Applied Surface Science 290 (2014) 4047

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Surface Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apsusc

Almen intensity effect on microstructure and mechanical properties

of low carbon steel subjected to severe shot peening
Okan Unal a, , Remzi Varol b
a
b

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bartin University, 74100, Bartin, Turkey

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, 32260 Isparta, Turkey

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 8 September 2013
Received in revised form 30 October 2013
Accepted 31 October 2013
Available online 21 November 2013
Keywords:
Shot peening
Ultra ne grain
Nanoindentation
Almen intensity
Residual stress

a b s t r a c t
This paper discusses alteration of microstructure and mechanical properties of low carbon steel after
severe shot peening process. An ultra ne grained surface layer was formed on AISI 1017 mild steel by
means of severe shot peening process. Surface characteristics were afrmed using optical microscopy,
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM).
Nano hardness measurements were taken along the depth from shot peened surface using nanoindentation methods. The results showed that severe (unconventional) air blast shot peening process is an
effective way to obtain ultra ne grained surface layer and to obtain superior mechanical properties.
2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In recent years, ultra ne grained structures or nano crystallized
structure formations have attracted considerable scientic interest
[1]. There are several methods to create nanostructured materials.
Nevertheless, these methods are classied according to the materials. The materials are (1) bulk nanostructured materials and (2)
bulk materials with a nonastructured surface. Bulk nanostructured materials possess nanostructured layers completely. However,
bulk materials with a nanostructured surface have coarse grained
interior with a nanostructured surface. Bulk nanostructured materials are accomplished by either bottom-up (assembly of atoms into
nanoscale cluster by consolidation) methods or top-down (obtain
nanostructure by structural decomposition) methods [2]. Equal
channel angular pressing (ECAP), high pressure torsion (HPT) and
constrained groove pressing (CGP) can be classied into top-down
methods for performing bulk nanostructured materials. For the
bulk materials with a nanostructured surface, air blast shot peening [3], high energy shot peening [4], ultrasonic impact peening
[5], high speed machining particularly drilling [6] can be applied
as top-down methods. Severe plastic deformation (SPD) methods are expressed as increasing defects and grain boundaries with

Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 378 223 53 65; fax: +90 378 223 53 58.
E-mail addresses: ounal@bartin.edu.tr, unalokan78@gmail.com,
okanunal78s@hotmail.com (O. Unal), remzivarol@sdu.edu.tr (R. Varol).
0169-4332/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.10.184

non-equilibrium processes [7]. So, SPD methods can be classied

into top-down methods.
In this study, severe shot peening (SSP) is applied as a severe
plastic deformation method. The SSP method expressed as the
application of conventional shot peening with higher Almen intensity [8]. Almen intensity is determined with adjusting the air
pressure, shot diameter and also peening time. Nanocrystallized
materials possess superior mechanical properties compared to
conventional coarse grained materials. Wear and tribological properties of both low carbon steel and stainless steel materials
subjected to severe shot peening have been studied [9,10]. The
fatigue failure is the most encountered phenomena on the machine
parts exposed to dynamic loading. The shot peening process has
been applied to increase the fatigue resistance of metallic materials for several decades. Nowadays, investigations are performed
about the benecialness or harmfulness of the severe shot peening on the fatigue properties [11] and also the effect of ultra ne
grained structures on diffusion characteristics [12]. The most common failures of engineering materials are fatigue, fretting fatigue,
wear and corrosion which originate from surface and propagate to
interior. Material structure should be taken into account when failure analysis is essential. It will be inuential to present an approach
to enhance mechanical and physical properties of metallic material
surfaces [13].
Engineering materials with ne grained structure possess better
mechanical properties; therefore severe plastic deformation processes such as equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) and high
pressure torsion (HPT) are developed to obtain ultra ne grained

O. Unal, R. Varol / Applied Surface Science 290 (2014) 4047

in different bulk metals and alloys, which have different crystallographic structures. Coarse grained to ultra ne grained conversion
mechanism is still in an ongoing research. Studies depict that short
and long range shear bands emerge after exposing the materials to
plastic deformation. Shear bands play a major role at grain subdivision local dynamic recovery and recrystallization processes.
Large deformations lead to generation of a distinct structure of
dislocation-free and highly misoriented ne grains with high angle
grain boundaries (HAGB) [14].
The severe shot peened specimens are classied as bulk materials with ultra ne (nanostructure) grained surface and coarse grain
interior as mentioned before. Nevertheless, materials subjected to
severe plastic deformation methods such as ECAP or HPT are named
as bulk nanostructured materials. Both the methods are based upon
the high plastic deformation and they attribute distinct mechanical
and physical properties to the materials [15]. Actually, it may not be
necessary in any case to obtain ultra ne grained structure of whole
material. Fatigue, fretting fatigue, wear and corrosion failures originate from surface and propagate [16,17]. So obtaining ultra ne
grained structure on the surface and just below the surface can slow
down or prevent crack propagation. A machine part with a nanostructured surface layer and coarse grained interior is expected to
have highly improved fatigue properties. So, both fatigue-crack initiation and propagation are inhibited by ne grains near the surface
and the coarse grains in the interior, respectively [18].
Air blast shot peening is a cold working process generating high
plastic deformation on the surface of metals in recent years also
this process has been applied to ceramics for retarding the crack
propagation [19]. This mechanical surface treatment compensates
the requirements such as hardness, strength and considerable
resistance to fatigue failure in service conditions. In the last few
decades, large efforts have been performed on microstructure
change of the surface layer with different types of shot peening
techniques. Therefore, the effect of shot peening on the micro structure and mechanical properties on the surface have been examined
effectively [20]. Shot peening effect on the materials have been
investigated by means of shot peening parameters, for instance surface coverage, shot velocity and etc. [21]. Also one of the valuable

41

parameter to determine the shot peening effect is Almen intensity.

In this study, because of being an illustrative parameter of shot
peening and its plastic deformation rate, Almen intensity effect on
the materials have been investigated for obtaining optimum conditions either mechanical properties enhancement or microstructure
alteration after shot peening processes.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Material selection
The material used in this investigation was AISI 1017 low carbon steel with the following chemical compositions mass (%): C
0.150.20, Mn 0.300.60, P 0.04(max), S 0.05(max) and balance
Fe. Rectangular plate specimens (30 30 mm) with thickness of
10 mm were cut from the steel. Specimens were ground by 180
to 1200 grit sandpapers then polished with 6 and 1 m diamond
paste. Then heat treatment was applied to the specimens annealing
at 810 C for 30 min plus furnace cooling process. Air blast severe
shot peening treatment was performed on the samples using 2000S
Peenmatic shot peening machine containing AISI 1070 steel shots.
Table 1 shows air blast severe shot peening conditions. In conventional shot peening applications, for instance the turbine blades
are shot peened within the range of 812A Almen intensity [22].
In Table 1, the minimum Almen intensity is A2426 for this study
and increases to A3436 with the raising of peening parameters. To
provide A2426 Almen intensity, approximately two times higher
plastic deformation rate is required with compared to A812 conventional Almen intensity. A3436 Almen intensity can be assessed
due to this approach roughly. Shot peening of C Almen strips
also requires much more plastic deformation with compared to
shot peening of A Almen strips. So beginning with A2426 Almen
intensity and increase to C810 expressed as the plastic deformation rate is also raised gradually.
In this study, Almen intensity effect on the microstructure
evolution and mechanical properties of low carbon steels was
investigated. Nevertheless, the surface coverage was analyzed only
to adjust the Almen intensities with air pressure, peening time and

Table 1
Almen intensity and peening parameters of each shot peened specimens.
Specimen no.

Almen intensity

Shot size

Coverage (%)

Time (sn)

Pressure kPa (psi)

Arc height (mm)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

A2426
A2426
A2830
A2830
A3032
A3032
A3032
A3032
A3234
A3234
A3234
A3234
A3436
A3436
A3436
A3436
C46
C46
C46
C46
C68
C68
C68
C68
C810
C810
C810
C810

S230
S230
S110
S110
S110
S110
S230
S230
S110
S110
S230
S230
S110
S110
S230
S230
S110
S110
S230
S230
S110
S110
S230
S230
S110
S110
S230
S230

100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200

25
25
45
45
45
45
25
25
50
50
25
25
50
50
20
20
30
30
20
20
40
40
30
30
45
45
40
40

380 (55)
380 (55)
620 (90)
620 (90)
690 (100)
690 (100)
413 (60)
413 (60)
690 (100)
690 (100)
448 (65)
448 (65)
723 (105)
723 (105)
482 (70)
482 (70)
482 (70)
482 (70)
345 (50)
345 (50)
482 (70)
482 (70)
345 (50)
345 (50)
690 (100)
690 (100)
345 (50)
345 (50)

0.25
0.25
0.29
0.29
0.31
0.31
0.31
0.31
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.35
0.35
0.36
0.36
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.09
0.09
0.1
0.1

42

O. Unal, R. Varol / Applied Surface Science 290 (2014) 4047

shot diameter (Table 1) and also investigated for determining its

impact on the surface roughness for 100% and 200% values.

2.2. Evaluation of mechanical properties

In order to characterize peened specimens surface - modied layer, distribution of hardness from surface to interior was
measured by using Schimadzu DUH-W201S ultra micro-hardness
tester. The applied load was 50 mN with a duration of 10 s.
Evaluation of mechanical properties has been performed with
nanoindentation methods on a sub-micron scale [23]. The indentation load-displacement data is used to determine the mechanical
properties even when the indentations are too small to be imaged
and analyzed [24,25]. Also the nanoindentation is performed to
identify the residual stress on the surface of the metallic materials
due to the magnitude of the elastic recovery [26]. Nanohardness
values are obtained from loading and unloading curve emerged
from elasticplastic transition. When the indenter is loaded, the
specimen is subjected to elastic and also plastic deformation.
From loading and unloading curve, with pre-determined peak
load (Pmax ) and contact area (Ac ), hardness values are evaluated
[27].

2.3. Microstructural characterization

The samples were characterized by Zeiss AXIO A1 optical
microscope, Tescan scanning electron microscope (SEM) and high
resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM). For HRTEM
observations, samples were prepared by ion polishing as mechanically thinning them to a thickness of 80 m by disc grinding and to
about 5 m by dimple grinding from metal side. Specimens were
examined by using a JEOL JEM 2100 High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscope (LaB6 lament) operated at 200 kV. The
samples peened with different Almen intensities were also characterized by X-ray diffractometer to analyze the crystallite size on
the surface. This approach is based on obtaining full width at half
maximum (FWHM) on intensity peaks and determining crystallite
size [28].
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microscopic observations
Different shot peening parameters are directly related to Almen
intensity distinction. Almen intensity covers formation of ultra ne
grained layer. Almen intensity is related to plastic deformation

Fig. 1. (a) as received AISI 1017 specimen (b) peened with A3032 Almen intensity (c) peened with A3234 Almen intensity (d) peened with A3436 Almen intensity (e)
peened with C810 Almen intensity.

O. Unal, R. Varol / Applied Surface Science 290 (2014) 4047

43

Fig. 2. SEM microstructure of shot peened specimen with A3436.

level and directly affects ultra ne crystalline layer thickness and

its mechanical properties. In general, the deformation layer is
introduced and grain sizes are determined after all severe plastic
deformation methods. Also HRTEM investigations are performed
to measure average grain size of the materials. Nevertheless, there
is limited number of studies on the Almen intensity effect on
plastic deformation, mechanical and physical properties despite
being one of the effective parameter of the shot peening process.
Fig. 1(a) shows as received AISI 1017 low carbon steel surface and Fig. 1(b)(e) show low carbon steel specimen surfaces
which were shot peened with A3032, A3234, A3436 and C810,
respectively. It is observed that the outmost layer with thickness
of approximately 40 m was inuenced with severe plastic deformation and the grain boundary became indistinct. Fig. 1(c) shows
the shot dimple on the surface created by a high velocity shot.
Just below the dimple highly deformed, oriented and disintegrated
pearlite structure is seen clearly. In addition it is revealed from
Fig. 1 that higher Almen intensity causes the increase of ultra ne
grained layer thickness. Fig. 1(e) shows the cracks propagated to
interior. Plastic deformation rate is so high that, beside occurence
of ultra ne grained structure layer, surface cracks emerged and
propagated.
Fig. 2(a) and (b) show scanning electron microscope images of
low carbon steels peened with A3436 Almen intensity with different magnications. It can be seen that the layer with thickness
of approximately 40 m just below the surface is inuenced from
high plastic deformation and strain rates. Fig. 2(c) depicts ultra ne
grained layer under micron sizes with a magnication of 12,000.
Ultra ne grained structure under micron size and bulk material
grain structure distinction can be easily seen from the gures.
Also Fig. 3(a) shows the high resolution transmission electron
microscope (HRTEM) image of specimen shot peened with A3436

Almen intensity. High plastic deformation effect on grains can be

observed. Orientation and size of grains had to be changed by severe
plastic deformation. Fig. 3(b) depicts dislocation density and orientation due to very high plastic deformation strain rates.
3.2. XRD measurements
For the XRD analysis, Broker AXS D8 Advance Model X-ray
diffractometer is used with Cu K radiation operated at 30 kV and
80 mA. The XRD is utilized to determine the peak broadening with
the crystallite size due to high density of dislocations in nanocrystalline materials using Scherers formula [29]. Diffraction peaks of
the AISI 1017 low carbon steel specimens peened with A3032,
A3234, A3436 and C810 are displayed in Fig. 4. According to
the diffraction peaks, FWHM values and crystallite sizes are evaluated and displayed in Table 2. Applying severe shot peening creates
nanocrystalline layer on and just below the surface of low carbon
steel. The new grains occur with the effect of high plastic deformation. Higher Almen intensity brings ner grains together. With
the application of the highest Almen intensity C810, the surface
has the nest grain size of approximately 38 nm. Crystallite size
investigations depict the plastic deformation on the surface reaches
to a saturation point from A3436 to C810 Almen intensity. Also
grain renement arrives to minimum limit for the study. Although

Table 2
Crystallite size and FWHM values of shot peened low carbon steel specimens.
Specimens

2 ()

Crystallite size (nm)

FWHM ( )

Peened with A 3032

Peened with A 3234
Peened with A 3436
Peened with C 810

44.78
45.04
44.79
44.92

82
44
39
38

0.120
0.219
0.243
0.250

44

O. Unal, R. Varol / Applied Surface Science 290 (2014) 4047

the increase of C type Almen intensity, it may not be possible to

reduce the grain size. This situation is also compatible with Fig. 1(e).
The highest Almen intensity C810 exposed very high plastic deformation to the material. Nevertheless, the intensity induced so much
surface cracks before deformed plastically. The deformation rate is
quite above the materials failure limit.
Also XRD is utilized to determine the residual stresses on the
surface of the peened and as received specimens. The surface residual stresses versus Almen intensity are shown in Fig. 5. As received
specimen has 50 MPa tensile residual stress on the surface. Nevertheless, compressive residual stress is exposed to the peened
surface with the application of severe shot peening and the maximum compressive residual stress is obtained on the surface of the
specimen shot peened with C810. The grain sizes are in the range
below 100 nm and decreased with the increasing of Almen intensity
and the results are compatible with the literature expressed above.
Nevertheless, the residual stresses on the surface may be inuenced by the shot peening methods (laser peening, ultrasonic shot
peening, air blast shot peening). Therefore, obtained residual stress
values are only for shot peened low carbon steel by air blast severe
shot peening machine and evaluated as 310 MPa compressive on
the surface with C810 Almen intensity.
3.3. Nanohardness measurements

Fig. 3. (a) Highly deformed oriented grains HRTEM microstructure of peened specimen with A3436 Almen intensity (b) Dislocation density due to high strain rates.

Nanohardness measurements were taken in order to investigate the inuence of plastic deformation via air blast severe shot
peening process. Nanoindentation results are depicted for peened
with C810, A3436, A3032 Almen intensity and as received specimens on Fig. 6(a). All results showed that hardness close to outmost
layer signicantly increases via severe shot peening process and
the increase on hardness from bulk material to surface is directly
related to grain renement and high dislocation density stratication. It is reasonable that from surface to interior the nanohardness
values decreased due to the reduction effect of plastic deformation.
Nevertheless, hardness decrease is not exactly correlative when
passing to interior particularly after the nanostructured zone. There
is no abrupt fall on the hardness as similar in the literature [30].
Highly plastic deformed layers may prevent the abrupt fall on the
hardness.
Fig. 6(b) shows surface hardness variation versus Almen intensity. Almen intensity and surface hardness are directly related to
each other. Hardness of the shot peened surface depends on the
rate of severe plastic deformation.

Fig. 4. Intensity distribution of all surface treated low carbon steel specimens.

O. Unal, R. Varol / Applied Surface Science 290 (2014) 4047

Fig. 5. Surface residual stresses of the shot peened and as received specimens.

Fig. 6. (a) Hardness variation from surface to interior of peened and as received specimens (b) surface nanohardness variation according to Almen intensity.

45

46

O. Unal, R. Varol / Applied Surface Science 290 (2014) 4047

Fig. 7. Surface roughness of peened specimens (a) A2830 Almen intensity 100% coverage (b) A2830 Almen intensity 200% coverage (c) A3436 Almen intensity 100%
coverage.

Table 3
Surface roughness (Ra , Rq , Rt ) values for peened specimens.
Almen intensity

Coverage (%)

Ra (m)

Rq (m)

Rt (m)

A2830
A2830
A3436

100
200
100

7.15
6.88
7.42

8.75
8.34
9.36

63.37
44.97
59.90

(2)

3.4. Surface roughness

Surface roughness has become more crucial property of metallic materials after shot peening treatment. It is reasonable that
increasing surface roughness is deteriorative to fatigue and corrosion strength. Fig. 7 depicts surface roughness proles of the
specimens peened with A2830 100% and 200% coverage and with
A3436 100% coverage. With the increasing Almen intensity, surface roughness values also increases as expected. It is revealed from
the results that for the same Almen intensity, increasing coverage is
an effective way to decrease surface roughness. Table 3 shows the
surface roughness values of Ra , Rq , Rt for pre-determined peened
specimens.
4. Conclusions
Severe air blast shot peening has been applied to AISI 1017 low
carbon steel specimens in order to investigate the characteristics of
surface and to determine the alteration mechanical properties due
to severe plastic deformation. Following conclusions can be drawn
based on the various experimental results;
(1) Microscopic observations showed that ultra ne grained layer
has occurred on and just below the surface. Sub micron grain
stratication has occurred approximately 40 m thickness. On
HRTEM images oriented grains (sub-micron sizes) and dislocation densities due to higher plastic deformations can be seen.

(3)

(4)

(5)

Also XRD studies show the grain sizes of the layer is below
100 nm and with the increasing of the plastic deformation rate
the grains sizes reduced to approximately 40 nm.
Besides occurrence of sub-micron ultra ne grained layer with
the increasing severe plastic deformations especially under
C Almen intensity conditions, surface micro cracks emerge.
Therefore, while determining the heavier conditions after
C810 Almen intensities, drawbacks should be taken into consideration for fatigue properties.
Due to pre-determined maximum Almen intensity C810, surface nanohardness was obtained as approximately 12 GPa.
When compared to as received specimen surface nanohardness
which is nearly 6 GPa, improvement is approximately two times
according to not peened specimen. Surface hardness enhancement is directly related to sub micron grain layer. Hardness
values reduced from surface to interior of the bulk materials.
With decreasing Almen intensity, surface hardness values are
also decreased. Approximately after 200 m thickness, severe
shot peening effect has been substantially released.
The residual stresses occurred as compressive residual stress on
the surface after the severe shot peening process as expected.
The residual stress on the surface of the specimen peened with
C810 is 310 MPa and it is just below the yield strength of
AISI 1017 low carbon steel. This result depicts the specimen
is highly plastic deformed via severe shot peening process and
approaches to yield.

Experimental results depict Almen intensity directly affect not

only mechanical behaviour but also microstructure changes of
the low carbon steel specimens subjected to severe shot peening.
With the increase of Almen intensity, the grain size decreases to
20100 nmdue to high plastic deformation rates. The highest nano
hardness and the nest grain size is obtained with the specimen

O. Unal, R. Varol / Applied Surface Science 290 (2014) 4047

peened with C810, but there is no certain difference about the

thickness of nano-structured layer.
Besides better mechanical properties, obtaining nano size
grained layer implies effective surface characteristics against failures especially dynamic ones. Also nanostructured layer just below
the surface may affect diffusion characteristics of the metallic materials. For instance, nitriding, ion implantation, plasma nitriding
may be applied after severe shot peening treatment with the most
appropriate Almen intensity conditions. Nevertheless, investigating the characteristics of the nano-structured layer at elevated
temperature should be benecial and may shed light on diffusion
and surface hardening processes.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge Turkish Air Force
Air Supply and Maintenance Command for shot peening applications and also TUBITAK MAM and Dokuz Eyll University, Materials
Metallurgical Engineering Department for experimental investigations.
References
[1] N.R. Tao, M.L. Sui, J. Lu, K. Lu, Surface nanocrystallization of iron induced by
ultrasonic shot peening, Nanostruct. Mater. 11 (1999) 433440.
[2] M.J. Zehetbauer, Y.T. Zhu, Bulk Nanostructured Materials, WILEY-VCH, Hoboken, NJ, 2009.
[3] H.P. Yang, X.C. Wu, Y.A. Min, T.R. Wu, J.Z. Gui, Plasma boriding of high strength
alloy steel with nanostructured surface layer at low temperature assisted by
air blast shot peening, Surf. Coat. Technol. 228 (2013) 229233.
[4] Z. Ni, X. Wang, J. Wang, E. Wu, Characterization of the phase transformation in
a nanostructured surface layer of 304 stainless steel induced by high-energy
shot peening, Philos. Mag. B 334 (2003) 221228.
[5] B.N. Mordyuk, O.P. Karasevskaya, G.I. Prokopenko, N.I. Khripta, Ultranegrained textured surface layer on Zr1%Nb alloy produced by ultrasonic impact
peening for enhanced corrosion resistance, Surf. Coat. Technol. 210 (2012)
5461.
[6] Y. Todaka, M. Umemoto, J. Li, K. Tsuchiya, Nanocrystallization of carbon steels
by shot peening and drilling, Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 10 (2005) 409416.
[7] S. Bagherifard, M. Guagliano, Review of shot peening processes to obtain
nanocrystalline surfaces in metal alloys, Surf. Eng. 25 (2009) 314.
[8] S. Bagherifard, R. Ghelichi, M. Guagliano, A numerical model of severe shot
peening (SSP) to predict the generation of a nanostructured surface layer of
material, Surf. Coat. Technol. 204 (2010) 5461.
[9] Z.B. Wang, N.R. Tao, S. Li, W. Wang, G. Liu, J. Lu, K. Lu, Effect of surface nanocrystallization on friction and wear properties in low carbon steel, Mater. Sci. Eng.,
A 352 (2003) 144149.

47

[10] G. Ma, B. Xu, H. Wang, H. Si, D. Yang, Effect of surface nanocrystallization on

the tribological properties of 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel, Mater. Lett. 65 (2011)
12681271.
[11] K. Mikova, S. Bagherifard, O. Bokuvka, M. Guagliano, Fatigue behaviour of X70
microalloyed steel after severe shot peening, Int. J. Fatigue 55 (2013) 3342.
[12] J.F. Gu, D.H. Bei, J.S. Pan, J. Lu, K. Lu, Improved nitrogen transport in surface
nanocrystallized low-carbon steels during gaseous nitridation, Mater. Lett. 55
(2002) 340343.
[13] S.S. Yilmaz, B.S. nl, R. Varol, Effect of boronizing and shot peening in ferrous
based FeCuGraphite powder metallurgy material on wear, microstructure and
mechanical properties, Mater. Des. 31 (2010) 44464501.
[14] J. Zrnik, S.V. Dobatkin, I. Mamuzi, Processing of metals by severe plastic deformation (spd)structure and mechanical properties respond, Metalurgija 47
(2008) 211216.
[15] K. Dai, L. Shaw, Comparison between shot peening and surface nanocrystallization and hardening processes, Mater. Sci. Eng., A 463 (2007) 4653.
[16] S. Bagherifard, I.F. Pariente, R. Ghelichi, M. Guagliano, Fatigue behavior of
notched steel specimens with nanocrystallized surface obtained by severe shot
peening, Mater. Des. 45 (2013) 497503.
[17] T. Wang, J. Yu, B. Dong, Surface nanocrystallization induced by shot peening
and its effect on corrosion resistance of 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel, Surf. Coat.
Technol. 200 (2006) 47774781.
[18] G. Liu, J. Lu, K. Lu, Surface nanocrystallization of 316L stainless steel induced by
ultrasonic shot peening, Mater. Sci. Eng., A 286 (2000) 9195.
[19] W. Pfeiffer, T. Frey, Strengthening of ceramics by shot peening, J. Eur. Ceram.
Soc. 26 (2006) 26392645.
[20] X.Y. Wang, D.Y. Li, Mechanical, electrochemical and tribological properties of
nano-crystalline surface of 304 stainless steel, Wear 255 (2003) 836845.
[21] S. Bagherifard, R. Ghelichi, M. Guagliano, On the shot peening surface coverage
and its assessment by means of nite element simulation: A critical review and
some original developments, Appl. Surf. Sci. 259 (2012) 186194.
[22] G.A. Carek, Shot Peening for Ti6Al4V Alloy Compressor Blades, NASA Technical Paper 2711, 1987.
[23] N. Panich, S. Yong, Improved method to determine the hardness and elastic
moduli using nano-indentation, KMITL Sci. J. 5 (2005) 483492.
[24] W.C. Oliver, G.M. Pharra, Measurement of hardness and elastic modulus by
instrumented indentation: advances in understanding and renements to
methodology, J. Mater. Res. 19 (2004) 320.
[25] A.E. Giannakopoulos, S. Suresh, Determination of elastoplastic properties by
instrumented sharp indentation, Scr. Mater. 40 (1999) 11911198.
[26] B.P. Groth, A.B. Mann, Identifying changes in residual stress using indentation
on machined metallic surfaces, Mater. Lett. 89 (2012) 287290.
[27] O. Uzun, U. Kolemen, S. Celebi, N. Guclu, Modulus and hardness evaluation
of polycrystalline superconductors by dynamic microindentation technique, J.
Eur. Ceram. Soc. 25 (2005) 969977.
[28] Y. Zhong, D. Ping, X. Song, F. Yin, Determination of grain size by XRD prole
analysis and TEM counting in nano-structured Cu, J. Alloys Compd. 476 (2009)
113117.
[29] S. Sivasankaran, K. Sivaprasad, R. Narayanasamy, P.V. Satyanarayana, X-ray
peak broadening analysis of AA 6061100x x wt% Al2 O3 nanocomposite prepared by mechanical alloying, Mater. Charact. 62 (2011) 661672.
[30] S. Bagherifard, M. Guagliano, Fatigue behavior of a low-alloy steel with nanostructured surface obtained by severe shot peening, Eng. Fract. Mech. 81 (2012)
5668.