Historyoffilm

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Thehistoryoffilmbeganinthe1890s,whenmotionpicturecameras
wereinventedandfilmproductioncompaniesstartedtobeestablished.
Becauseofthelimitsoftechnology,filmsofthe1890swereundera
minutelonganduntil1927motionpictureswereproducedwithout
sound.Thefirstdecadeofmotionpicturesawfilmmovingfroma
noveltytoanestablishedlargescaleentertainmentindustry.Thefilms
becameseveralminuteslongconsistingofseveralshots.Thefirst
rotatingcamerafortakingpanningshotswasbuiltin1898.Thefirst
filmstudioswerebuiltin1897.Specialeffectswereintroducedandfilm
continuity,involvingactionmovingfromonesequenceintoanother,
begantobeused.Inthe1900s,continuityofactionacrosssuccessive
shotswasachievedandthefirstcloseupshotwasintroduced(thatsome
claimD.W.Griffithinvented).Mostfilmsofthisperiodwerewhat
cametobecalled"chasefilms".Thefirstuseofanimationinmovies
wasin1899.Thefirstfeaturelengthmultireelfilmwasa1906
Australianproduction.Thefirstsuccessfulpermanenttheatreshowing
onlyfilmswas"TheNickelodeon"inPittsburghin1905.By1910,
actorsbegantoreceivescreencreditfortheirroles,andthewaytothe
creationoffilmstarswasopened.Regularnewsreelswereexhibited
from1910andsoonbecameapopularwayforfindingoutthenews.
Overall,fromabout1910,Americanfilmshadthelargestshareofthe
marketinAustraliaandinallEuropeancountriesexceptFrance.

CinmatographeLumireatthe
InstitutLumireinLyon,France

Newfilmtechniqueswereintroducedinthisperiodincludingtheuseofartificiallighting,fireeffectsandlow
keylighting(i.e.lightinginwhichmostoftheframeisdark)forenhancedatmosphereduringsinisterscenes.
Asfilmsgrewlonger,specialistwriterswereemployedtosimplifymorecomplexstoriesderivedfromnovels
orplaysintoaformthatcouldbecontainedononereelandbeeasiertobeunderstoodbytheaudiencean
audiencethatwasnewtothisformofstorytelling.Genresbegantobeusedascategoriesthemaindivisionwas
intocomedyanddrama,butthesecategorieswerefurthersubdivided.DuringtheFirstWorldWartherewasa
complextransitionforthefilmindustry.Theexhibitionoffilmschangedfromshortonereelprogramsto
featurefilms.Exhibitionvenuesbecamelargerandbegancharginghigherprices.By1914,continuitycinema
wastheestablishedmodeofcommercialcinema.Oneoftheadvancedcontinuitytechniquesinvolvedan
accurateandsmoothtransitionfromoneshottoanother.
D.W.GriffithhadthehigheststandingamongAmericandirectorsintheindustry,becauseofthedramatic
excitementheconveyedtotheaudiencethroughhisfilms.TheAmericanindustry,or"Hollywood",asitwas
becomingknownafteritsnewgeographicalcenterinCalifornia,gainedthepositionithasheld,moreorless,
eversince:filmfactoryfortheworldandexportingitsproducttomostcountries.Bythe1920s,theUnited
Statesreachedwhatisstillitseraofgreatesteveroutput,producinganaverageof800featurefilmsannually,[1]
or82%oftheglobaltotal(Eyman,1997).Duringlate1927,WarnersreleasedTheJazzSinger,withthefirst
synchronizeddialogue(andsinging)inafeaturefilm.Bytheendof1929,Hollywoodwasalmostalltalkie,
withseveralcompetingsoundsystems(soontobestandardized).SoundsavedtheHollywoodstudiosystemin
thefaceoftheGreatDepression(Parkinson,1995).
ThedesireforwartimepropagandacreatedarenaissanceinthefilmindustryinBritain,withrealisticwar
dramas.TheonsetofAmericaninvolvementinWorldWarIIalsobroughtaproliferationoffilmsasboth
patriotismandpropaganda.TheHouseUnAmericanActivitiesCommitteeinvestigatedHollywoodintheearly
1950s.Duringtheimmediatepostwaryearsthecinematicindustrywasalsothreatenedbytelevision,andthe
increasingpopularityofthemediummeantthatsomefilmtheatreswouldbankruptandclose.Followingthe
endofWorldWarIIinthe1940s,thefollowingdecade,the1950s,markeda'GoldenAge'fornonEnglish
worldcinema.

RoundhayGardenSceneisan1888shortsilentfilmrecordedbyFrenchinventorLouisLePrince.Itisbelieved
tobetheoldestsurvivingfilminexistence,asnotedbytheGuinnessBookofRecords.[2]ThefilmSortiede
l'usineLumiredeLyon(1895)byFrenchLouisLumireisconsideredthe"firsttruemotionpicture"[3]

Contents
1 Earlyperiod
2 Birthofmovies
2.1 Inventionandadvancementofthecamera
2.2 Filmeditingandcontinuousnarrative
2.3 Animation
2.4 Featurefilm
3 Maturation
3.1 Filmbusiness
3.2 Newfilmproducingcountries
3.3 Filmtechnique
4 DuringWorldWarI
4.1 Industry
4.2 Newtechniques
4.3 Filmart
4.4 Hollywoodtriumphant
5 Soundera
5.1 Creativeimpactofsound
6 WorldWarIIanditsaftermath
7 1950s
7.1 GoldenAgeofAsiancinema
8 1960s
9 1970s
10 1980s
11 1990s
12 Recentyears
13 Seealso
14 References
15 Furtherreading
16 Externallinks

Earlyperiod
Inthe1890s,filmswereseenmostlyviatemporarystorefrontspacesandtravelingexhibitorsorasactsin
vaudevilleprograms.Afilmcouldbeunderaminutelongandwouldusuallypresentasinglescene,authentic
orstaged,ofeverydaylife,apublicevent,asportingeventorslapstick.Therewaslittletonocinematic
technique,thefilmwasusuallyblackandwhiteanditwaswithoutsound.
Thenoveltyofrealisticallymovingphotographswasenoughforamotionpictureindustrytoblossombefore
theendofthecentury,incountriesaroundtheworld."TheCinema"wastoofferacheaper,simplerwayof
providingentertainmenttothemasses.Filmmakerscouldrecordactors'performances,whichthencouldbe
showntoaudiencesaroundtheworld.Travelogueswouldbringthesightsoffarflungplaces,withmovement,
directlytospectators'hometowns.MovieswouldbecomethemostpopularvisualartformofthelateVictorian
age.[4]

TheBerlinWintergartentheaterhostedanearlymoviepresentationinfrontofanaudience,shownbythe
Skladanowskybrothersin1895.TheMelbourneAthenaeumstartedtoscreenmoviesin1896.Movietheaters
becamepopularentertainmentvenuesandsocialhubsintheearly20thcentury,muchlikecabaretsandother
theaters.
Until1927,motionpictureswereproducedwithoutsound.Thiserais
referredtoasthesilenteraoffilm.Toenhancetheviewers'experience,
silentfilmswerecommonlyaccompaniedbylivemusiciansinan
orchestra,atheatreorgan,andsometimessoundeffectsandeven
commentaryspokenbytheshowmanorprojectionist.Inmostcountries,
intertitlescametobeusedtoprovidedialogueandnarrationforthefilm,
thusdispensingwithnarrators,butinJapanesecinemahumannarration
remainedpopularthroughoutthesilentera.Thetechnicalproblemswere
resolvedby1923.
Illustratedsongswereanotableexceptiontothistrendthatbeganin
1894invaudevillehousesandpersistedaslateasthelate1930sinfilm
theaters.[5]Liveperformanceorsoundrecordingswerepairedwith
Ascenefrom"ATriptotheMoon"
handcoloredglassslidesprojectedthroughstereopticonsandsimilar
(1902)byGeorgesMlis.
devices.Inthisway,songnarrativewasillustratedthroughaseriesof
slideswhosechangesweresimultaneouswiththenarrative
development.Themainpurposeofillustratedsongswastoencouragesheetmusicsales,andtheywerehighly
successfulwithsalesreachingintothemillionsforasinglesong.Later,withthebirthoffilm,illustratedsongs
wereusedasfillermaterialprecedingfilmsandduringreelchanges.[6]
Therewasanoncommercialattempttocombinethemotionpicturewithacombinationofslidesand
synchronizetheresultingmovingpicturewithaudio.Thefilmincludedhandpaintedslidesaswellasother
previouslyusedtechniques.Simultaneouslyplayingtheaudiowhilethefilmwasbeingplayedwithaprojector
wasrequired.Thismonumentalproduction,releasedin1915,wasentitled"ThePhotoDramaofCreation"and
lastedeighthours.

Birthofmovies
Thefirstelevenyearsofmotionpicturesshowthecinemamovingfromanoveltytoanestablishedlargescale
entertainmentindustry.Thefilmsrepresentamovementfromfilmsconsistingofoneshot,completelymadeby
onepersonwithafewassistants,towardsfilmsseveralminuteslongconsistingofseveralshots,whichwere
madebylargecompaniesinsomethinglikeindustrialconditions.
Theyear1900convenientlymarkstheemergenceofthefirstmotionpicturesthatcanbeconsideredas'films'
atthispoint,filmmakersbegintointroducebasiceditingtechniquesandfilmnarrative.[7]

Inventionandadvancementofthecamera
Earlymoviecameraswerefastenedtotheheadoftheirtripodwithonly
simplelevellingdevicesprovided.Thesecameraswerethuseffectively
fixedduringthecourseoftheshot,andhencethefirstcameramovements
weretheresultofmountingacameraonamovingvehicle.TheLumire
brothersshotascenefromthebackofatrainin1896.
ThefirstrotatingcamerafortakingpanningshotswasbuiltbyRobertW.
Paulin1897,ontheoccasionofQueenVictoria'sDiamondJubilee.He
usedhiscameratoshoottheprocessioninoneshot.Hisdevicehadthe
cameramountedonaverticalaxisthatcouldberotatedbyawormgear

GeorgesMlis(left)paintinga
backdropinhisstudio.

drivenbyturningacrankhandle,andPaulputitongeneralsalethenextyear.Shotstakenusingsucha
"panning"headwerealsoreferredtoaspanoramasinthefilmcataloguesofthefirstdecadeofthecinema.[8]
GeorgesMlisbuiltoneofthefirstfilmstudiosinMay1897.Ithadaglassroofandthreeglasswalls
constructedafterthemodeloflargestudiosforstillphotography,anditwasfittedwiththincottonclothsthat
couldbestretchedbelowtherooftodiffusethedirectraysofthesunonsunnydays.[9]Beginningin1896,
Mliswouldgoontoproduce,direct,anddistributeover500shortfilms.Themajorityofthesefilmswere
short,oneshotfilmscompletedinonetake.Mlisdrewmanycomparisonsbetweenfilmandthestage,which
wasapparentinhiswork.Herealizedthatfilmaffordedhimtheability(viahisuseoftimelapsephotography)
to"producevisualspectaclesnotachievableinthetheater.[10]
TheExecutionofMaryStuart,producedbytheEdisonCompanyforviewingwiththeKinetoscope,showed
MaryQueenofScotsbeingexecutedinfullviewofthecamera.Theeffectwasachievedbyreplacingtheactor
withadummyforthefinalshot.[11]GeorgesMlisalsoutilizedthistechniqueinthemakingofEscamotage
dundamechezRobertHoudin(TheVanishingLady).Thewomanisseentovanishthroughtheuseofstop
motiontechniques.
Theotherbasictechniquefortrickcinematographywasthedouble
exposureofthefilminthecamera.ThiswaspioneeredbyGeorgeAlbert
SmithinJuly1898inEngland.Thesetwasdrapedinblack,andafterthe
mainshot,thenegativewasreexposedtotheoverlaidscene.HisThe
CorsicanBrotherswasdescribedinthecatalogueoftheWarwickTrading
Companyin1900:Byextremelycarefulphotographytheghostappears
*quitetransparent*.Afterindicatingthathehasbeenkilledbyasword
thrust,andappealingforvengeance,hedisappears.Avisionthenappears
showingthefatalduelinthesnow.
Asceneinsetinsideacircular
vignetteshowingadreamvision
inSantaClaus(1899).

G.A.Smithalsoinitiatedthespecialeffectstechniqueofreversemotion.
Hedidthisbyrepeatingtheactionasecondtime,whilefilmingitwithan
invertedcamera,andthenjoiningthetailofthesecondnegativetothatof
thefirst.[12]ThefirstfilmsmadeusingthisdevicewereTipsy,Topsy,Turvy
andTheAwkwardSignPainter.TheearliestsurvivingexampleofthistechniqueisSmith'sTheHouseThat
JackBuilt,madebeforeSeptember1900.
CecilHepworthtookthistechniquefurther,byprintingthenegativeoftheforwardsmotionbackwardsframe
byframe,soproducingaprintinwhichtheoriginalactionwasexactlyreversed.Todothishebuiltaspecial
printerinwhichthenegativerunningthroughaprojectorwasprojectedintothegateofacamerathrougha
speciallensgivingasamesizeimage.Thisarrangementcametobecalledaprojectionprinter,and
eventuallyanopticalprinter.
Theuseofdifferentcameraspeedsalsoappearedaround1900inthefilmsofRobertW.PaulandHepworth.
PaulshotscenesfromOnaRunawayMotorCarthroughPiccadillyCircus(1899)withthecameraturningvery
slowly.Whenthefilmwasprojectedattheusual16framespersecond,thesceneryappearedtobepassingat
greatspeed.HepworthusedtheoppositeeffectinTheIndianChiefandtheSeidlitzPowder(1901).TheChief's
movementsarespedupbycrankingthecameramuchfasterthan16framespersecond.Thisgiveswhatwe
wouldcallaslowmotioneffect.

Filmeditingandcontinuousnarrative
Thefirstfilmstoconsistofmorethanoneshotappearedtowardtheendofthe19thcentury,anotableexample
wastheFrenchfilmofthelifeofJesusChrist.Theseweren'trepresentedasacontinuousfilm,theseparate
sceneswereinterspersedwithlanternslides,alecture,andlivechoralnumbers,toincreasetherunningtimeof
thespectacletoabout90minutes.AnotherexampleofthisisthereproductionsofscenesfromtheGreco
Turkishwar,madebyGeorgesMlisin1897.Althougheachscenewassoldseparately,theywereshownone

aftertheotherbytheexhibitors.EvenMlis'Cendrillon(Cinderella)of1898containednoactionmoving
fromoneshottothenextone.Tounderstandwhatwasgoingoninthefilmtheaudiencehadtoknowtheir
storiesbeforehand,orbetoldthembyapresenter.

ThetwoscenesmakingupComeAlong,Do!

Realfilmcontinuity,involvingactionmovingfromonesequenceintoanother,isattributedtoBritishfilm
pioneerRobertW.Paul'sComeAlong,Do!,madein1898andoneofthefirstfilmstofeaturemorethanone
shot.[13]Inthefirstshot,anelderlycoupleisoutsideanartexhibitionhavinglunchandthenfollowother
peopleinsidethroughthedoor.Thesecondshotshowswhattheydoinside.Paul's'CinematographCameraNo.
1'of1895wasthefirstcameratofeaturereversecranking,whichallowedthesamefilmfootagetobeexposed
severaltimesandtherebytocreatesuperpositionsandmultipleexposures.Thistechniquewasfirstusedinhis
1901filmScrooge,or,Marley'sGhost.
Thefurtherdevelopmentofactioncontinuityinmultishotfilmscontinuedin1899attheBrightonSchoolin
England.Inthelatterpartofthatyear,GeorgeAlbertSmithmadeTheKissintheTunnel.Thisstartedwitha
shotfroma"phantomride"atthepointatwhichthetraingoesintoatunnel,andcontinuedwiththeactionona
setrepresentingtheinteriorofarailwaycarriage,whereamanstealsakissfromawoman,andthencutsback
tothephantomrideshotwhenthetraincomesoutofthetunnel.Amonthlater,theBamforthcompanyin
Yorkshiremadearestagedversionofthisfilmunderthesametitle,andinthiscasetheyfilmedshotsofatrain
enteringandleavingatunnelfrombesidethetracks,whichtheyjoinedbeforeandaftertheirversionofthekiss
insidethetraincompartment.

ThefirsttwoshotsofAsSeenThroughaTelescope(1900),withthetelescopePOVsimulatedbythe
circularmask.

In1900,continuityofactionacrosssuccessiveshotswasdefinitivelyestablishedbyGeorgeAlbertSmithand
JamesWilliamson,whoalsoworkedinBrighton.InthatyearSmithmadeAsSeenThroughaTelescope,in
whichthemainshotshowsstreetscenewithayoungmantyingtheshoelaceandthencaressingthefootofhis
girlfriend,whileanoldmanobservesthisthroughatelescope.Thereisthenacuttocloseshotofthehandson

thegirl'sfootshowninsideablackcircularmask,andthenacutbacktothecontinuationoftheoriginalscene.
EvenmoreremarkableisJamesWilliamson'sAttackonaChinaMissionStation(1900).Thefirstshotshows
ChineseBoxerrebelsatthegateitthencutstothemissionaryfamilyinthegarden,whereafightensues.The
wifesignalstoBritishsailorsfromthebalcony,whocomeandrescuethem.Thefilmalsousedthefirst
"reverseangle"cutinfilmhistory.
G.ASmithpioneeredtheuseofthecloseupshotinhis1900filmsAsSeenThroughaTelescopeand
Grandma'sReadingGlass.Hefurtherdevelopedtheideasofbreakingasceneshotinoneplaceintoaseriesof
shotstakenfromdifferentcamerapositionsoverthenextcoupleofyears,startingwithTheLittleDoctorsof
1901.Inaseriesoffilmsheproducedatthistime,healsointroducedtheuseofsubjectiveandobjectivepoint
ofviewshots,thecreationofdreamtimeandtheuseofreversing.HesummeduphisworkinMaryJane's
Mishapof1903,withrepeatedcutsintoacloseshotofahousemaidfoolingaround,alongwith
superimpositionsandotherdevices,beforeabandoningfilmmakingtoinventtheKinemacolorsystemof
colourcinematography.Hisfilmswerethefirsttoestablishthebasicsofcoherentnarrativeandwhatbecame
knownasfilmlanguage,or"filmgrammar".[14][15]
JamesWilliamsonconcentratedonmakingfilmstakingactionfromoneplaceshowninoneshottothenext
showninanothershotinfilmslikeStopThief!,madein1901,andmanyothers.Healsoexperimentedwiththe
closeup,andmadeperhapsthemostextremeoneofallinTheBigSwallow,whenhischaracterapproachesthe
cameraandappearstoswallowit.ThesetwofilmmakersoftheBrightonSchoolalsopioneeredtheeditingof
thefilmtheytintedtheirworkwithcolorandusedtrickphotographytoenhancethenarrative.By1900,their
filmswereextendedscenesofupto5minuteslong.[16]
Mostfilmsofthisperiodwerewhatcametobecalled"chasefilms".ThesewereinspiredbyJames
Williamson'sStopThief!of1901,whichshowedatrampstealingalegofmuttonfromabutcher'sboyinthe
firstshot,thenbeingchasedthroughthesecondshotbythebutcher'sboyandassorteddogs,andfinallybeing
caughtbythedogsinthethirdshot.SeveralBritishfilmsmadeinthefirsthalfof1903extendedthechase
methodoffilmconstruction.TheseincludedAnElopementlaModeandThePickpocket:AChaseThrough
London,madebyAlfCollinsfortheBritishbranchoftheFrenchGaumontcompany,DaringDaylight
Burglary,madebyFrankMottershawattheSheffieldPhotographicCompany,andDesperatePoachingAffray,
madebyWilliamHaggar.Haggarinparticularinnovatedthefirstextantpanningshotsthepoachersarechased
bygamekeepersandpoliceofficersandthecamerapansalong,creatingasenseofurgencyandspeed.[17]His
filmswerealsorecognisedfortheirintelligentuseofdepthofstagingandscreenedges,whilefilmacademic
NolBurchpraisedHaggar'seffectiveuseofoffscreenspace.[18]Hewasalsooneofthefirstfilmmakersto
purposefullyintroduceviolenceforentertainmentinDesperatePoachingAffraythevillainsareseenfiring
gunsattheirpursuers.
OtherfilmmakerstookupalltheseideasincludingtheAmericanEdwin
S.Porter,whostartedmakingfilmsfortheEdisonCompanyin1901.
Porter,aprojectionist,washiredbyThomasEdisontodevelophisnew
projectionmodelknownastheVitascope.Porterwantedtodevelopa
styleoffilmmakingthatwouldmoveawayfromtheoneshotshort
filmsintoa"storytelling[narrative]"style.[10]Whenhebeganmaking
longerfilmsin1902,heputadissolvebetweeneveryshot,justas
GeorgesMliswasalreadydoing,andhefrequentlyhadthesame
actionrepeatedacrossthedissolves.Hisfilm,TheGreatTrainRobbery
(1903),hadarunningtimeoftwelveminutes,withtwentyseparate
StillfromTheGreatTrainRobbery,
shotsandtendifferentindoorandoutdoorlocations.Heusedcross
producedbyEdwinS.Porter.
cuttingeditingmethodtoshowsimultaneousactionindifferentplaces.
ThetimecontinuityinTheGreatTrainRobberywasactuallymore
confusingthanthatinthefilmsitwasmodeledon,butneverthelessitwasagreatersuccessthanthemduetoits
WildWestviolence."TheGreatTrainRobbery"servedasoneofthevehiclesthatwouldlaunchthefilm
mediumintomasspopularity.[10]

ThePathcompanyinFrancealsomadeimitationsandvariationsofSmithandWilliamson'sfilmsfrom1902
onwardsusingcutsbetweentheshots,whichhelpedtostandardizethebasicsoffilmconstruction.An
influentialFrenchfilmoftheperiodwasMlis's14minutelongATriptotheMoon.[19]Itwasextremely
popularatthetimeofitsrelease,andisthebestknownofthehundredsoffilmsmadebyMlis.Itwasoneof
thefirstknownsciencefictionfilms,andusedinnovativeanimationandspecialeffects,includingthewell
knownimageofthespaceshiplandingintheMoon'seye.ThesheervolumeofPath'sproductionledtotheir
filmmakersgivingafurtherprecisionandpolishtothedetailsoffilmcontinuity.

Animation
Thefirstuseofanimationinmovieswasin1899,withtheproductionoftheshortfilmMatches:AnAppealby
BritishfilmpioneerArthurMelbourneCooperathirtysecondlongstopmotionanimatedpieceintendedto
encouragetheaudiencetosendmatchestoBritishtroopsfightingtheBoerWar.Thefilmcontainsanappealto
sendmoneytoBryantandMaywhowouldthensendmatchestotheBritishtroopswhichwerefightinginthe
BoerWarinSouthAfrica.ItwasshowninDecember1899atTheEmpireTheatreinLondon.Thisfilmisthe
earliestknownexampleofstopmotionanimation.Littlepuppets,constructedofmatchsticks,arewritingthe
appealonablackwall.Theirmovementsarefilmedframebyframe,movementbymovement.

AsingleframefromtheHumorous
PhasesofFunnyFacesanimation,
showingtheuseofcutouttechnique

Therelativesophisticationofthispiecewasnotfollowedupforsome
time,withsubsequentworksinanimationbeinglimitedtoshort,twoor
threeframeeffects,suchasappearedinEdwinStantonPorter's1902
short"FuninaBakeryShop",wherealumpofdoughwasmadeto
smileoverthecourseofathreeframesequence.Worksrivalingthe
Britishshortinlengthdidnotappearuntil1905,whenEdwinPorter
madeHowJonesLostHisRoll,andTheWholeDamFamilyandthe
DamDog.Bothofthesefilmshadintertitleswhichwereformedbythe
lettersmovingintoplacefromarandomscatteringtoformthewordsof
thetitles.Thiswasdonebyexposingthefilmoneframeatatime,and
movingthelettersalittlebittowardstheirfinalpositionbetweeneach
exposure.Thisiswhathascometobecalled"singleframeanimation"
or"objectanimation",anditneedsaslightlyadaptedcamerathat
exposesonlyoneframeforeachturnofthecrankhandle,ratherthanthe

usualeightframesperturn.
In1906,AlbertEdwardSmithandJamesStuartBlacktonatVitagraphtookthenextstep,andintheir
HumorousPhasesofFunnyFaces,[20]whatappeartobecartoondrawingsofpeoplemovefromoneposeto
another.Thisisdoneformostofthelengthofthisfilmbymovingjointedcutoutsofthefiguresframeby
framebetweentheexposures,justasPortermovedhisletters.However,thereisaveryshortsectionofthefilm
wherethingsaremadetoappeartomovebyalteringthedrawingsthemselvesfromframetoframe,whichis
howstandardanimatedcartoonshavesincebeenmadeuptotoday.
Thetechniqueofsingleframeanimationwasfurtherdevelopedin1907byEdwinS.PorterinTheTeddyBears
andbyJ.StuartBlacktonwithWorkMadeEasy.Inthefirstofthesethetoybearsweremadetomove,
apparentlyontheirown,andinthelatterfilmbuildingtoolsweremadetoperformconstructiontaskswithout
humanintervention,byusingframebyframeanimation.ThetechniquegottoEuropealmostimmediately,and
SegundodeChomonandothersatPathtookitfurther,addingclayanimation,inwhichsculptureswere
deformedfromonethingintoanotherthingframebyframeinSculpturemoderne(1908),andthenPathmade
thenextsteptotheanimationofsilhouetteshapes.AlsoinFrance,mileCohlfullydevelopeddrawn
animationinaseriesoffilmsstartingwithFantasmagorie(1908),inwhichhumansandobjectsdrawnas
outlinefigureswentthoughaseriesofremarkableinteractionsandtransformations.IntheUnitedStatesthe
responsewasfromthefamousstripcartoonartistWinsorMcCay,whodrewmuchmorerealisticanimated
figuresgoingthroughsmoother,morenaturalisticmotioninaseriesoffilmsstartingwiththefilmLittleNemo,
madeforVitagraphin1911.Inthenextfewyearsvariousotherstookpartinthisdevelopmentofanimated
cartoonsintheUnitedStatesandelsewhere.

Featurefilm
Filmsatthetimewerenolongerthanonereel,althoughsomemultireel
filmshadbeenmadeonthelifeofChristinthefirstfewyearsof
cinema.Thefirstfeaturelengthmultireelfilmintheworldwasthe
1906AustralianproductioncalledTheStoryoftheKellyGang.[21]
IttracedthelifeofthelegendaryinfamousoutlawandbushrangerNed
Kelly(18551880)andranformorethananhourwithareellengthof
approximately4,000feet(1,200m).[22]Itwasfirstshownatthe
AthenaeumHallinCollinsStreet,Melbourne,Australiaon26
December1906andintheUKinJanuary1908.[23][24]

Maturation
Filmbusiness
Thefirstsuccessfulpermanenttheatreshowingonlyfilmswas"The
Nickelodeon",whichwasopenedinPittsburghin1905.Bythenthere
PosterforaBiographStudiosrelease
wereenoughfilmsseveralminuteslongavailabletofillaprogramme
from1913.
runningforatleasthalfanhour,andwhichcouldbechangedweekly
whenthelocalaudiencebecameboredwithit.Otherexhibitorsinthe
UnitedStatesquicklyfollowedsuit,andwithinacoupleofyearstherewerethousandsofthesenickelodeonsin
operation.TheAmericanexperienceledtoaworldwideboomintheproductionandexhibitionoffilmsfrom
1906onwards.
By1907purposebuiltcinemasformotionpictureswerebeingopenedacrosstheUnitedStates,Britainand
France.Thefilmswereoftenshownwiththeaccompanimentofmusicprovidedbyapianist,thoughthere
couldbemoremusicians.Therewerealsoaveryfewlargercinemasinsomeofthebiggestcities.Initially,the
majorityoffilmsintheprogrammeswerePathfilms,butthischangedfairlyquicklyastheAmerican
companiescrankedupproduction.Theprogrammewasmadeupofjustafewfilms,andtheshowlastedaround
30minutes.Thereeloffilm,ofmaximumlength1,000feet(300m),whichusuallycontainedoneindividual
film,becamethestandardunitoffilmproductionandexhibitioninthisperiod.Theprogrammewaschanged
twiceormoreaweek,butwentuptofivechangesofprogrammeaweekafteracoupleofyears.Ingeneral,
cinemasweresetupintheestablishedentertainmentdistrictsofthecities.In1907,Pathbeganrentingtheir
filmstocinemasthroughfilmexchangesratherthansellingthefilmsoutright.
Byabout1910,actorsbegantoreceivescreencreditfortheirroles,and
thewaytothecreationoffilmstarswasopened.Filmswere
increasinglylonger,andbegantofeatureproperplotsanddevelopment.

Anearlyfilm,depictingare
enactmentoftheBattleofChemulpo
Bay(Filmproducedin1904by
EdisonStudios)

ThelitigationoverpatentsbetweenallthemajorAmericanfilmmaking
companiesledtotheformationofatrusttocontroltheAmericanfilm
business,witheachcompanyinthetrustbeingallocatedproduction
quotas(tworeelsaweekforthebiggestones,onereelaweekforthe
smaller).However,although6,000exhibitorssigneduptothetrust,
about2,000othersdidnotandbegantofundnewfilmproducing
companies.By1912theindependentshadnearlyhalfofthemarketand
thegovernmentdefeatedthetrustbyinitiatingantitrustactionatthe
sametime.

Intheearly20thcentury,beforeHollywood,themotionpictureindustry
wasbasedinFortLee,NewJerseyacrosstheHudsonRiverfromNewYorkCity.[25][26][27]Inneedofawinter
headquarters,moviemakerswereattractedtoJacksonville,Floridaduetoitswarmclimate,exoticlocations,

excellentrailaccess,andcheaperlabor,earningthecitythetitleof"TheWinterFilmCapitaloftheWorld."
NewYorkbasedKalemStudioswasthefirsttoopenapermanentstudioinJacksonvillein1908.Overthe
courseofthenextdecade,morethan30silentfilmcompaniesestablishedstudiosintown,includingMetro
Pictures(laterMGM),EdisonStudios,MajesticFilms,KingBeeFilmCompany,VimComedyCompany,
NormanStudios,GaumontStudiosandtheLubinManufacturingCompany.ComedicactorandGeorgianative
Oliver"Babe"Hardybeganhismotionpicturecareerherein1914.Hestarredinover36shortsilentfilmshis
firstyearacting.WiththeclosingofLubininearly1915,OlivermovedtoNewYorkthenNewJerseytofind
filmjobs.AcquiringajobwiththeVimCompanyinearly1915,hereturnedtoJacksonvilleinthespringof
1917beforerelocatingtoLosAngelesinOctober1917.ThefirstmotionpicturemadeinTechnicolorandthe
firstfeaturelengthcolormovieproducedintheUnitedStates,TheGulfBetween,wasalsofilmedonlocation
inJacksonvillein1917.
JacksonvillewasespeciallyimportanttotheAfricanAmericanfilmindustry.Onenotableindividualinthis
regardistheEuropeanAmericanproducerRichardNorman,whocreatedastringoffilmsstarringblackactors
intheveinofOscarMicheauxandtheLincolnMotionPictureCompany.Incontrasttothedegradingparts
offeredincertainwhitefilmssuchasTheBirthofaNation,Normanandhiscontemporariessoughttocreate
positivestoriesfeaturingAfricanAmericansinwhathetermed"splendidlyassumingdifferentroles."
Jacksonville'smostlyconservativeresidents,however,objectedtothehallmarksoftheearlymovieindustry,
suchascarchasesinthestreets,simulatedbankrobberiesandfirealarmsinpublicplaces,andeventhe
occasionalriot.In1917,conservativeDemocratJohnW.Martinwaselectedmayorontheplatformoftaming
thecity'smovieindustry.Bythattime,southernCaliforniawasemergingasthemajormovieproductioncenter,
thanksinlargeparttothemoveoffilmpioneerslikeWilliamSeligandD.W.Griffithtothearea.Thesefactors
quicklysealedthedemiseofJacksonvilleasamajorfilmdestination.
Anotherfactorfortheindustry'smovewestwasthatupuntil1913,mostAmericanfilmproductionwasstill
carriedoutaroundNewYork,butduetothemonopolyofThomasA.Edison,Inc.'sfilmpatentsanditslitigious
attemptstopreserveit,manyfilmmakersmovedtoSouthernCalifornia,startingwithSeligin1909.The
sunshineandscenerywasimportantfortheproductionofWesterns,whichcametoformamajorAmericanfilm
genrewiththefirstcowboystars,G.M.Anderson("BronchoBilly")andTomMix.Seligpioneeredtheuseof
(fairly)wildanimalsfromazooforaseriesofexoticadventures,withtheactorsbeingmenacedorsavedbythe
animals.KalemCompanysentfilmcrewstoplacesinAmericaandabroadtofilmstoriesintheactualplaces
theyweresupposedtohavehappened.Kalemalsopioneeredthefemaleactionheroinefrom1912,withRuth
RolandplayingstarringrolesintheirWesterns.
InFrance,Pathretaineditsdominantposition,followedstillbyGaumont,andthenothernewcompaniesthat
appearedtocatertothefilmboom.AfilmcompanywithadifferentapproachwasFilmd'Art.Thiswassetup
atthebeginningof1908tomakefilmsofaseriousartisticnature.Theirdeclaredprogrammewastomakefilms
usingonlythebestdramatists,artistsandactors.ThefirstofthesewasLAssassinatduDucdeGuise(The
AssassinationoftheDucdeGuise),ahistoricalsubjectsetinthecourtofHenriIII.Thisfilmusedleading
actorsfromtheComdieFranaise,andhadaspecialaccompanyingscorewrittenbyCamilleSaintSans.The
otherFrenchmajorsfollowedsuit,andthiswavegaverisetotheEnglishlanguagedescriptionoffilmswith
artisticpretensionsaimedatasophisticatedaudienceas"artfilms".By1910,theFrenchfilmcompanieswere
startingtomakefilmsaslongastwo,oreventhreereels,thoughmostwerestillonereellong.Thistrendwas
followedinItaly,Denmark,andSweden.
InBritain,theCinematographAct1909wasthefirstprimarylegislationtospecificallyregulatethefilm
industry.Filmexhibitionsoftentookplaceintemporaryvenuesandtheuseofhighlyflammablecellulose
nitrateforfilm,combinedwithlimelightillumination,createdasignificantfirehazard.TheActspecifieda
strictbuildingcodewhichrequired,amongstotherthings,thattheprojectorbeenclosedwithinafireresisting
enclosure.[28]
Regularnewsreelswereexhibitedfrom1910andsoonbecameapopularwayforfindingoutthenewsthe
BritishAntarcticExpeditiontotheSouthPolewasfilmedforthenewsreelsaswerethesuffragette
demonstrationsthatwerehappeningatthesametime.F.PercySmithwasanearlynaturedocumentarypioneer

workingforCharlesUrbanandhepioneeredtheuseoftimelapseandmicrocinematographyinhis1910
documentaryonthegrowthofflowers.[29][30]

Newfilmproducingcountries
Withtheworldwidefilmboom,yetmorecountriesnowjoinedBritain,France,GermanyandtheUnitedStates
inseriousfilmproduction.InItaly,productionwasspreadoverseveralcentres,withTurinbeingthefirstand
biggest.There,Ambrosiowasthefirstcompanyinthefieldin1905,andremainedthelargestinthecountry
throughthisperiod.ItsmostsubstantialrivalwasCinesinRome,whichstartedproducingin1906.Thegreat
strengthoftheItalianindustrywashistoricalepics,withlargecastsandmassivescenery.Asearlyas1911,
GiovanniPastrone'stworeelLaCadutadiTroia(TheFallofTroy)madeabigimpressionworldwide,andit
wasfollowedbyevenbiggerspectacleslikeQuoVadis?(1912),whichranfor90minutes,andPastrone's
Cabiriaof1914,whichranfortwoandahalfhours.
Italiancompaniesalsohadastronglineinslapstick
comedy,withactorslikeAndrDeed,knownlocallyas
"Cretinetti",andelsewhereas"Foolshead"and
"Gribouille",achievingworldwidefamewithhisalmost
surrealisticgags.
ThemostimportantfilmproducingcountryinNorthern
EuropeupuntiltheFirstWorldWarwasDenmark.The
Nordiskcompanywassetuptherein1906byOleOlsen,a
fairgroundshowman,andafterabriefperiodimitatingthe
successesofFrenchandBritishfilmmakers,in1907he
produced67films,mostdirectedbyViggoLarsen,with
sensationalsubjectslikeDenhvideSlavinde(TheWhite
LaCadutadiTroia(TheSiegeofTroy)(1911).
Slave),Isbjrnenjagt(PolarBearHunt)andLvejagten
(TheLionHunt).By1910,newsmallerDanishcompanies
beganjoiningthebusiness,andbesidesmakingmorefilmsaboutthewhiteslavetrade,theycontributedother
newsubjects.ThemostimportantofthesefindswasAstaNielseninAfgrunden(TheAbyss),directedbyUrban
GadforKosmorama,Thiscombinedthecircus,sex,jealousyandmurder,allputoverwithgreatconviction,
andpushedtheotherDanishfilmmakersfurtherinthisdirection.By1912,theDanishfilmcompanieswere
multiplyingrapidly.
TheSwedishfilmindustrywassmallerandslowertogetstartedthantheDanishindustry.Here,theimportant
manwasCharlesMagnusson,anewsreelcameramanfortheSvenskabiografteaterncinemachain.Hestarted
fictionfilmproductionforthemin1909,directinganumberofthefilmshimself.Productionincreasedin1912,
whenthecompanyengagedVictorSjstrmandMauritzStillerasdirectors.Theystartedoutbyimitatingthe
subjectsfavouredbytheDanishfilmindustry,butby1913theywereproducingtheirownstrikinglyoriginal
work,whichsoldverywell.
Russiabeganitsfilmindustryin1908withPathshootingsomefictionsubjectsthere,andthenthecreationof
realRussianfilmcompaniesbyAleksandrDrankovandAleksandrKhanzhonkov.TheKhanzhonkovcompany
quicklybecamemuchthelargestRussianfilmcompany,andremainedsountil1918.
InGermany,OskarMessterhadbeeninvolvedinfilmmakingfrom1896,butdidnotmakeasignificant
numberoffilmsperyeartill1910.Whentheworldwidefilmboomstarted,he,andthefewotherpeopleinthe
Germanfilmbusiness,continuedtosellprintsoftheirownfilmsoutright,whichputthematadisadvantage.It
wasonlywhenPaulDavidson,theownerofachainofcinemas,broughtAstaNielsenandUrbanGadto
GermanyfromDenmarkin1911,andsetupaproductioncompany,ProjektionsAG"Union"(PAGU),for
them,thatachangeovertorentingprintsbegan.MessterrepliedwithaseriesoflongerfilmsstarringHenny
Porten,butalthoughthesedidwellintheGermanspeakingworld,theywerenotparticularlysuccessful
internationally,unliketheAstaNielsenfilms.AnotherofthegrowingGermanfilmproducersjustbeforeWorld

WarIwastheGermanbranchoftheFrenchclaircompany,Deutscheclair.Thiswasexpropriatedbythe
Germangovernment,andturnedintoDECLAwhenthewarstarted.Butaltogether,Germanproducersonlyhad
aminorpartoftheGermanmarketin1914.
Overall,fromabout1910,AmericanfilmshadthelargestshareofthemarketinallEuropeancountriesexcept
France,andeveninFrance,theAmericanfilmshadjustpushedthelocalproductionoutoffirstplaceonthe
eveofWorldWarI.Soevenifthewarhadnothappened,Americanfilmsmayhavebecomedominant
worldwide.AlthoughthewarmadethingsmuchworseforEuropeanproducers,thetechnicalqualitiesof
Americanfilmsmadethemincreasinglyattractivetoaudienceseverywhere.

Filmtechnique
Newfilmtechniquesthatwereintroducedinthisperiodincludetheuse
ofartificiallighting,fireeffectsandLowkeylighting(i.e.lightingin
whichmostoftheframeisdark)forenhancedatmosphereduring
sinisterscenes.

A.E.SmithfilmingTheBargain
FiendintheVitagraphStudiosin
1907.Arcfloodlightshangoverhead.

Continuityofactionfromshottoshotwasalsorefined,suchasin
Path'sleChevalemball(TheRunawayHorse)(1907)wherecross
cuttingbetweenparallelactionsisused.D.W.Griffithalsobeganusing
crosscuttinginthefilmTheFatalHour,madeinJuly1908.Another
developmentwastheuseofthePointofViewshot,firstusedin1910in
Vitagraph'sBacktoNature.Insertshotswerealsousedforartistic
purposestheItalianfilmLamalaplanta(TheEvilPlant),directedby
MarioCaserinihadaninsertshotofasnakeslitheringovertheEvil
Plant.

Asfilmsgrewlonger,specialistwriterswereemployedtosimplifymorecomplexstoriesderivedfromnovels
orplaysintoaformthatcouldbecontainedononereel.Genresbegantobeusedascategoriesthemain
divisionwasintocomedyanddrama,butthesecategorieswerefurthersubdivided.
Intertitlescontaininglinesofdialoguebegantobeusedconsistentlyfrom1908onwards,suchasinVitagraph's
AnAutoHeroineor,TheRacefortheVitagraphCupandHowItWasWon.Thedialoguewaseventually
insertedintothemiddleofthesceneandbecamecommonplaceby1912.Theintroductionofdialoguetitles
transformedthenatureoffilmnarrative.Whendialoguetitlescametobealwayscutintoascenejustaftera
characterstartsspeaking,andthenleftwithacuttothecharacterjustbeforetheyfinishspeaking,thenonehad
somethingthatwaseffectivelytheequivalentofapresentdaysoundfilm.

DuringWorldWarI
Industry
TheyearsoftheFirstWorldWarwereacomplextransitionalperiodforthefilmindustry.Theexhibitionof
filmschangedfromshortonereelprogrammestofeaturefilms.Exhibitionvenuesbecamelargerandbegan
charginghigherprices.
IntheUnitedStates,thesechangesbroughtdestructiontomanyfilmcompanies,theVitagraphcompanybeing
anexception.FilmproductionbegantoshifttoLosAngelesduringWorldWarI.TheUniversalFilm
ManufacturingCompanywasformedin1912asanumbrellacompany.NewentrantsincludedtheJesseLasky
FeaturePlayCompany,andFamousPlayers,bothformedin1913,andlateramalgamatedintoFamousPlayers
Lasky.ThebiggestsuccessoftheseyearswasDavidWarkGriffith'sTheBirthofaNation(1915).Griffith
followedthisupwiththeevenbiggerIntolerance(1916),but,duetothehighqualityoffilmproducedinthe
US,themarketfortheirfilmswashigh.

InFrance,filmproductionshutdownduetothegeneralmilitarymobilizationofthecountryatthestartofthe
war.Althoughfilmproductionbeganagainin1915,itwasonareducedscale,andthebiggestcompanies
graduallyretiredfromproduction.Italianfilmproductionheldupbetter,althoughsocalled"divafilms",
starringanguishedfemaleleadswereacommercialfailure.InDenmark,theNordiskcompanyincreasedits
productionsomuchin1915and1916thatitcouldnotsellallitsfilms,whichledtoaverysharpdeclinein
Danishproduction,andtheendofDenmark'simportanceontheworldfilmscene.
TheGermanfilmindustrywasseriouslyweakenedbythewar.Themostimportantofthenewfilmproducersat
thetimewasJoeMay,whomadeaseriesofthrillersandadventurefilmsthroughthewaryears,butErnst
Lubitschalsocameintoprominencewithaseriesofverysuccessfulcomediesanddramas.
BecauseofthelargelocalmarketforfilmsinRussia,theindustrytherewasnotharmedbythewaratfirst,
althoughtheisolationofthecountryledmanyRussianfilmstodeveloppeculiarlydistinctivefeatures.In1919,
aftertheBolshevikRevolution,anexodusoftalentfromthecountrytookplaceandfilmproductionwas
drasticallycurtailed.

Newtechniques
Atthistime,studioswereblackedouttoallowshootingto
beunaffectedbychangingsunlight.Thiswasreplacedwith
floodlightsandspotlights.Thewidespreadadoptionof
irisinginandouttobeginandendscenescaughtoninthis
period.Thisistherevelationofafilmshotinacircular
mask,whichgraduallygetslargertillitexpandsbeyondthe
frame.Othershapedslitswereused,includingverticaland
diagonalapertures.
Anewideatakenoverfromstillphotographywas"soft
focus".Thisbeganin1915,withsomeshotsbeing
intentionallythrownoutoffocusforexpressiveeffect,asin
MaryPickford'sFanchontheCricket.

ComplexvignetteshotindieAusternprinzessin(The
OysterPrincess).

Itwasduringthisperiodthatcameraeffectsintendedto
conveythesubjectivefeelingsofcharactersinafilmreally
begantobeestablished.ThesecouldnowbedoneasPointofView(POV)shots,asinSidneyDrew'sTheStory
oftheGlove(1915),whereawobblyhandheldshotofadooranditskeyholerepresentsthePOVofadrunken
man.Theuseofanamorphic(inthegeneralsenseofdistortedshape)imagesfirstappearsintheseyearswith
AbelGance'slaFolieduDocteurTube(TheMadnessofDr.Tube).Inthisfilmtheeffectofadrugadministered
toagroupofpeoplewassuggestedbyshootingthescenesreflectedinadistortingmirrorofthefairground
type.
Symboliceffectstakenoverfromconventionalliteraryandartistictraditioncontinuedtomakesome
appearancesinfilmsduringtheseyears.InD.W.Griffith'sTheAvengingConscience(1914),thetitle"The
birthoftheevilthought"precedesaseriesofthreeshotsoftheprotagonistlookingataspider,andantseating
aninsect.Symbolistartandliteraturefromtheturnofthecenturyalsohadamoregeneraleffectonasmall
numberoffilmsmadeinItalyandRussia.Thesupineacceptanceofdeathresultingfrompassionandforbidden
longingswasamajorfeatureofthisart,andstatesofdeliriumdweltonatlengthwereimportantaswell.
Theuseofinsertshots,i.e.closeupsofobjectsotherthanfaces,hadalreadybeenestablishedbytheBrighton
school,butwereinfrequentlyusedbefore1914.ItisreallyonlywithGriffith'sTheAvengingConsciencethata
newphaseintheuseoftheInsertShotstarts.Aswellasthesymbolicinsertsalreadymentioned,TheAvenging
ConsciencealsomadeextensiveuseoflargenumbersofBigCloseUpshotsofclutchinghandsandtapping
feetasameansofemphasizingthosepartsofthebodyasindicatorsofpsychologicaltension.

AtmosphericinsertsweredevelopedinEuropeinthelate
1910s.Thiskindofshotisoneinascenewhichneither
containsanyofthecharactersinthestory,norisaPointof
Viewshotseenbyoneofthem.Anearlyexampleisin
MauriceTourneur'sThePrideoftheClan(1917),inwhich
thereisaseriesofshotsofwavesbeatingonarockyshore
todemonstratetheharshlivesofthefishingfolk.Maurice
Elvey'sNelsonEngland'sImmortalNavalHero(1919)
hasasymbolicsequencedissolvingfromapictureofKaiser
WilhelmIItoapeacock,andthentoabattleship.
By1914,continuitycinemawastheestablishedmodeof
commercialcinema.Oneoftheadvancedcontinuity
techniquesinvolvedanaccurateandsmoothtransitionfrom
InsertshotinOldWivesforNew(CecilB.DeMille,
oneshottoanother.Cuttingtodifferentangleswithina
1918)
scenealsobecamewellestablishedasatechniquefor
dissectingasceneintoshotsinAmericanfilms.Ifthe
directionoftheshotchangesbymorethanninetydegrees,itiscalledareverseanglecutting.Theleading
figureinthefulldevelopmentofreverseanglecuttingwasRalphInceinhisfilms,suchasTheRightGirland
HisPhantomSweetheart
Theuseofflashbackstructurescontinuedtodevelopinthisperiod,withtheusualwayofenteringandleaving
aflashbackbeingthroughadissolve.TheVitagraphcompany'sTheManThatMightHaveBeen(William
Humphrey,1914),isevenmorecomplex,withaseriesofreveriesandflashbacksthatcontrasttheprotagonist's
realpassagethroughlifewithwhatmighthavebeen,ifhissonhadnotdied.
After1914,crosscuttingbetweenparallelactionscametobeusedmoresoinAmericanfilmsthanin
Europeanones.Crosscuttingwasoftenusedtogetneweffectsofcontrast,suchasthecrosscutsequencein
CecilB.DeMille'sTheWhisperingChorus,inwhichasupposedlydeadhusbandishavingaliaisonwitha
Chineseprostituteinanopiumden,whilesimultaneouslyhisunknowingwifeisbeingremarriedinchurch.

Filmart
Thegeneraltrendinthedevelopmentofcinema,ledfromtheUnitedStates,wastowardsusingthenewly
developedspecificallyfilmicdevicesforexpressionofthenarrativecontentoffilmstories,andcombiningthis
withthestandarddramaticstructuresalreadyinuseincommercialtheatre.D.W.Griffithhadthehighest
standingamongstAmericandirectorsintheindustry,becauseofthedramaticexcitementheconveyedtothe
audiencethroughhisfilms.CecilB.DeMille'sTheCheat(1915),broughtoutthemoraldilemmasfacingtheir
charactersinamoresubtlewaythanGriffith.DeMillewasalsoinclosertouchwiththerealityofcontemporary
Americanlife.MauriceTourneurwasalsohighlyrankedforthepictorialbeautiesofhisfilms,togetherwiththe
subtletyofhishandlingoffantasy,whileatthesametimehewascapableofgettinggreaternaturalismfromhis
actorsatappropriatemoments,asinAGirl'sFolly(1917).
SidneyDrewwastheleaderindeveloping"politecomedy",whileslapstickwasrefinedbyFattyArbuckleand
CharlesChaplin,whobothstartedwithMackSennett'sKeystonecompany.Theyreducedtheusualfrenetic
paceofSennett'sfilmstogivetheaudienceachancetoappreciatethesubtletyandfinesseoftheirmovement,
andtheclevernessoftheirgags.By1917Chaplinwasalsointroducingmoredramaticplotintohisfilms,and
mixingthecomedywithsentiment.
InRussia,YevgeniBauerputaslowintensityofactingcombinedwithSymbolistovertonesontofilmina
uniqueway.
InSweden,VictorSjstrmmadeaseriesoffilmsthatcombinedtherealitiesofpeople'sliveswiththeir
surroundingsinastrikingmanner,whileMauritzStillerdevelopedsophisticatedcomedytoanewlevel.

InGermany,ErnstLubitschgothisinspirationfromthestageworkofMaxReinhardt,bothinbourgeois
comedyandinspectacle,andappliedthistohisfilms,culminatinginhisdiePuppe(TheDoll),die
Austernprinzessin(TheOysterPrincess)andMadameDubarry.

Hollywoodtriumphant
AtthestartoftheFirstWorldWar,FrenchandItaliancinemahadbeenthemostgloballypopular.Thewar
cameasadevastatinginterruptiontoEuropeanfilmindustries.TheAmericanindustry,or"Hollywood",asit
wasbecomingknownafteritsnewgeographicalcenterinCalifornia,gainedthepositionithasheld,moreor
less,eversince:filmfactoryfortheworldandexportingitsproducttomostcountriesonearth.
Bythe1920s,theUnitedStatesreachedwhatisstillitseraofgreatesteveroutput,producinganaverageof800
featurefilmsannually,[31]or82%oftheglobaltotal(Eyman,1997).ThecomediesofCharlieChaplinand
BusterKeaton,theswashbucklingadventuresofDouglasFairbanksandtheromancesofClaraBow,tocitejust
afewexamples,madetheseperformersfaceswellknownoneverycontinent.TheWesternvisualnormthat
wouldbecomeclassicalcontinuityeditingwasdevelopedandexportedalthoughitsadoptionwasslowerin
somenonWesterncountrieswithoutstrongrealisttraditionsinartanddrama,suchasJapan.
Thisdevelopmentwascontemporarywiththegrowthofthestudiosystemanditsgreatestpublicitymethod,the
starsystem,whichcharacterizedAmericanfilmfordecadestocomeandprovidedmodelsforotherfilm
industries.Thestudiosefficient,topdowncontroloverallstagesoftheirproductenabledanewandever
growingleveloflavishproductionandtechnicalsophistication.Atthesametime,thesystem'scommercial
regimentationandfocusonglamorousescapismdiscourageddaringandambitionbeyondacertaindegree,a
primeexamplebeingthebriefbutstilllegendarydirectingcareeroftheiconoclasticErichvonStroheiminthe
lateteensandthe20s.

Soundera
Duringlate1927,WarnersreleasedTheJazzSinger,whichwasmostlysilentbutcontainedwhatisgenerally
regardedasthefirstsynchronizeddialogue(andsinging)inafeaturefilmbutthisprocesswasactually
accomplishedfirstbyCharlesTazeRussellin1914withthelengthyfilmThePhotoDramaofCreation.This
dramaconsistedofpictureslidesandmovingpicturessynchronizedwithphonographrecordsoftalksand
music.TheearlysoundondiscprocessessuchasVitaphoneweresoonsupersededbysoundonfilmmethods
likeFoxMovietone,DeForestPhonofilm,andRCAPhotophone.Thetrendconvincedthelargelyreluctant
industrialiststhat"talkingpictures",or"talkies",werethefuture.Alotofattemptsweremadebeforethe
successofTheJazzSinger,thatcanbeseenintheListoffilmsoundsystems.
Thechangewasremarkablyswift.Bytheendof1929,Hollywoodwasalmostalltalkie,withseveral
competingsoundsystems(soontobestandardized).Totalchangeoverwasslightlyslowerintherestofthe
world,principallyforeconomicreasons.CulturalreasonswerealsoafactorincountrieslikeChinaandJapan,
wheresilentscoexistedsuccessfullywithsoundwellintothe1930s,indeedproducingwhatwouldbesomeof
themostreveredclassicsinthosecountries,likeWuYonggang'sTheGoddess(China,1934)andYasujirOzu's
IWasBorn,But...(Japan,1932).ButeveninJapan,afiguresuchasthebenshi,thelivenarratorwhowasa
majorpartofJapanesesilentcinema,foundhisactingcareerwasending.
Soundfurthertightenedthegripofmajorstudiosinnumerouscountries:thevastexpenseofthetransition
overwhelmedsmallercompetitors,whilethenoveltyofsoundluredvastlylargeraudiencesforthoseproducers
thatremained.InthecaseoftheU.S.,somehistorianscreditsoundwithsavingtheHollywoodstudiosystemin
thefaceoftheGreatDepression(Parkinson,1995).Thusbeganwhatisnowoftencalled"TheGoldenAgeof
Hollywood",whichrefersroughlytotheperiodbeginningwiththeintroductionofsounduntilthelate1940s.
TheAmericancinemareacheditspeakofefficientlymanufacturedglamourandglobalappealduringthis
period.Thetopactorsoftheeraarenowthoughtofastheclassicfilmstars,suchasClarkGable,Katharine
Hepburn,HumphreyBogart,GretaGarbo,andthegreatestboxofficedrawofthe1930s,childperformer
ShirleyTemple.

Creativeimpactofsound
Creatively,however,therapidtransitionwasadifficultone,andinsomeways,filmbrieflyrevertedtothe
conditionsofitsearliestdays.Thelate'20swerefullofstatic,stageytalkiesasartistsinfrontofandbehindthe
camerastruggledwiththestringentlimitationsoftheearlysoundequipmentandtheirownuncertaintyasto
howtoutilizethenewmedium.Manystageperformers,directorsandwriterswereintroducedtocinemaas
producerssoughtpersonnelexperiencedindialoguebasedstorytelling.Manymajorsilentfilmmakersand
actorswereunabletoadjustandfoundtheircareersseverelycurtailedorevenended.
Thisawkwardperiodwasfairlyshortlived.1929wasawatershedyear:WilliamWellmanwithChinatown
NightsandTheManILove,RoubenMamoulianwithApplause,AlfredHitchcockwithBlackmail(Britain's
firstsoundfeature),wereamongthedirectorstobringgreaterfluiditytotalkiesandexperimentwiththe
expressiveuseofsound(Eyman,1997).Inthis,theybothbenefitedfrom,andpushedfurther,technical
advancesinmicrophonesandcameras,andcapabilitiesforeditingandpostsynchronizingsound(ratherthan
recordingallsounddirectlyatthetimeoffilming).
Soundfilmsemphasizedblackhistoryandbenefiteddifferentgenresmoresothansilentsdid.Mostobviously,
themusicalfilmwasbornthefirstclassicstyleHollywoodmusicalwasTheBroadwayMelody(1929)andthe
formwouldfinditsfirstmajorcreatorinchoreographer/directorBusbyBerkeley(42ndStreet,1933,Dames,
1934).InFrance,avantgardedirectorRenClairmadesurrealuseofsonganddanceincomedieslikeUnder
theRoofsofParis(1930)andLeMillion(1931).UniversalPicturesbeginreleasinggothichorrorfilmslike
DraculaandFrankenstein(both1931).In1933,RKOreleasedMerianC.Cooper'sclassic"giantmonster"film
KingKong.ThetrendthrivedbestinIndia,wheretheinfluenceofthecountry'straditionalsonganddance
dramamadethemusicalthebasicformofmostsoundfilms(Cook,1990)virtuallyunnoticedbytheWestern
worldfordecades,thisIndianpopularcinemawouldneverthelessbecometheworld'smostprolific.(Seealso
Bollywood.)
Atthistime,AmericangangsterfilmslikeLittleCaesarandWellman'sThePublicEnemy(both1931)became
popular.Dialoguenowtookprecedenceover"slapstick"inHollywoodcomedies:thefastpaced,wittybanterof
TheFrontPage(1931)orItHappenedOneNight(1934),thesexualdoubleentrendresofMaeWest(SheDone
HimWrong,1933)ortheoftensubversivelyanarchicnonsensetalkoftheMarxBrothers(DuckSoup,1933).
WaltDisney,whohadpreviouslybeenintheshortcartoonbusiness,steppedintofeaturefilmswiththefirst
EnglishspeakinganimatedfeatureSnowWhiteandtheSevenDwarfsreleasedbyRKOPicturesin1937.1939,
amajoryearforAmericancinema,broughtsuchfilmsasTheWizardofOzandGonewithTheWind.

WorldWarIIanditsaftermath
ThedesireforwartimepropagandacreatedarenaissanceinthefilmindustryinBritain,withrealisticwar
dramaslike49thParallel(1941),WenttheDayWell?(1942),TheWayAhead(1944)andNolCowardand
DavidLean'scelebratednavalfilmInWhichWeServein1942,whichwonaspecialAcademyAward.These
existedalongsidemoreflamboyantfilmslikeMichaelPowellandEmericPressburger'sTheLifeandDeathof
ColonelBlimp(1943),ACanterburyTale(1944)andAMatterofLifeandDeath(1946),aswellasLaurence
Olivier's1944filmHenryV,basedontheShakespeareanhistoryHenryV.ThesuccessofSnowWhiteandthe
SevenDwarfsallowedDisneytomakemoreanimatedfeatureslikePinocchio(1940),Fantasia(1940),Dumbo
(1941)andBambi(1942).
TheonsetofUSinvolvementinWorldWarIIalsobroughtaproliferationoffilmsasbothpatriotismand
propaganda.AmericanpropagandafilmsincludedDesperateJourney,Mrs.Miniver,ForeverandaDayand
ObjectiveBurma.NotableAmericanfilmsfromthewaryearsincludetheantiNaziWatchontheRhine(1943),
scriptedbyDashiellHammettShadowofaDoubt(1943),Hitchcock'sdirectionofascriptbyThorntonWilder
theGeorgeM.Cohanbiopic,YankeeDoodleDandy(1942),starringJamesCagney,andtheimmenselypopular
Casablanca,withHumphreyBogart.Bogartwouldstarin36filmsbetween1934and1942includingJohn

Huston'sTheMalteseFalcon(1941),oneofthefirstfilmsnowconsideredaclassicfilmnoir.In1941,RKO
PicturesreleasedCitizenKanemadebyOrsonWelles.Itisoftenconsideredthegreatestfilmofalltime.It
wouldsetthestageforthemodernmotionpicture,asitrevolutionizedfilmstorytelling.
Thestricturesofwartimealsobroughtaninterestinmorefantasticalsubjects.TheseincludedBritain's
Gainsboroughmelodramas(includingTheManinGreyandTheWickedLady),andfilmslikeHereComesMr.
Jordan,HeavenCanWait,IMarriedaWitchandBlitheSpirit.ValLewtonalsoproducedaseriesof
atmosphericandinfluentialsmallbudgethorrorfilms,someofthemorefamousexamplesbeingCatPeople,
IsleoftheDeadandTheBodySnatcher.Thedecadeprobablyalsosawthesocalled"women'spictures",such
asNow,Voyager,RandomHarvestandMildredPierceatthepeakoftheirpopularity.
1946sawRKORadioreleasingIt'saWonderfulLifedirectedbyFrankCapra.Soldiersreturningfromthewar
wouldprovidetheinspirationforfilmslikeTheBestYearsofOurLives,andmanyofthoseinthefilmindustry
hadservedinsomecapacityduringthewar.SamuelFuller'sexperiencesinWorldWarIIwouldinfluencehis
largelyautobiographicalfilmsoflaterdecadessuchasTheBigRedOne.TheActor'sStudiowasfoundedin
October1947byEliaKazan,RobertLewis,andCherylCrawford,andthesameyearOskarFischingerfilmed
MotionPaintingNo.1.
In1943,OssessionewasscreenedinItaly,markingthebeginningofItalianneorealism.Majorfilmsofthistype
duringthe1940sincludedBicycleThieves,Rome,OpenCity,andLaTerraTrema.In1952UmbertoDwas
released,usuallyconsideredthelastfilmofthistype.
Inthelate1940s,inBritain,EalingStudiosembarkedontheirseriesofcelebratedcomedies,includingWhisky
Galore!,PassporttoPimlico,KindHeartsandCoronetsandTheManintheWhiteSuit,andCarolReed
directedhisinfluentialthrillersOddManOut,TheFallenIdolandTheThirdMan.DavidLeanwasalsorapidly
becomingaforceinworldcinemawithBriefEncounterandhisDickensadaptationsGreatExpectationsand
OliverTwist,andMichaelPowellandEmericPressburgerwouldexperiencethebestoftheircreative
partnershipwithfilmslikeBlackNarcissusandTheRedShoes.

1950s
TheHouseUnAmericanActivitiesCommitteeinvestigated
Hollywoodintheearly1950s.ProtestedbytheHollywood
Tenbeforethecommittee,thehearingsresultedinthe
blacklistingofmanyactors,writersanddirectors,including
Chayefsky,CharlieChaplin,andDaltonTrumbo,andmany
ofthesefledtoEurope,especiallytheUnitedKingdom.
TheColdWarerazeitgeisttranslatedintoatypeofnear
paranoiamanifestedinthemessuchasinvadingarmiesof
evilaliens,(InvasionoftheBodySnatchers,TheWarofthe
Worlds)andcommunistfifthcolumnists,(TheManchurian
Candidate).
Aproductionscenefromthe1950Hollywoodfilm

Duringtheimmediatepostwaryearsthecinematicindustry
JuliusCaesarstarringCharltonHeston.
wasalsothreatenedbytelevision,andtheincreasing
popularityofthemediummeantthatsomefilmtheatres
wouldbankruptandclose.Thedemiseofthe"studiosystem"spurredtheselfcommentaryoffilmslikeSunset
Boulevard(1950)andTheBadandtheBeautiful(1952).
In1950,theLettristsavantegardistscausedriotsattheCannesFilmFestival,whenIsidoreIsou'sTreatiseon
SlimeandEternitywasscreened.AftertheircriticismofCharlieChaplinandsplitwiththemovement,the
UltraLettristscontinuedtocausedisruptionswhentheyshowedtheirnewhypergraphicaltechniques.Themost
notoriousfilmisGuyDebord'sHowlsforSadeof1952.

Distressedbytheincreasingnumberofclosedtheatres,studiosandcompanieswouldfindnewandinnovative
waystobringaudiencesback.Theseincludedattemptstowidentheirappealwithnewscreenformats.
Cinemascope,whichwouldremaina20thCenturyFoxdistinctionuntil1967,wasannouncedwith1953'sThe
Robe.VistaVision,Cinerama,andToddAOboasteda"biggerisbetter"approachtomarketingfilmstoa
dwindlingUSaudience.Thisresultedintherevivalofepicfilmstotakeadvantageofthenewbigscreen
formats.SomeofthemostsuccessfulexamplesoftheseBiblicalandhistoricalspectacularsincludeTheTen
Commandments(1956),TheVikings(1958),BenHur(1959),Spartacus(1960)andElCid(1961).Alsoduring
thisperiodanumberofothersignificantfilmswereproducedinToddAO,developedbyMikeToddshortly
beforehisdeath,includingOklahoma!(1955),AroundtheWorldin80Days(1956),SouthPacific(1958)and
Cleopatra(1963)plusmanymore.
Gimmicksalsoproliferatedtolureinaudiences.Thefadfor3Dfilmwouldlastforonlytwoyears,1952
1954,andhelpedsellHouseofWaxandCreaturefromtheBlackLagoon.ProducerWilliamCastlewouldtout
filmsfeaturing"Emergo""Percepto",thefirstofaseriesofgimmicksthatwouldremainpopularmarketing
toolsforCastleandothersthroughoutthe1960s.
IntheU.S.,apostWW2tendencytowardquestioningtheestablishmentandsocietalnormsandtheearly
activismoftheCivilRightsMovementwasreflectedinHollywoodfilmssuchasBlackboardJungle(1955),On
theWaterfront(1954),PaddyChayefsky'sMartyandReginaldRose's12AngryMen(1957).Disneycontinued
makinganimatedfilms,notablyCinderella(1950),PeterPan(1953),LadyandtheTramp(1955),and
SleepingBeauty(1959).Hebegan,however,gettingmoreinvolvedinliveactionfilms,producingclassicslike
20,000LeaguesUndertheSea(1954),andOldYeller(1957).Televisionbegancompetingseriouslywithfilms
projectedintheatres,butsurprisinglyitpromotedmorefilmgoingratherthancurtailingit.
Limelightisprobablyauniquefilminatleastoneinterestingrespect.Itstwoleads,CharlieChaplinandClaire
Bloom,wereintheindustryinnolessthanthreedifferentcenturies.Inthe19thCentury,Chaplinmadehis
theatricaldebutattheageofeight,in1897,inaclogdancingtroupe,TheEightLancasterLads.Inthe21st
Century,Bloomisstillenjoyingafullandproductivecareer,havingappearedindozensoffilmsandtelevision
seriesproduceduptoandincluding2013.ShereceivedparticularacclaimforherroleinTheKing'sSpeech
(2010).

GoldenAgeofAsiancinema
FollowingtheendofWorldWarIIinthe1940s,thefollowing
decade,the1950s,markeda'GoldenAge'fornonEnglishworld
cinema,[32][33]especiallyforAsiancinema.[34][35]Manyofthemost
criticallyacclaimedAsianfilmsofalltimewereproducedduring
thisdecade,includingYasujirOzu'sTokyoStory(1953),Satyajit
Ray'sTheApuTrilogy(19551959)andTheMusicRoom(1958),
KenjiMizoguchi'sUgetsu(1954)andSanshotheBailiff(1954),
RajKapoor'sAwaara(1951),MikioNaruse'sFloatingClouds
(1955),GuruDutt'sPyaasa(1957)andKaagazKePhool(1959),
andtheAkiraKurosawafilmsRashomon(1950),Ikiru(1952),
SevenSamurai(1954)andThroneofBlood(1957).[34][35]
DuringJapanesecinema's'GoldenAge'ofthe1950s,successful
filmsincludedRashomon(1950),SevenSamurai(1954)andThe
HiddenFortress(1958)byAkiraKurosawa,aswellasYasujir
Ozu'sTokyoStory(1953)andIshirHonda'sGodzilla(1954).[36]
Thesefilmshavehadaprofoundinfluenceonworldcinema.In
particular,Kurosawa'sSevenSamuraihasbeenremadeseveral
SatyajitRay,IndianBengalifilmdirector.
timesasWesternfilms,suchasTheMagnificentSeven(1960)and
BattleBeyondtheStars(1980),andhasalsoinspiredseveral
Bollywoodfilms,suchasSholay(1975)andChinaGate(1998).RashomonwasalsoremadeasTheOutrage

(1964),andinspiredfilmswith"Rashomoneffect"storytellingmethods,suchasAndhaNaal(1954),TheUsual
Suspects(1995)andHero(2002).TheHiddenFortresswasalsotheinspirationbehindGeorgeLucas'StarWars
(1977).OtherfamousJapanesefilmmakersfromthisperiodincludeKenjiMizoguchi,MikioNaruse,Hiroshi
InagakiandNagisaOshima.[34]JapanesecinemalaterbecameoneofthemaininspirationsbehindtheNew
Hollywoodmovementofthe1960sto1980s.
DuringIndiancinema's'GoldenAge'ofthe1950s,itwasproducing200filmsannually,whileIndian
independentfilmsgainedgreaterrecognitionthroughinternationalfilmfestivals.Oneofthemostfamouswas
TheApuTrilogy(19551959)fromcriticallyacclaimedBengalifilmdirectorSatyajitRay,whosefilmshada
profoundinfluenceonworldcinema,withdirectorssuchasAkiraKurosawa,[37]MartinScorsese,[38][39]James
Ivory,[40]AbbasKiarostami,EliaKazan,FranoisTruffaut,[41]StevenSpielberg,[42][43][44]CarlosSaura,[45]
JeanLucGodard,[46]IsaoTakahata,[47]GregoryNava,IraSachs,WesAnderson[48]andDannyBoyle[49]being
influencedbyhiscinematicstyle.AccordingtoMichaelSragowofTheAtlanticMonthly,the"youthful
comingofagedramasthathavefloodedarthousessincethemidfiftiesoweatremendousdebttotheApu
trilogy".[50]SubrataMitra'scinematographictechniqueofbouncelightingalsooriginatesfromTheApu
Trilogy.[51]OtherfamousIndianfilmmakersfromthisperiodincludeGuruDutt,[34]RitwikGhatak,[35]Mrinal
Sen,RajKapoor,BimalRoy,K.AsifandMehboobKhan.[52]
ThecinemaofSouthKoreaalsoexperienceda'GoldenAge'inthe1950s,beginningwithdirectorLeeKyu
hwan'stremendouslysuccessfulremakeofChunhyangjon(1955).[53]ThatyearalsosawthereleaseofYangsan
Provincebytherenowneddirector,KimKiyoung,markingthebeginningofhisproductivecareer.Boththe
qualityandquantityoffilmmakinghadincreasedrapidlybytheendofthe1950s.SouthKoreanfilms,suchas
LeeByeongil's1956comedySijibganeunnal(TheWeddingDay),hadbegunwinninginternationalawards.In
contrasttothebeginningofthe1950s,whenonly5filmsweremadeperyear,111filmswereproducedin
SouthKoreain1959.[54]
The1950swasalsoa'GoldenAge'forPhilippinecinema,withtheemergenceofmoreartisticandmature
films,andsignificantimprovementincinematictechniquesamongfilmmakers.Thestudiosystemproduced
freneticactivityinthelocalfilmindustryasmanyfilmsweremadeannuallyandseverallocaltalentsstartedto
earnrecognitionabroad.ThepremierePhilippinedirectorsoftheeraincludedGerardodeLeon,Gregorio
Fernndez,EddieRomero,LambertoAvellana,andCirioSantiago.[55][56]

1960s
Duringthe1960s,thestudiosysteminHollywooddeclined,becausemanyfilmswerenowbeingmadeon
locationinothercountries,orusingstudiofacilitiesabroad,suchasPinewoodintheUKandCinecittin
Rome."Hollywood"filmswerestilllargelyaimedatfamilyaudiences,anditwasoftenthemoreoldfashioned
filmsthatproducedthestudios'biggestsuccesses.ProductionslikeMaryPoppins(1964),MyFairLady(1964)
andTheSoundofMusic(1965)wereamongthebiggestmoneymakersofthedecade.Thegrowthin
independentproducersandproductioncompanies,andtheincreaseinthepowerofindividualactorsalso
contributedtothedeclineoftraditionalHollywoodstudioproduction.
TherewasalsoanincreasingawarenessofforeignlanguagecinemainAmericaduringthisperiod.Duringthe
late1950sand1960s,theFrenchNewWavedirectorssuchasFranoisTruffautandJeanLucGodardproduced
filmssuchasLesquatrecentscoups,BreathlessandJulesetJimwhichbroketherulesofHollywoodcinema's
narrativestructure.Aswell,audienceswerebecomingawareofItalianfilmslikeFedericoFellini'sLaDolce
VitaandthestarkdramasofSweden'sIngmarBergman.
InBritain,the"FreeCinema"ofLindsayAnderson,TonyRichardsonandothersleadtoagroupofrealisticand
innovativedramasincludingSaturdayNightandSundayMorning,AKindofLovingandThisSportingLife.
OtherBritishfilmssuchasRepulsion,Darling,Alfie,BlowupandGeorgyGirl(allin19651966)helpedto
reduceprohibitionssexandnudityonscreen,whilethecasualsexandviolenceoftheJamesBondfilms,
beginningwithDr.Noin1962wouldrendertheseriespopularworldwide.

Duringthe1960s,OusmaneSembneproducedseveralFrenchandWoloflanguagefilmsandbecamethe
'father'ofAfricanCinema.InLatinAmerica,thedominanceofthe"Hollywood"modelwaschallengedby
manyfilmmakers.FernandoSolanasandOctavioGettinocalledforapoliticallyengagedThirdCinemain
contrasttoHollywoodandtheEuropeanauteurcinema.
Further,thenuclearparanoiaoftheage,andthethreatofanapocalypticnuclearexchange(likethe1962close
callwiththeUSSRduringtheCubanmissilecrisis)promptedareactionwithinthefilmcommunityaswell.
FilmslikeStanleyKubrick'sDr.StrangeloveandFailSafewithHenryFondawereproducedinaHollywood
thatwasonceknownforitsovertpatriotismandwartimepropaganda.
IndocumentaryfilmthesixtiessawtheblossomingofDirectCinema,anobservationalstyleoffilmmakingas
wellastheadventofmoreovertlypartisanfilmslikeIntheYearofthePigabouttheVietnamWarbyEmilede
Antonio.Bythelate1960showever,Hollywoodfilmmakerswerebeginningtocreatemoreinnovativeand
groundbreakingfilmsthatreflectedthesocialrevolutiontakenovermuchofthewesternworldsuchasBonnie
andClyde(1967),TheGraduate(1967),2001:ASpaceOdyssey(1968),Rosemary'sBaby(1968),Midnight
Cowboy(1969),EasyRider(1969)andTheWildBunch(1969).BonnieandClydeisoftenconsideredthe
beginningofthesocalledNewHollywood.
InJapanesecinema,AcademyAwardwinningdirectorAkiraKurosawaproducedYojimbo(1961),whichlike
hispreviousfilmsalsohadaprofoundinfluencearoundtheworld.Theinfluenceofthisfilmismostapparent
inSergioLeone'sAFistfulofDollars(1964)andWalterHill'sLastManStanding(1996).Yojimbowasalsothe
originofthe"ManwithNoName"trend.
Meanwhile,inIndia,theAcademyAwardwinningBengalidirectorSatyajitRaywroteascriptforTheAlienin
1967,basedonaBengalisciencefictionstoryhehimselfhadwrittenin1962.Thefilmwasintendedtobehis
debutinHollywoodbuttheproductionwaseventuallycancelled.Nevertheless,thescriptwentontoinfluence
laterfilmssuchasStevenSpielberg'sE.T.(1982)andRakeshRoshan'sKoi...MilGaya(2003).

1970s
TheNewHollywoodwastheperiodfollowingthedeclineofthestudiosystemduringthe1950sand1960sand
theendoftheproductioncode,(whichwasreplacedin1968bytheMPAAfilmratingsystem).Duringthe
1970s,filmmakersincreasinglydepictedexplicitsexualcontentandshowedgunfightandbattlescenesthat
includedgraphicimagesofbloodydeathsagoodexampleofthisisWesCraven'sTheLastHouseontheLeft
(1972).
PostclassicalcinemaisthechangingmethodsofstorytellingoftheNewHollywoodproducers.Thenew
methodsofdramaandcharacterizationplayeduponaudienceexpectationsacquiredduringtheclassical/Golden
Ageperiod:storychronologymaybescrambled,storylinesmayfeatureunsettling"twistendings",main
charactersmaybehaveinamorallyambiguousfashion,andthelinesbetweentheantagonistandprotagonist
maybeblurred.Thebeginningsofpostclassicalstorytellingmaybeseenin1940sand1950sfilmnoirfilms,in
filmssuchasRebelWithoutaCause(1955),andinHitchcock'sPsycho.1971markedthereleaseof
controversialfilmslikeStrawDogs,AClockworkOrange,TheFrenchConnectionandDirtyHarry.This
sparkedheatedcontroversyovertheperceivedescalationofviolenceincinema.
Duringthe1970s,anewgroupofAmericanfilmmakersemerged,suchasMartinScorsese,FrancisFord
Coppola,GeorgeLucas,WoodyAllen,TerrenceMalick,andRobertAltman.Thiscoincidedwiththeincreasing
popularityoftheauteurtheoryinfilmliteratureandthemedia,whichpositedthatafilmdirector'sfilmsexpress
theirpersonalvisionandcreativeinsights.Thedevelopmentoftheauteurstyleoffilmmakinghelpedtogive
thesedirectorsfargreatercontrolovertheirprojectsthanwouldhavebeenpossibleinearliereras.Thisledto
somegreatcriticalandcommercialsuccesses,likeScorsese'sTaxiDriver,Coppola'sTheGodfatherfilms,
WilliamFriedkin'sTheExorcist,AltmansNashville,Allen'sAnnieHallandManhattan,Malick'sBadlandsand
DaysofHeaven,andPolishimmigrantRomanPolanski'sChinatown.Italso,however,resultedinsome
failures,includingPeterBogdanovich'sAtLongLastLoveandMichaelCimino'shugelyexpensiveWestern
epicHeaven'sGate,whichhelpedtobringaboutthedemiseofitsbacker,UnitedArtists.

ThefinancialdisasterofHeaven'sGatemarkedtheendofthevisionary"auteur"directorsofthe"New
Hollywood",whohadunrestrainedcreativeandfinancialfreedomtodevelopfilms.Thephenomenalsuccessin
the1970sofSpielbergsJawsoriginatedtheconceptofthemodern"blockbuster".However,theenormous
successofGeorgeLucas'1977filmStarWarsledtomuchmorethanjustthepopularizationofblockbuster
filmmaking.Thefilmsrevolutionaryuseofspecialeffects,soundeditingandmusichadledittobecome
widelyregardedasoneofthesinglemostimportantfilmsinthemedium'shistory,aswellasthemost
influentialfilmofthe1970s.Hollywoodstudiosincreasinglyfocusedonproducingasmallernumberofvery
largebudgetfilmswithmassivemarketingandpromotionalcampaigns.Thistrendhadalreadybeen
foreshadowedbythecommercialsuccessofdisasterfilmssuchasThePoseidonAdventureandTheTowering
Inferno.
Duringthemid1970s,morepornographictheatres,euphemisticallycalled"adultcinemas",wereestablished,
andthelegalproductionofhardcorepornographicfilmsbegan.PornfilmssuchasDeepThroatanditsstar
LindaLovelacebecamesomethingofapopularculturephenomenonandresultedinaspateofsimilarsexfilms.
Theporncinemasfinallydiedoutduringthe1980s,whenthepopularizationofthehomeVCRand
pornographyvideotapesallowedaudiencestowatchsexfilmsathome.Intheearly1970s,Englishlanguage
audiencesbecamemoreawareofthenewWestGermancinema,withWernerHerzog,RainerWerner
FassbinderandWimWendersamongitsleadingexponents.
Inworldcinema,the1970ssawadramaticincreaseinthepopularityofmartialartsfilms,largelyduetoits
reinventionbyBruceLee,whodepartedfromtheartisticstyleoftraditionalChinesemartialartsfilmsand
addedamuchgreatersenseofrealismtothemwithhisJeetKuneDostyle.ThisbeganwithTheBigBoss
(1971),whichwasamajorsuccessacrossAsia.However,hedidn'tgainfameintheWesternworlduntilshortly
afterhisdeathin1973,whenEntertheDragonwasreleased.Thefilmwentontobecomethemostsuccessful
martialartsfilmincinematichistory,popularizedthemartialartsfilmgenreacrosstheworld,andcemented
BruceLee'sstatusasaculturalicon.HongKongactioncinema,however,wasindeclineduetoawaveof
"Bruceploitation"films.Thistrendeventuallycametoanendin1978withthemartialartscomedyfilms,Snake
intheEagle'sShadowandDrunkenMaster,directedbyYuenWoopingandstarringJackieChan,layingthe
foundationsfortheriseofHongKongactioncinemainthe1980s.
WhilethemusicalfilmgenrehaddeclinedinHollywoodbythistime,musicalfilmswerequicklygaining
popularityinthecinemaofIndia,wheretheterm"Bollywood"wascoinedforthegrowingHindifilmindustry
inBombay(nowMumbai)thatendedupdominatingSouthAsiancinema,overtakingthemorecritically
acclaimedBengalifilmindustryinpopularity.HindifilmmakerscombinedtheHollywoodmusicalformula
withtheconventionsofancientIndiantheatretocreateanewfilmgenrecalled"Masala",whichdominated
Indiancinemathroughoutthelate20thcentury.[57]These"Masala"filmsportrayedaction,comedy,drama,
romanceandmelodramaallatonce,with"filmi"songanddanceroutinesthrownin.Thistrendbeganwith
filmsdirectedbyManmohanDesaiandstarringAmitabhBachchan,whoremainsoneofthemostpopularfilm
starsinSouthAsia.ThemostpopularIndianfilmofalltimewasSholay(1975),a"Masala"filminspiredbya
reallifedacoitaswellasKurosawa'sSevenSamuraiandtheSpaghettiWesterns.
TheendofthedecadesawthefirstmajorinternationalmarketingofAustraliancinema,asPeterWeir'sfilms
PicnicatHangingRockandTheLastWaveandFredSchepisi'sTheChantofJimmieBlacksmithgainedcritical
acclaim.In1979,AustralianfilmmakerGeorgeMilleralsogarneredinternationalattentionforhisviolent,low
budgetactionfilmMadMax.

1980s
Duringthe1980s,audiencesbeganincreasinglywatchingfilmsontheirhomeVCRs.Intheearlypartofthat
decade,thefilmstudiostriedlegalactiontobanhomeownershipofVCRsasaviolationofcopyright,which
provedunsuccessful.Eventually,thesaleandrentaloffilmsonhomevideobecameasignificant"second
venue"forexhibitionoffilms,andanadditionalsourceofrevenueforthefilmindustries.

TheLucasSpielbergcombinewoulddominate"Hollywood"cinemaformuchofthe1980s,andleadtomuch
imitation.TwofollowupstoStarWars,threetoJaws,andthreeIndianaJonesfilmshelpedtomakesequelsof
successfulfilmsmoreofanexpectationthaneverbefore.LucasalsolaunchedTHXLtd,adivisionof
Lucasfilmin1982,[58]whileSpielbergenjoyedoneofthedecade'sgreatestsuccessesinE.T.theExtra
Terrestrialthesameyear.1982alsosawthereleaseofDisney'sTronwhichwasoneofthefirstfilmsfroma
majorstudiotousecomputergraphicsextensively.Americanindependentcinemastruggledmoreduringthe
decade,althoughMartinScorsese'sRagingBull(1980),AfterHours(1985),andTheKingofComedy(1983)
helpedtoestablishhimasoneofthemostcriticallyacclaimedAmericanfilmmakersoftheera.Alsoduring
1983Scarfacewasreleased,wasveryprofitableandresultedinevengreaterfameforitsleadingactorAl
Pacino.Probablythemostsuccessfulfilmcommerciallywasvendedduring1989:TimBurton'sversionofBob
Kane'screation,Batman,exceededboxofficerecords.JackNicholson'sportrayalofthedementedJokerearned
himatotalof$60,000,000afterfiguringinhispercentageofthegross.
Britishcinemawasgivenaboostduringtheearly1980sbythearrivalofDavidPuttnam'scompanyGoldcrest
Films.ThefilmsChariotsofFire,Gandhi,TheKillingFieldsandARoomwithaViewappealedtoa
"middlebrow"audiencewhichwasincreasinglybeingignoredbythemajorHollywoodstudios.Whilethefilms
ofthe1970shadhelpedtodefinemodernblockbustermotionpictures,theway"Hollywood"releaseditsfilms
wouldnowchange.Films,forthemostpart,wouldpremiereinawidernumberoftheatres,although,tothis
day,somefilmsstillpremiereusingtherouteofthelimited/roadshowreleasesystem.Againstsome
expectations,theriseofthemultiplexcinemadidnotallowlessmainstreamfilmstobeshown,butsimply
allowedthemajorblockbusterstobegivenanevengreaternumberofscreenings.However,filmsthathadbeen
overlookedincinemaswereincreasinglybeinggivenasecondchanceonhomevideo.
Duringthe1980s,Japanesecinemaexperiencedarevival,largelyduetothesuccessofanimefilms.Atthe
beginningofthe1980s,SpaceBattleshipYamato(1973)andMobileSuitGundam(1979),bothofwhichwere
unsuccessfulastelevisionseries,wereremadeasfilmsandbecamehugelysuccessfulinJapan.Inparticular,
MobileSuitGundamsparkedtheGundamfranchiseofRealRobotmechaanime.ThesuccessofMacross:Do
YouRememberLove?alsosparkedaMacrossfranchiseofmechaanime.ThiswasalsothedecadewhenStudio
Ghibliwasfounded.ThestudioproducedHayaoMiyazaki'sfirstfantasyfilms,NausicaoftheValleyofthe
Wind(1984)andCastleintheSky(1986),aswellasIsaoTakahata'sGraveoftheFireflies(1988),allofwhich
wereverysuccessfulinJapanandreceivedworldwidecriticalacclaim.Originalvideoanimation(OVA)films
alsobeganduringthisdecadethemostinfluentialoftheseearlyOVAfilmswasNoboruIshiguro'scyberpunk
filmMegazone23(1985).ThemostfamousanimefilmofthisdecadewasKatsuhiroOtomo'scyberpunkfilm
Akira(1988),whichalthoughinitiallyunsuccessfulatJapanesetheaters,wentontobecomeaninternational
success.
HongKongactioncinema,whichwasinastateofdeclineduetoendlessBruceploitationfilmsafterthedeath
ofBruceLee,alsoexperiencedarevivalinthe1980s,largelyduetothereinventionoftheactionfilmgenreby
JackieChan.Hehadpreviouslycombinedthecomedyfilmandmartialartsfilmgenressuccessfullyinthe1978
filmsSnakeintheEagle'sShadowandDrunkenMaster.Thenextstephetookwasincombiningthiscomedy
martialartsgenrewithanewemphasisonelaborateandhighlydangerousstunts,reminiscentofthesilentfilm
era.ThefirstfilminthisnewstyleofactioncinemawasProjectA(1983),whichsawtheformationofthe
JackieChanStuntTeamaswellasthe"ThreeBrothers"(Chan,SammoHungandYuenBiao).Thefilmadded
elaborate,dangerousstuntstothefightsandslapstickhumor,andbecameahugesuccessthroughouttheFar
East.Asaresult,Chancontinuedthistrendwithmartialartsactionfilmscontainingevenmoreelaborateand
dangerousstunts,includingWheelsonMeals(1984),PoliceStory(1985),ArmourofGod(1986),ProjectA
PartII(1987),PoliceStory2(1988),andDragonsForever(1988).Othernewtrendswhichbeganinthe1980s
werethe"girlswithguns"subgenre,forwhichMichelleYeohgainedfameandespeciallythe"heroic
bloodshed"genre,revolvingaroundTriads,largelypioneeredbyJohnWooandforwhichChowYunfat
becamefamous.TheseHongKongactiontrendswerelateradoptedbymanyHollywoodactionfilmsinthe
1990sand2000s.

1990s

Theearly1990ssawthedevelopmentofacommercially
successfulindependentcinemaintheUnitedStates.
Althoughcinemawasincreasinglydominatedbyspecial
effectsfilmssuchasTerminator2:JudgmentDay(1991),
JurassicPark(1993)andTitanic(1997),thelatterofwhich
becamethehighestgrossingfilmofalltimeatthetimeup
until"Avatar",alsodirectedbyJamesCameron,
independentfilmslikeStevenSoderbergh'sSex,Lies,and
Cinemaadmissionsin1995
Videotape(1989)andQuentinTarantino'sReservoirDogs
(1992)hadsignificantcommercialsuccessbothatthe
cinemaandonhomevideo.FilmmakersassociatedwiththeDanishfilmmovementDogme95introduceda
manifestoaimedtopurifyfilmmaking.Itsfirstfewfilmsgainedworldwidecriticalacclaim,afterwhichthe
movementslowlyfadedout.
MajorAmericanstudiosbegantocreatetheirown"independent"productioncompaniestofinanceandproduce
nonmainstreamfare.Oneofthemostsuccessfulindependentsofthe1990s,MiramaxFilms,wasboughtby
DisneytheyearbeforethereleaseofTarantino'srunawayhitPulpFictionin1994.Thesameyearmarkedthe
beginningoffilmandvideodistributiononline.Animatedfilmsaimedatfamilyaudiencesalsoregainedtheir
popularity,withDisney'sBeautyandtheBeast(1991),Aladdin(1992),andTheLionKing(1994).During
1995,thefirstfeaturelengthcomputeranimatedfeature,ToyStory,wasproducedbyPixarAnimationStudios
andreleasedbyDisney.AfterthesuccessofToyStory,computeranimationwouldgrowtobecomethe
dominanttechniqueforfeaturelengthanimation,whichwouldallowcompetingfilmcompaniessuchas
DreamWorksAnimationand20thCenturyFoxtoeffectivelycompetewithDisneywithsuccessfulfilmsof
theirown.Duringthelate1990s,anothercinematictransitionbegan,fromphysicalfilmstocktodigitalcinema
technology.Meanwhile,DVDsbecamethenewstandardforconsumervideo,replacingVHStapes.

Recentyears
Thedocumentaryfilmalsoroseasacommercialgenreforperhapsthefirsttime,withthesuccessoffilmssuch
asMarchofthePenguinsandMichaelMoore'sBowlingforColumbineandFahrenheit9/11.Anewgenrewas
createdwithMartinKunertandEricManes'VoicesofIraq,when150inexpensiveDVcamerasweredistributed
acrossIraq,transformingordinarypeopleintocollaborativefilmmakers.ThesuccessofGladiatorledtoa
revivalofinterestinepiccinema,andMoulinRouge!renewedinterestinmusicalcinema.Hometheatre
systemsbecameincreasinglysophisticated,asdidsomeofthespecialeditionDVDsdesignedtobeshownon
them.TheLordoftheRingstrilogywasreleasedonDVDinboththetheatricalversionandinaspecial
extendedversionintendedonlyforhomecinemaaudiences.
In2001,theHarryPotterfilmseriesbegan,andbyitsendin2011,ithadbecomethehighestgrossingfilm
franchiseofalltimeuntiltheMarvelCinematicUniversepasseditin2015.
MorefilmswerealsobeingreleasedsimultaneouslytoIMAXcinema,thefirstwasin2002'sDisneyanimation
TreasurePlanetandthefirstliveactionwasin2003'sTheMatrixRevolutionsandarereleaseofTheMatrix
Reloaded.Laterinthedecade,TheDarkKnightwasthefirstmajorfeaturefilmtohavebeenatleastpartially
shotinIMAXtechnology.
Therehasbeenanincreasingglobalizationofcinemaduringthisdecade,withforeignlanguagefilmsgaining
popularityinEnglishspeakingmarkets.ExamplesofsuchfilmsincludeCrouchingTiger,HiddenDragon
(Mandarin),Amlie(French),Lagaan(Hindi),SpiritedAway(Japanese),CityofGod(Portuguese),ThePassion
oftheChrist(Aramaic),Apocalypto(Mayan),SlumdogMillionaire(partsinHindi),andInglouriousBasterds
(multipleEuropeanlanguages).
Recentlytherehasbeenarevivalin3DfilmpopularitythefirstbeingJamesCameron'sGhostsoftheAbyss
whichwasreleasedasthefirstfulllength3DIMAXfeaturefilmedwiththeRealityCameraSystem.This
camerasystemusedthelatestHDvideocameras,notfilm,andwasbuiltforCameronbyEmmynominated

DirectorofPhotographyVincePace,tohisspecifications.ThesamecamerasystemwasusedtofilmSpyKids
3D:GameOver(2003),AliensoftheDeepIMAX(2005),andTheAdventuresofSharkboyandLavagirlin3D
(2005).
AfterJamesCameron's3DfilmAvatarbecamethehighestgrossingfilmofalltime,3Dfilmshavegained
increasingpopularitywithmanyotherfilmsbeingreleasedin3D,withthebestcriticalandfinancialsuccesses
beinginthefieldoffeaturefilmanimationsuchasDreamWorksAnimation'sHowToTrainYourDragonand
WaltDisneyPictures/Pixar'sToyStory3.Avatarisalsonoteworthyforpioneeringhighlysophisticateduseof
motioncapturetechnologyandinfluencingseveralotherfilmssuchasRiseofthePlanetoftheApes.
Asof2010,thelargestfilmindustriesbynumberoffeaturefilmsproducedarethoseofIndia,theUnitedStates,
China,NigeriaandJapan.[59]Beginningin2008withIronManandTheDarkKnight,superherofilmshave
greatlyincreasedinpopularityandfinancialsuccess,withfilmsbasedonMarvelandDCcomicsregularly
beingreleasedeveryyearuptothepresent.[60]

Seealso
Bmovie
Culturehistorical
archaeology
Experimentalfilm
Fictionalfilm
Film&History
Filmnoir
HistoryoftheKinetograph,
Kinetoscope,and
Kinetophonograph
Historyofsciencefiction

Historyofsciencefiction
films
Kammerspielfilm
Listofbooksonfilms
Listofcinematicfirsts
Listofcinemaoftheworld
CinemaofWest
Bengal
CinemaofBengal
Listofcolorfilmsystems
Listoffilmformats
Listofyearsinfilm

Listofyearsinfilm
Newsreel
Outlineoffilm
Runawayproduction
Silentfilm
Soundfilm
TheStoryofFilm:An
Odyssey
Women'scinema

References
1.FilmHistoryofthe1920s(http://www.filmsite.org/20sintro.html)
2.GuinnessBookofRecords,alleditions.
3."Lumire".MicrosoftEncartaOnlineEncyclopedia2007.Retrieved20070318.
4.Bordwell,DavidandThompson,Kristin.(2003)"FilmHistoryAnIntroduction".NewYork:McGrawHillCompany
Inc.p.13
5.Witmark,IsidoreGoldberg,Isaac(1939).TheHouseofWitmark.NewYork:NewYorkOOO.p.116.ISBN0306
706865.ASINB001DZ8MP6.
6.Abel,RichardRickAltman(2001).lpg=PA143ThatMostAmericanofAttractions,TheIllustratedSongCheck
|url=value(help).IndianaUniversityPress.pp.143153.ISBN025333988X.
7."Thegenesisofcinematographydistinguishestwodates:in1888thetechnologybecameavailableandfrom1900
onwardsfilmlanguagedeveloped.".Retrieved20121217.
8."ThecinecamerawhichbegantheNationalCinematographyCollection".NationalMediaMuseum.
9.Wakeman,John.WorldFilmDirectors,Volume1.TheH.W.WilsonCompany.1987.pp.747765.
10.Gazetas,Aristides.AnIntroductiontoWorldCinema.Jefferson:McFarlandCompany,Inc,2000.Print.
11."TheexecutionofMaryStuart1895".
12."SantaClaus(1898)".BFIScreenonline.
13.Brooke,Michael."ComeAlong,Do!".BFIScreenonlineDatabase.Retrieved20110424.
14.Brooke,Michael."AsSeenThroughaTelescope".BFIScreenonlineDatabase.Retrieved20110424.
15.Fisher,David."AsSeenThroughaTelescope".Brightonfilm.com.Retrieved20110424.
16."TheBrightonSchool".Retrieved20121217.
17."DesperatePoachingAffray(1903)".BritishFilmInstitute.Retrieved20February2011.
18.Hayes,Christian.PhantomRides(http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/1193042/),BFIScreenOnline.Accessed30
August2011.
19.Hammond,Paul(1974).MarvellousMlis.London:GordonFraser.p.141.ISBN0900406380.
20.Beckerman,Howard(20030901).Animation:thewholestory.SkyhorsePublishingInc.p.16.ISBN978158115
3019.Retrieved16August2011.

21.Chichester,Jo."ReturnoftheKellyGang".TheUNESCOCourier.UNESCO(2007#5).ISSN19938616.
22.RayEdmondsonandAndrewPike(1982)Australia'sLostFilms.P.13.NationalLibraryofAustralia,Canberra.
ISBN0642992517
23.TheArgus,27December1906(http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/9663171)
24.InaBertrandandKenRobb(1982)"Thecontinuingsagaof...TheStoryoftheKellyGang."CinemaPapers,No.36,
February1982,p.1822
25.Kannapell,Andrea."GettingtheBigPictureTheFilmIndustryStartedHereandLeft.NowIt'sBack,andtheState
SaystheSequelIsHuge."(http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/04/nyregion/gettingbigpicturefilmindustrystartedher
eleftnowitsbackstatesays.html&pagewanted=all),TheNewYorkTimes,October4,1998.AccessedDecember7,
2013.
26.Amith,Dennis."BeforeHollywoodThereWasFortLee,N.J.:EarlyMovieMakinginNewJersey(aJ!ENTDVD
Review)"(http://jentonline.com/bluraydvdreviews/dvdreviewsfilmtv/beforehollywoodtherewasfortleenjea
rlymoviemakinginnewjerseyajentdvdreview/),J!ENTonline.com,January1,2011.AccessedDecember7,
2013."WhenHollywood,California,wasmostlyorangegroves,FortLee,NewJersey,wasacenterofAmericanfilm
production."
27.Rose,Lisa."100yearsago,FortLeewasthefirsttowntobaskinmoviemagic"(http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2
012/04/100_years_ago_fort_lee_was_the.html),TheStarLedger,April29,2012.AccessedDecember7,2013."Back
in1912,whenHollywoodhadmorecattlethancameras,FortLeewasthecenterofthecinematicuniverse.Iconsfrom
thesilenteralikeMaryPickford,LionelBarrymoreandLillianGishcrossedtheHudsonRiverviaferrytoemoteon
FortLeebacklots."
28.Gardiner,Juliet(2010)."Prologue".TheThirtiesanIntimateHistory.London:HarperPress.p.8.ISBN978000
7240760.
29.Dixon,Bryony."Smith,Percy(18801945)".BFIScreenonlinee.Retrieved20110424.
30."PercySmith".wildfilmhistory.org.Retrieved20110424.
31.FilmHistoryofthe1920s(http://www.filmsite.org/20sintro.html)
32."TheGoldenAgeoftheForeignFilm".FilmForum.Archivedfromtheoriginalon19June2008.Retrieved
20090529.
33.TracyK.Daniels(January11,2008)."HybridCinematics:RethinkingtheroleoffilmmakersofcolorinAmerican
Cinema".MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.Retrieved20141104.
34.Lee,Kevin(20020905)."ASlantedCanon".AsianAmericanFilmCommentary.Retrieved20090424.
35.Totaro,Donato(January31,2003)."The"Sight&Sound"ofCanons".OffscreenJournal.CanadaCouncilforthe
Arts.Retrieved20090419.
36.DaveKehr,Anime,JapaneseCinema'sSecondGoldenAge(http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9507E5D
71238F933A15752C0A9649C8B63),TheNewYorkTimes,January20,2002.
37.Robinson,A(2003).SatyajitRay:TheInnerEye:TheBiographyofaMasterFilmMaker.I.B.Tauris.p.96.
ISBN1860649653.
38.Ingui,Chris."MartinScorsesehitsDC,hangswiththeHachet".Hatchet.ArchivedfromtheoriginalonNovember2,
2007.Retrieved20060629.
39.Antani,Jay(2004)."RagingBull:Afilmreview".Filmcritic.com.Archivedfromtheoriginalon14February2009.
Retrieved20090504.
40.Hall,Sheldon."Ivory,James(1928)".ScreenOnline.Retrieved20070212.
41.Kehr,Dave(May5,1995)."THE'WORLD'OFSATYAJITRAY:LEGACYOFINDIA'SPREMIERFILM
MAKERONDISPLAY".DailyNews.Archivedfromtheoriginalon15September2009.Retrieved20090606.
42.Ray,Satyajit."OrdealsoftheAlien".TheUnmadeRay.SatyajitRaySociety.Archivedfromtheoriginalon200804
27.Retrieved20080421.
43.NeumannP."BiographyforSatyajitRay".InternetMovieDatabaseInc.Retrieved20060429.
44.NewmanJ(20010917)."SatyajitRayCollectionreceivesPackardgrantandlectureendowment".UCSantaCruz
Currentsonline.Retrieved20060429.
45.Ray,Suchetana(March11,2008)."SatyajitRayisthisSpanishdirector'sinspiration".CNNIBN.Retrieved
20090606.
46.Habib,Andr."BeforeandAfter:OriginsandDeathintheWorkofJeanLucGodard".SensesofCinema.Archived
fromtheoriginalon20060614.Retrieved20060629.
47.Thomas,Daniel(January20,2003)."FilmReviews:GraveoftheFireflies(HotarunoHaka)".Retrieved20090530.
48."OnRay'sTrail".TheStatesman.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20080103.Retrieved20071019.
49.Jivani,Alkarim(February2009)."Mumbairising".Sight&Sound.Archivedfromtheoriginalon1February2009.
Retrieved20090201.
50.Sragow,Michael(1994)."AnArtWeddedtoTruth".TheAtlanticMonthly.UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz.
Archivedfromtheoriginalon12April2009.Retrieved20090511.
51."SubrataMitra".InternetEncyclopediaofCinematographers.Retrieved20090522.
52."2002Sight&SoundTopFilmsSurveyof253InternationalCritics&FilmDirectors".Cinemacom.2002.Retrieved
20090419.

53.Marshall,Jon."ABriefHistoryofKoreanFilm".Retrieved20090522.
54.Paquet,Darcy."19451959".KoreanFilmPage.Retrieved20090522.
55.IstheCurtainFinallyFallingonthePhilippineKovieIndustry?(http://www.philnews.com/2005/wa.html).Accessed
January25,2009.
56.Aenet:PhilippineFilmHistory(http://www.aenet.org/family/filmhistory.htm).AccessedJanuary22,2009.
57.K.MotiGokulsing,K.Gokulsing,WimalDissanayake(2004).IndianPopularCinema:ANarrativeofCultural
Change.TrenthamBooks.pp.9899.ISBN1858563291.
58.THXMilestones(https://web.archive.org/web/20061109131348/http://www.thx.com/mod/company/milestones.html)
attheWaybackMachine(archivedNovember9,2006)
59.Brenhouse,Hillary(20110131)."AsItsBoxOfficeBooms,ChineseCinemaMakesa3DPush".Time.Retrieved
20111018.
60.Helmore,Edward(1November2014)."They'reheretosavetheworld:buthowmanysuperheromoviescanwe
take?".TheGuardian.GuardianNewsandMediaLimited.Retrieved29November2015.

Furtherreading
Munslow,Alun(December2007)."Filmandhistory:RobertA.RosenstoneandHistoryonFilm/Filmon
History".RethinkingHistory.4(11):565575.
Abel,Richard.TheCineGoestoTown:FrenchCinema18961914UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1998.
Acker,Ally.ReelWomen:PioneersoftheCinema,1896tothePresent.London:B.T.Batsford,1991.
Barr,Charles.Allouryesterdays:90yearsofBritishcinema(BritishFilmInstitute,1986).
Basten,FredE.GloriousTechnicolor:TheMovies'MagicRainbow.ASBarnes&Company,1980.
Bowser,Eileen.TheTransformationofCinema19071915(HistoryoftheAmericanCinema,Vol.2)
CharlesScribner'sSons,1990.
Rawlence,Christopher(1990).TheMissingReel:TheUntoldStoryoftheLostInventorofMoving
Pictures.CharlesAtheneum.ISBN9780689120688.
Cook,DavidA.AHistoryofNarrativeFilm,2ndedition.NewYork:W.W.Norton,1990.
Cousins,Mark.TheStoryofFilm:AWorldwideHistory,NewYork:Thunder'sMouthpress,2006.
Dixon,WheelerWinstonandGwendolynAudreyFoster.AShortHistoryofFilm,2ndedition.New
Brunswick:RutgersUniversityPress,2013.
King,Geoff.NewHollywoodCinema:AnIntroduction.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2002.
Landry,Marcia.BritishGenres:CinemaandSociety,19301960(1991)
byMarciaLandy
Merritt,Greg.CelluloidMavericks:AHistoryofAmericanIndependentFilm.Thunder'sMouthPress,
2001.
Musser,Charles(1990).TheEmergenceofCinema:TheAmericanScreento1907.NewYork:Charles
Scribner'sSons.ISBN0684184133.
NowellSmith,Geoffrey,ed.TheOxfordHistoryofWorldCinema.OxfordUniversityPress,1999.
Parkinson,David.HistoryofFilm.NewYork:Thames&Hudson,1995.ISBN050020277X
Rocchio,VincentF.ReelRacism.ConfrontingHollywood'sConstructionofAfroAmericanCulture.
WestviewPress,2000.
Salt,Barry.FilmStyleandTechnology:HistoryandAnalysis2ndEd.Starword,1992.
Salt,Barry.MovingIntoPicturesStarword,2001.
Sargeant,Amy.BritishCinema:ACriticalHistory(2008).
Schrader,Paul."NotesonFilmNoir."FilmComment,1984.
Steele,Asa(February1911)."TheMovingPictureShow:...HowTheFilmsAreMade,WhoWritesThe
"Plots",WhoCensorsThePlays,AndWhatItAllCosts".TheWorld'sWork:AHistoryofOurTime.
XXI:1401814032.Retrieved20090710.
Tsivian,Yuri.SilentWitnesses:RussianFilms19081919BritishFilmInstitute,1989.
Unterburger,AmyL.TheSt.JamesWomenFilmmakersEncyclopedia:WomenontheOtherSideofthe
Camera.VisibleInkPress,1999.
Usai,P.C.&Codelli,L.(editors)BeforeCaligari:GermanCinema,18951920EdizioniBiblioteca
dell'Immagine,1990.
\Jones.Basedonthebook(above)writtenbyBasten&Jones.Documentary,(1998).

Externallinks
FilmHistory(http://rcfilms.com.sapo.pt/history.htm)
WikimediaCommonshas
Filmhistorybydecade(http://www.filmsite.org/filmh.html)
mediarelatedtoHistoryof
Cinema:From1890ToNow(http://www.matthewhunt.com/cine
cinema.
ma/)
TheHistoryoftheDiscoveryofCinematography(http://www.precinemahistory.net/)AnIllustrated
ChronologybyPaulBurns
WhatisaCameraObscura?(http://brightbytes.com/cosite/what.html)
MuseumOfMotionPictureHistory,Inc.(http://www.MOMPH.com/)
AnIntroductiontoEarlycinema(http://www.earlycinema.com/index.html)
OriginsofCinemaDocumentary(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pBahe2_sZk0)
RealityFilm(https://web.archive.org/web/20080204214050/http://www.realityfilm.com/study/index.htm
l)attheWaybackMachine(archivedFebruary4,2008)
HistoryofFilmFormats(http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/animato/filmhist/filmhist.html)
FilmSoundHistory(http://www.filmsound.org/filmsoundhistory/)atFilmSound.org(http://www.films
ound.org/)
ListofEarlySoundFilms18941929atSilentErawebsite(http://www.silentera.com/PSFL/indexes/early
SoundFilms.html)
EarlyHistoryofWideFilms(http://www.widescreenmuseum.com/widescreen/earlyjan1930.htm)
AmericanCinematographer,January,1930
HollywoodMoviesHistory(http://hiyaa.yolasite.com/hollywood.php)
Latinosinthemovies(http://textmex.blogspot.com/)
TechnicolorHistory(http://www.widescreenmuseum.com/oldcolor/technicolor1.htm)
ABrief,EarlyHistoryofComputerGraphicsinFilm(http://www.beanblossom.in.us/larryy/cgi.html)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_film&oldid=735646300"
Categories: Historyoffilm Filmtheory
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon22August2016,at04:20.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisaregistered
trademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.