m2
photon propagator
ig
k2
electron photon vertex
ieQ
Here Q is the charge of the field measured in units of e = 4, for example
Q = 1 for the electron/positron field. The arrows on the lines indicate the
direction of particle flow, for particles that have distinct antiparticles. We
also have factors to indicate the polarizations of the external lines
p
outgoing electron
u
(p, )
incoming electron
u(p, )
outgoing positron
v(p, )
incoming positron
v(p, )
outgoing photon
(p, )
incoming photon
(p, )
Here is a label that specifies the polarization of the particle. Explicit
expressions are given in Peskin & Schroeder appendix A.2. Fortunately for
most purposes all well need are the completeness relations
X
u(p, )
u(p, ) = p/ + m
v(p, )
v (p, ) = p/ m
(p, ) (p, ) = g
194
Feynman diagrams
One can also consider the electrodynamics of a complex scalar field, with
Lagrangian
1
L = ( ieQA ) ( + ieQA ) m2 F F .
4
In this case the interaction vertices are
p
ieQ(p + p0 )
2ie2 Q2 g
where the dashed line represents the scalar field.
In practice given a Lagrangian one can read off the Feynman rules as
follows. First split the Lagrangian into free and interacting parts. The free
part, which is necessarily quadratic in the fields, determines the propagators as described in section 9.2. Each term in the interacting part of the
Lagrangian corresponds to a vertex, where the vertex factor can be obtained
from the Lagrangian by the following recipe.
1. Erase the fields.
2. Multiply by i.
3. If there was a derivative operator acting on a field, replace it with
ik where k is the incoming momentum of the corresponding line.
4. Multiply by s! for each group of s identical particles.
Given these rules its just a matter of putting the pieces together: the
sum of all Feynman diagrams gives i times the amplitude M for a given
process. For example, for e+ e + the lowest-order Feynman diagram
is
Feynman diagrams
e+
p + p
1
2
195
p
4
Note that were imposing 4-momentum conservation at every vertex. Working backwards along the fermion lines the diagram is equal to
iM = v(p2 , 2 )(ieQ )u(p1 , 1 )
ig
u
(p3 , 3 )(ieQ )v(p4 , 4 )
(p1 + p2 )2
so that
M=
e2
v(p2 , 2 ) u(p1 , 1 )
u(p3 , 3 ) v(p4 , 4 ) .
(p1 + p2 )2
Were really interested in the transition probability, which is determined by
(recall u
u 0 )
|M|2 =
e4
v(p2 , 2 ) u(p1 , 1 )u (p1 , 1 ) 0 v(p2 , 2 )
(p1 + p2 )4
u
(p3 , 3 ) v(p4 , 4 )v (p4 , 4 ) 0 u(p3 , 3 )
Well work in the chiral basis for the Dirac matrices, namely
0 11
0
i
0
i
=
=
11 0
i 0
satisfying { , } = 2g , 0 = 0 and i = i . Note that 0 0 = .
Then
|M|2 =
e4
v(p2 , 2 ) u(p1 , 1 )
u(p1 , 1 ) v(p2 , 2 )
(p1 + p2 )4
u
(p3 , 3 ) v(p4 , 4 )
v (p4 , 4 ) u(p3 , 3 )
e4
Tr ( u(p1 , 1 )
u(p1 , 1 ) v(p2 , 2 )
v (p2 , 2 ))
(p1 + p2 )4
Tr ( v(p4 , 4 )
v (p4 , 4 ) u(p3 , 3 )
u(p3 , 3 ))
If were interested in unpolarized scattering we should average over initial
spins and sum over final spins. This gives rise to the spin-averaged amplitude
1 X
|M|2
h|M|2 i =
4
1 2 3 4
196
Feynman diagrams
e4
Tr ( (p/1 + me ) (p/2 me )) Tr ( (p/4 m ) (p/3 + m ))
4(p1 + p2 )4
where weve used the completeness relations to do the spin sums. For simplicity lets set me = m = 0, so that
h|M|2 i =
e4
Tr ( p/1 p/2 ) Tr ( p/4 p/3 ) .
4(p1 + p2 )4
Now we use the trace theorem
Tr( ) = 4(g g g g + g g )
to get
h|M|2 i =
8e4
(p1 p3 p2 p4 + p1 p4 p2 p3 ) .
(p1 + p2 )4
With massless external particles momentum conservation p1 + p2 = p3 + p4
implies that p1 p3 = p2 p4 and p1 p4 = p2 p3 , so
h|M|2 i =
8e4
(p1 p3 )2 + (p1 p4 )2 .
4
(p1 + p2 )
At this point one has to plug in some explicit kinematics. Lets work in the
center of mass frame, with scattering angle .
p1 = (E, 0, 0, E)
p2 = (E, 0, 0, E)
p3 = (E, E sin , 0, E cos )
p4 = (E, E sin , 0, E cos )
The spin-averaged amplitude is just
h|M|2 i = e4 (1 + cos2 ) .
We had to do a lot of work to get such a simple result! In general the center
of mass differential cross section is given by
d
1 |~
p3 |
=
h|M|2 i
(A.1)
2
d c.m. 64 s |~
p1 |
where s = (p1 + p2 )2 and |~
p1 |, |~
p3 | are the magnitudes of the spatial 3momenta. So finally our differential cross section is
d
e4
=
(1 + cos2 ) .
d c.m. 256 2 E 2
Exercises
197
The total cross section is given by integrating this over angles.
Z
= 2
d(cos )
1
e4
d
=
d
48E 2
This illustrates the basic process of evaluating a cross-section using Feynman
diagrams. However there are a few subtle points that didnt come up in this
simple example. In particular
If there are undetermined Rinternal loop momenta p in a diagram we should
d4 p
integrate over them with (2)
4.
If there are identical particles in the final state then (A.1) is still correct.
However in computing the total cross section one should only integrate
over angles corresponding to inequivalent final configurations. See Peskin
& Schroeder p. 108.
Every internal closed fermion loop multiplies the diagram by (1). This
follows from Fermi statistics: Peskin & Schroeder p. 120.
When summing diagrams there are sometimes relative () signs if the
external lines obey Fermi statistics. See Griffiths pp. 231 and 235 or
Peskin & Schroeder p. 119.
In some cases diagrams have to be multiplied by combinatoric symmetry
factors. These arise if a change in the internal lines of a diagram actually
gives the same diagram back again. See Peskin & Schroeder p. 93.
References
Griffiths does a nice job of presenting the Feynman rules for electrodynamics
in sections 7.5 7.8. The process e+ e + is studied in detail in Peskin
& Schroeder section 5.1.
Exercises
A.1
ABC theory
Consider a theory with three real scalar fields A, B, C and one
Dirac spinor field . The masses of these particles are mA , mB , mC , m
198
Feynman diagrams
and the interaction vertices are
A
C
ig1
ig2
C
_
assuming
(i) Compute the partial width for the decay C ,
mC > 2m .
(ii) Compute the differential cross section for AB .
(iii) Find the total cross section for AB .
Appendix B
Partial waves
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
Consider a scattering process a + b c + d. Lets work in the center of mass
frame, with initial and final states of definite helicity. We denote
E = total center of mass energy
p = spatial momentum of either incoming particle
= center of mass scattering angle
That is, we take our incoming particles to have 4-momenta
pa = (Ea , 0, 0, p)
pb = (Eb , 0, 0, p)
with E = Ea + Eb . We denote the helicities of the particles by a , b , c , d .
Our goal is to decompose the scattering amplitude into states of definite
total angular momentum J. At first sight, this is a complicated problem:
it seems we have to add the two spins plus whatever orbital angular momentum might be present. The analysis can be simplified by noting that
the helicity ( component of spin along the direction of motion) is a scalar
quantity, invariant under spatial rotations. It therefore commutes with the
total angular momentum. This means we can label our initial state
|E, J, Jz , a , b i
by giving the center of mass energy E, the total angular momentum J, the z
component Jz , and the two helicities a , b . In fact Jz is not an independent
quantity. Our incoming particles have definite spatial momenta, described
by wavefunctions
b eipz .
a eipz
These wavefunctions are invariant under rotations in the xy plane, so the
z component of the orbital angular momentum of the initial state vanishes,
199
200
Partial waves
p
b
p
c
d
a
p
d
p
a
Fig. B.1. A picture of the reaction: spatial momenta indicated by large arrows,
helicities indicated by small arrows.
Lz = 0. This means Jz just comes from the helicities, and the initial state
has Jz = a b . Similar reasoning shows that we can label our final state
by
|E, J, J , c , d i .
Here E and J are the (conserved!) total energy and angular momentum of
the system, while J is the component of J along the direction of particle c.
As before we have J = c d .
With these preliminaries in hand its easy to determine the angular dependence of the scattering amplitude. The initial state can be regarded as
an angular momentum eigenstate |J, Jz = i where = a b . The final
state can be regarded as an eigenstate |J, J = i where = c d . We
can make the final state by starting with a Jz eigenstate and applying a
spatial rotation through an angle about (say) the negative y axis.
|J, J = i = eiJy |J, Jz = i
Here Jy is the y component of the angular momentum operator. The dependence of the scattering amplitude is given by the inner product of the
initial and final states.
M hJ, J = |J, Jz = i
= hJ, Jz = |eiJy |J, Jz = i
Partial waves
201
dJ () .
The quantity dJ () is known as a Wigner function: see Sakurai, Modern
quantum mechanics, p. 192 195 and p. 221 223.
The angular dependence of a helicity amplitude is determined purely by
group theory. To determine the overall coefficient one has to keep careful
track of the normalization of the initial and final states. This was done
by Jacob and Wick, who showed that the center-of-mass differential cross
section is
d
= |f ()|2
(B.1)
d c.m.
where the scattering amplitude f () (normalized slightly differently from
the usual relativistic scattering amplitude M) can be expanded in a sum of
partial waves.
f () =
X
1
(2J + 1) hc d |SJ (E) 11|a b i dJ ()
2i|~
p|
J=Jmin
Here |~
p| is the magnitude of the spatial momentum of either incoming particle. The sum over partial waves runs in integer steps starting from the minimum value Jmin = max(||, ||). The helicity states are unit-normalized,
ha b |0a 0b i = a 0a b 0b
hc d |0c 0d i = c 0c d 0d .
SJ (E) is the S-matrix in the sector with total angular momentum J and
total energy E. You only need to worry about subtracting off the identity
operator if youre studying elastic scattering, a = c and b = d.
An important special case is when = = 0, either because the incoming
and outgoing particles are spinless, or because the initial and final states have
no net helicity. In this case J is an integer and
dJ00 () = PJ (cos )
is a Legendre polynomial (Sakurai, Modern quantum mechanics, p. 202
203). The partial wave decomposition reduces to the familiar form
f () =
1 X
(2J + 1) hc d |SJ (E) 11|a b i PJ (cos )
2i|~
p|
J=0
which is also valid in non-relativistic quantum mechanics. At high energies
this goes over to the result (8.5) given in the text.
202
Partial waves
In general the Wigner functions satisfy an orthogonality relation
Z
0
4
JJ 0 .
d dJ () dJ () =
2J + 1
One can prove this along the lines of Georgi, Lie algebras in particle physics,
section 1.12. Georgis proof applies to finite groups, but the generalization
to SU (2) is straightforward. (If you only want to check the coefficient, write
the left hand side as
Z
d hJ, |eiJy |J, ihJ 0 , |eiJy |J 0 , i .
P
Set J = J 0 , sum over , and use |J, ihJ, | = 11.) Using this in (B.1) we
can express the total cross section for scattering of distinguishable particles
as
2
X
(2J + 1) hc d |SJ (E) 11|a b i .
= 2
|~
p|
J=Jmin
As in chapter 8 we have a bound on the partial-wave cross sections for
inelastic scattering, namely
X
=
J with J 2 (2J + 1) .
|~
p|
J
References
The partial-wave expansion of a helicity amplitude was developed by M. Jacob and G. C. Wick, Ann. Phys. 7, 404 (1959).
Appendix C
Vacuum polarization
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
The purpose of this appendix is to study the one-loop QED vacuum polarization diagram
p
k
p+k
This diagram is discussed in every book on field theory. Well evaluate it
with a Euclidean momentum cutoff an unusual approach, but one that
provides an interesting contrast to the anomaly phenomenon discussed in
chapter 13.
The basic amplitude is easy to write down.
d4 p
Tr
(2)4
i(p/ + m)
/ + k/ + m)
i(p
iM = (1)
(ieQ ) 2
(ieQ )
p m2
(p + k)2 m2
(C.1)
(Recall that a closed fermion loop gives a factor of 1. Also note that we
trace over the spinor indices that run around the loop.) Evaluating the trace
Z
iM = 4e Q
d4 p p (p + k) + (p + k) p g (p2 + p k m2 )
.
(2)4
(p2 m2 )((p + k)2 m2 )
203
204
Vacuum polarization
Adopting a trick due to Feynman, we use the identity
Z 1
dx
1
=
2
AB
0 (B + (A B)x)
to rewrite the amplitude as
Z
Z 1
d4 p
p (p + k) + (p + k) p g (p2 + p k m2 )
2 2
.
iM = 4e Q
dx
(2)4 0
(p2 m2 + (k 2 + 2p k)x)2
Now we change variables of integration from p to q = p + k x.
Z
Z 1
d4 q 2q q g (q 2 m2 ) + (g k 2 2k k )x(1 x) + (odd in q)
2 2
dx
iM = 4e Q
.
(2)4
(q 2 + k 2 x(1 x) m2 )2
0
This might not seem like much of a simplification, but the beauty of Feynmans trick is that the denominator is Lorentz invariant (it only depends
on q 2 ). Provided we cut off the q integral in a way that preserves Lorentz
invariance we can drop terms in the numerator that are odd in q. We
can also replace q q 41 g q 2 . Shuffling terms a bit for reasons that will
become clear later, were left with an amplitude which we split up as
iM = iM(1) iM(2)
Z 1 Z
(1)
2 2
iM = 2e Q g
dx
q2
2k 2 x(1
x)
2m2
(C.3)
(q 2 + k 2 x(1 x) m2 )2
Z 1 Z
d4 q
2x(1 x)
= 4e2 Q2 (g k 2 k k )
dx
4
(2) (q 2 + k 2 x(1 x) m2 )2
0
(C.4)
0
iM(2)
(C.2)
d4 q
(2)4
First lets study M(1) . Defining m
2 = m2 k 2 x(1 x) we have the
momentum integral
Z
Z 4
2 + 2m
2
d4 q q 2 2m
2
d qE qE
=
i
2 +m
(2)4 (q 2 m
(2)4 (qE
2 )2
2 )2
Z
q 3 (q 2 + 2m
2)
i
= 2
dqE E E
2 +m
8 0
(qE
2 )2
i
4
16 2 2 + m
2
i
2 m
2 + O(1/2 )
=
2
16
=
Shifting variables of integration is legitimate for a convergent integral. For a divergent integral
you need to have a cut-off in mind, say |pE | < , and you need to remember that the shift of
integration variables changes the cutoff.
So really a better cutoff to have in mind would be |qE | < .
Vacuum polarization
205
where we Wick rotated and introduced a momentum cutoff . Thus
1 2
ie2 Q2
2
2
m
+
g
k
iM(1) =
8 2
6
where were neglecting terms that vanish as . In principle we can
write down a low-energy effective action for the photon [A] which incorporates the effects of the electron loop. Setting [A] = (1) + and matching
to the amplitude M(1) fixes
(1)
e2 Q2
d x
8 2
4
1
2
2
( m )A A A A
.
6
(C.5)
We have a photon mass term plus a correction to the photon kinetic term.
Whats disturbing is that none of the terms in (C.5) are gauge invariant.
This seems to contradict our claim in chapter 7 that a low energy effective
action should respect all symmetries of the underlying theory.
The symmetry violation we found is due to the fact that we regulated
the diagram with a momentum cutoff. This breaks gauge invariance and
generates non-invariant terms in the effective action. However the nonterms we generated are local, meaning they are of the form (1) =
Rinvariant
4
(1)
d x L (x). (This is in contrast to the anomaly phenomenon discussed
in chapter 13 where non-local terms arose.) With local violation a simple
way to restore the symmetry is to modify the action of the underlying theory by subtracting off the induced symmetry-violating terms: that is, by
changing the underlying QED Lagrangian LQED LQED L(1) . To O(e2 )
in perturbation theory this modification exactly compensates for the nongauge-invariance of the regulator and yields a gauge-invariant low-energy
effective action. The procedure amounts to just dropping M(1) from the
amplitude. (Another approach, developed in the homework, is to avoid generating the non-invariant terms in the first place by using a cutoff which
respects the symmetry.)
Having argued that we can discard M(1) , lets return to the amplitude
M(2) given in (C.4). Thanks to the prefactor g k 2 k k note that M(2)
vanishes when dotted into k . This means M(2) corresponds to gaugeinvariant terms in the effective action: terms which are invariant under
A A + , or equivalently under a shift of polarization + k .
You can think of a momentum cutoff as a cutoff on the eigenvalues of the ordinary derivative
. Gauge invariance would require a cutoff on the eigenvalues of the covariant derivative
D = + ieQA .
206
Vacuum polarization
So M(2) gives our final result for the vacuum polarization, namely
Z 1
Z
2x(1 x)
d4 q
2 2 2
iM = 4e Q (g k k k )
dx
4
(2) (q 2 + k 2 x(1 x) m2 )2
0
|qE |<
(C.6)
where is a momentum cutoff. The integrals can be evaluated but lead
to rather complicated expressions. For most purposes its best to leave the
result in the form (C.6).
References
Regulators and symmetries. For more discussion of the connection
between regulators and symmetries of the effective action see section 13.1.3.
Gauge invariant cutoffs. Many gauge-invariant regulators have been
developed. One such scheme, Pauli-Villars regularization, is described in
problem C.1. Its also discussed by A. Zee, Quantum field theory in a nutshell on p. 151 and applied to vacuum polarization in chapter III.7. Another
gauge-invariant scheme, dimensional regularization, is described in Peskin
& Schroeder section 7.5.
Decoupling. Decoupling of heavy particles at low energies is discussed in
Donoghue et. al. section VI-2.
Scheme dependence. The scheme dependence of running couplings, and
the fact that -functions are scheme independent to two loops, is discussed
in Weinberg vol. II p. 138.
Exercises
C.1
Pauli-Villars regularization
A gauge-invariant scheme for cutting off loop integrals is to subtract the contribution of heavy Pauli-Villars regulator fields. These
are fictitious particles whose masses are chosen to make loop integrals converge. Denoting the vacuum polarization amplitude (C.2)
by iM(m) we define the Pauli-Villars regulated amplitude by
iM =
3
X
i=0
iai M(mi ) .
Exercises
207
Here ai = (1, 1, 1, 1) and mi = (m, M, M, 2M 2 m2 ) have been
chosen so that
X
X
ai =
ai m2i = 0 .
i
One says weve introduced three Pauli-Villars regulator fields. The
idea is that for fixed we can send M and recover our original
amplitude. However for fixed M we can send ; in this limit
the regulator mass M serves to cut off the loop integral in a gaugeinvariant way.
(i) Consider the term M(1) in the amplitude. After summing over
regulators show that for fixed M you can send the momentum cutoff , and show that in this limit M(1) vanishes identically.
This reflects the fact that the effective action is gauge invariant
when you use a gauge-invariant cutoff.
(ii) The term M(2) in the amplitude is only logarithmically divergent
and can be made finite by subtracting the contribution of a single
regulator field. So in the Pauli-Villars scheme our final expression
for the vacuum polarization is
Z 1 Z
d4 q
2x(1 x)
2 2 2
2
2
(m M ) .
iM = 4e Q (g k k k )
dx
(2)4 (q 2 + k 2 x(1 x) m2 )2
0
Use this result to find the running coupling e2 (M ) in the PauliVillars scheme. You could do this, for example, by redoing problem 7.4 parts (ii) and (iii) with a Pauli-Villars cutoff.
C.2
Mass-dependent renormalization
In problem C.1 you made a mass-independent subtraction to regulate the loop integral, replacing (for k = 0)
1
(q 2
m2 )2
1
(q 2
m2 )2
1
(q 2
M 2 )2
Provided M m this serves to cut off the loop integral at q 2 M 2 .
However if one is interested in the behavior of the coupling at energies
which are small compared to the electron mass its more physical to
make a mass-dependent subtraction and replace
1
(q 2
m2 )2
1
(q 2
m2 )2
1
(q 2 m2 M 2 )2
This subtraction serves as a good cut-off even for small M (note that
it makes the loop integral vanish as M 0).
208
Vacuum polarization
(i) Find the running coupling e2 (M ) with this new cutoff. Its convenient to set the renormalization scale to zero, that is, to solve
for e2 (M ) in terms of e2 (0).
(ii) Expand your answer to find how e2 (M ) behaves for M m and
for M m. Make a qualitative sketch of e2 (M ).
Moral of the story: the running couplings of problems C.1 and C.2
are said to be evaluated in different renormalization schemes. Yet
another scheme is the momentum cutoff used in chapter 7. The
choice of scheme is up to you; physical quantities if calculated exactly are the same in every scheme. Mass-independent schemes are
often easier to work with. But mass-dependent schemes have certain advantages, in particular they incorporate decoupling (the
fact that heavy particles drop out of low-energy dynamics). Also
note that at high energies the running couplings are independent of
mass, and are the same whether computed with a momentum cutoff
or a Pauli-Villars cutoff. This reflects a general phenomenon, discussed in the references: at high energies the first two terms in the
perturbative expansion of a -function are independent of scheme.
Appendix D
Two-component spinors
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
For the most part weve described fermions in terms of four-component Dirac
spinors. This is very convenient for QED. However it becomes awkward
when discussing chiral theories, or theories that violate fermion number,
since one is forced to use lots of chiral projection and charge conjugation
operators. In this appendix we introduce a more general and flexible notation for fermions: two-component chiral spinors.
As discussed in section 4.1 a Dirac spinor D can be decomposed into
L
D =
R
where L and R are two-component chiral spinors, left- and right-handed
respectively. Under a Lorentz transformation
~
L ei(i)~/2 L
R ei(+i)~/2 R .
(D.1)
So left- and right-handed spinors dont mix under Lorentz transformations:
theyre irreducible representations of the Lorentz group.
The Dirac Lagrangian can be expressed in two-component notation as
L = D i D mD D
(D.2)
= iL
L + iR
R m L R + R
L .
Here weve defined the 2 2 analogs of the Dirac matrices
= (11; ~ )
= (11; ~ )
(the overbar on
is just part of the name it doesnt indicate complex
conjugation). As pointed out in section 4.1, in the massless limit the left209
210
Two-component spinors
and right-handed parts of a Dirac spinor are decoupled and behave as independent fields.
It turns out that complex conjugation interchanges left- and right-handed
spinors. More precisely, as youll show on the homework,
L
R
is a right-handed spinor
is a left-handed spinor
(D.3)
Here = i 2 = ( 10 10 ) is a 2 2 antisymmetric matrix. This sort of relation
means that any theory can be expressed purely in terms of left-handed (or
right-handed) spinors. That is, for a given physical theory, the choice of
spinor chirality is just a matter of convention.
The advantage of working with chiral spinors is that its easy to generalize
(D.2). For instance we can write down a theory of a single massive chiral
fermion.
1
(D.4)
L + m LT L L L
L = iL
2
Here were using the fact that LT L is Lorentz invariant, and weve added
the complex conjugate L L to keep the Lagrangian real. More generally,
with N chiral fermions Li we could have
1
1
Li + mij Li
Lj
L = iLi
Lj mij Li
2
2
(D.5)
Weve seen that mass term before: its the Majorana mass term for neutrinos
(14.6). By Fermi statistics the mass matrix mij can be taken to be symmetric. Note that the kinetic terms have a U (N ) symmetry Li Uij Lj
which in general is broken by the mass term.
Although chiral spinors make it easy to write the most general fermion
Lagrangian, one can always revert to Dirac notation. To pick out the leftand right-handed pieces of a Dirac spinor one uses projection operators.
1 5
1 + 5
L
0
=
D
=
D
0
R
2
2
And to capture complex conjugation for instance the L appearing in
(D.4) one uses charge conjugation. Recall that the charge conjugate of a
For instance you could rewrite the Dirac Lagrangian in terms of two left-handed spinors, namely
.
1 = L and 2 = R
Another matter of convention: chiral spinors can be re-expressed using the Majorana spinors
described in the homework.
Exercises
211
Dirac spinor is defined by
DC = i
=
R
L
.
The fact that DC really is a Dirac spinor is a restatement of (D.3).
References
Weve described two-component spinors using matrix notation. Its more
common to introduce a specialized index notation. See Wess & Bagger,
Supersymmetry and supergravity, appendix A.
Exercises
D.1
Chirality and complex conjugation
Show that complex conjugation changes the chirality of a spinor.
That is, show that the behavior under Lorentz transformations (D.3)
follows directly from (D.1). It helps to note that ~ = ~ .
D.2
Lorentz invariant bilinears
T are invariant
Show that the fermion bilinears LT L and R
R
under Lorentz transformations. It helps to note that ~ T = ~ .
D.3
Majorana spinors
(i) A Majorana spinor M is a Dirac spinor that satisfies M C =
M . Given a two-component left-handed spinor L , show that one
can build a Majorana spinor by setting
L
M =
.
L
(ii) The Lagrangian for a free Majorana spinor of mass m is
1
1
L = M i M m M M .
2
2
Rewrite this Lagrangian in terms of L . Do you reproduce (D.4)?
212
D.4
Two-component spinors
Dirac spinors
Consider two left-handed spinors L1 , L2 described by the Lagrangian (D.5).
(i) Impose a U (1) symmetry L1 ei L1 , L2 ei L2 on the
Lagrangian.
(ii) Show that the resulting theory is equivalent to the Dirac Lagrangian (D.2).
(iii) What is the interpretation of the U (1) symmetry in Dirac language?
Appendix E
Summary of the standard model
Physics 85200
January 8, 2015
For background see chapter 12. Here Ill just go through the main results.
Gauge structure:
The gauge group is SU (3)C SU (2)L U (1)Y with gauge fields G , W ,
B and gauge couplings gs , g, g 0 . The field strengths are denoted G , W ,
B . In place of g and g 0 well often work in terms of the electromagnetic
coupling e, the Z coupling gZ , and the weak mixing angle W , defined by
p
e = gg 0 / g 2 + g 02
p
gZ = g 2 + g 02
p
cos W = g/ g 2 + g 02
p
sin W = g 0 / g 2 + g 02
At the scale mZ the values are
s = gs2 /4 = 0.119
= e2 /4 = 1/128 (vs. 1/137 at low energies)
(gZ /2)2
Z =
= 1/91
4
sin2 W = 0.231
Another useful combination is the Fermi constant, related to the W mass
mW and the Higgs vev v by
g2
1
GF = 2 =
= 1.17 105 GeV2 .
4 2mW
2v 2
213
214
Summary of the standard model
Matter content:
field
left-handed leptons Li =
gauge quantum numbers
Li
eLi
right-handed leptons eRi
u
Li
left-handed quarks Qi =
dLi
right-handed up-type quarks uRi
right-handed down-type quarks dRi
Higgs doublet
conjugate Higgs doublet =
(1, 2, 1)
(1, 1, 2)
(3, 2, 1/3)
(3, 1, 4/3)
(3, 1, 2/3)
(1, 2, 1)
(1, 2, 1)
Here i is a three-valued generation index and = ( 10 10 ) is an SU (2)invariant tensor. The fermions are all chiral spinors, either left- or righthanded; Ill write them as 4-component Dirac fields although only two of
the components are non-zero.
Lagrangian:
The most general renormalizable gauge-invariant Lagrangian is
L = LDirac + LYangMills + LHiggs + LYukawa
i i D Li + eRi i D eRi + Q
i i D Qi + u
LDirac = L
Ri i D uRi + dRi i D dRi
1
1
1
LYangMills = Tr (G G ) Tr (W W ) B B
2
2
4
LHiggs = D D + 2 ( )2
u
i eRj d Q
LYukawa = eij L
ij i dRj ij Qi uRj + c.c.
0
The covariant derivative is D = + igs G + igW + ig2 B Y , where the
gauge fields are taken to act in the appropriate representation (for example
G Qi = 12 Ga a Qi where a are the Gell-Mann matrices, while G Li = 0
since Li is a color singlet. Likewise W Qi = 12 Wa a Qi but W eRi = 0.)
Summary of the standard model
215
Conventions:
We assume 2 > 0 so the gauge symmetry is spontaneously broken. The
standard gauge choice is to set
!
!
1 (v + H)
0
2
=
=
1 (v + H)
0
2
where v = / = 246 GeV is the electroweak vev and H is the physical (real scalar) Higgs field. One conventionally redefines the fermions to
diagonalize the Yukawa couplings at the price of getting a unitary CKM
mixing matrix Vij in the quark quark W couplings; see section 12.3
for details. At this point well switch notation and assemble the left- and
right-handed parts of the various fermions into 4-component mass eigenstate
Dirac spinors.
Mass spectrum:
1
m2W = g 2 v 2
4
1
m2Z = gZ2 v 2 = m2W / cos2 W
4
m2H = 22
f v
mf =
2
f = any fermion
Here f is the Yukawa coupling for f (after diagonalizing). The observed
masses are
mW = 80.4 GeV
me = 0.511 MeV
mZ = 91.2 GeV
m = 106 MeV
m = 1780 MeV
mu = 3 MeV
mc = 1.3 GeV
mt = 172 GeV
md = 5 MeV
ms = 100 MeV
mb = 4.2 GeV
216
Summary of the standard model
Vertex factors:
The vertices arising from LDirac are
f
A
ieQ
ig2Z cV cA 5
Q = electric charge
cV = TL3 2 sin2 W Q, cA = TL3
where
TL3
=
i
W
lj
1 5 ij
both 2ig
2
W+
1 5 Vij
2ig
2
i
_
1/2
for neutrinos and up-type quarks
1/2 for charged leptons and down-type quarks
dj
i
_
W
uj
1 5 (V )ij
2ig
2
where Vij is the CKM matrix
Summary of the standard model
217
q
g
ig2s a
q = any quark, a = gluon color label
The vertex arising from LYukawa is
f
if
f = any fermion
The vertices arising from LHiggs are
H
6iv
6i
H
+
W
igmW g
_
W
igZ mZ g
218
Summary of the standard model
W
i 2
2 g g
_
W
i 2
2 gZ g
The vertices arising from LYangMills are
W
p
r
_
W
h
i
ie g (p q) + g (q r) + g (r p)
h
i
ig cos W g (p q) + g (q r) + g (r p)
_
W
ie2 (2g g g g g g )
_
W
Summary of the standard model
+
W
219
ieg cos W (2g g g g g g )
_
W
ig 2 cos2 W (2g g g g g g )
_
W
+
W
ig 2 (2g g g g g g )
(note all particles directed inwards)
_
W
_
W
The additional vertices from LYangMills describing gluon 3 and 4point
couplings are given in chapter 10.
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