SUMMARY - Chapter 12 (Multiple Access)

upper sublayer is responsible

for data link control while
lower sublayer is responsible
for resolving access to shared
media.
Formal protocols to handle access
to a shared link: RAP, CAP & CP.
Random Access/contention methods:
*no station is superior to another station
*station compete with one another to access the medium
ALOHA: allows MA to the shared medium.
*used very simple procedure called MA
*the method was improved and was called CSMA
*It evolved into two || methods: CSMA/CD & CSMA/CA
When a station sends data, another station
attempt to do so at the same time.
Data from 2 stations collide & become
garbled.
CSMA: minimize the chance of collision.
increase the performance.
Each station first listen to the medium before
sending.
Three Methods: I - Persistent, non - Persistent &
P - Persistent
I - Persistent: simple and straight forward
has the highest chance of collision
Non-Persistent: line = idle, sends instantly
line = !idle, it waits
reduces the chance of collision/efficiency
p-Persistent: use if the channel has time slots with a slot
duration
reduces the chance of collision but improved
efficiency
CSMA/CD: tells the station what to do when collision is detected.
CSMA/CA: tries to avoid the collision.
For Wireless Network, CSMA/CA was invented to
avoid collision.
Collisions are avoided through: interframe space,
contention window & acknowledgements.
*interframe space (IFS): wait for a period of time.
*contention window: amount of time divided into slots
*acknowledgement: still may be a collision resulting in
destroyed data
Controlled Access: stations consult one another
to find which station has the right to send.

Three Methods: reservation, polling and token

passing.
Reservation Method: a station needs to make a
reservation before sending data.
Polling Method: all data exchanges must be made
through the primary device even when the ultimate
destination is a secondary device.
Primary Device: controls the link.
Secondary Device: follow it's instructions.
Token Passing: the stations in a network are organized
in a logical ring. Special Packet also known as token.
Channelization: (FDMA, TDMA & CDMA) a MA in which
the available BW of a link is shared in time, frequency
or through code.
____________________________________________________

Data link Layer is dived into two: Data Link Control and MA resolution.

MA Protocols: RAP, CAP and CP

o RAP: ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD & CSMA/CA
o CAP: Reservation, Polling & Token Passing
o CP: FDMA, TDMA & CDMA
Pure ALOHA: the original ALOHA protocol
*the idea is that each station sends a frame whenever it
has a frame to send.
*back-off time: amount of time before resending its
frame
*time-out period: maximum possible round trip
propagation (2 x Tp) where Tp = d/v
Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA.
CSMA/CD
*The throughput(S) of CSMA/CD is greater than that of pure or slotted ALOHA.
*For I-persistent method the maximum
throughput is around 50 percent when G =1.
*For non-persistent method, the maximum
throughput can go up to 90 percent when G is between 3 and 8.
CSMA/CA (to avoid collision)
In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the channel busy,
it does not restart the timer of the contention window;
it stops the timer and restarts it when the channel becomes idle.

SUMMARY - Chapter 13 (Wired LAN 802.3)

Ethernet: most widely used LAN protocol.

IEEE 802.3: (WIRED) defines I- persistent CSMA/CD
as the access method for 1st generation 10 Mbps
Ethernet.
Data link layer (Ethernet): divided into LLC sublayer and
MAC sublayer.
MAC sublayer: responsible for the operation of
CSMA/CD access method and framing.
Each station on an Ethernet network has 48 bits
address imprinted on its network interface card (NIC).
For 10 Mbps: Minimum is 64 bytes & Maximum is 1518 bytes.
10Base5 (thick) , 10Base2 (thin) , 10Base-T (4 Twisted-pair Ethernet) & 10Base-F (Fiber Ethernet).
Bridge: can increase the BW and separate the collision from Ethernet LAN.
Switch: allows each station to have the entire capacity of the network itself.
Full Duplex Mode: doubles the capacity of each domain & removes the need for CSMA/CD
method.
Fast Ethernet: 100Mbps; allows two devices to negotiate the mode.
100Base-TX( 2 twisted pair )
100Base-FX ( 2 fiber-optic cables )
100Base-T4 (four pairs of voice-grade, or higher, twisted-pair cable).
Gigabit Ethernet: 1Gbps; includes half duplex mode and full duplex
1000Base-SX ( 2 optical fibers and a short-wave laser source )
1000Base-LX ( 2 optical fibers and a long-wave
laser source )
1000Base-T ( four twisted pairs )
Ten Gigabit: 10 Gbps; Full duplex mode
10GBase-S
10GBase-L
10GBase-E
__________________________________________________

LLC: provides one single data link control protocol for all IEEE LANs
MAC: defines the specific access method for each LAN
*MAC Sublayer contains a number of distinct module;
governs the operation of the access method; It also
frames data received from the upper layer and passes
them to the physical layer.
Frame Format contains 7 Fields: Preamble(7bytes), SFD(2bytes), DA(6bytes), SA(6bytes),
PDU(2bytes), Data & Padding(46-1500 bytes) & CRC-32(4bytes.)
Preamble: Alerts the receiving System/input timing.
SFD: warns the station (last 2 bits is 11)
DA: contains the physical address of the destination station to receive the packet
SA: contains the physical address of the sender of the packet.
PDU: defined as a type field or length field.
Data & Padding: carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols
CRC: contains error detection information.

FRAME LENGTH (64 to 1518 bytes)

Minimum Frame Length: 64 Bytes / 512 bits

Maximum Frame Length: 1518 bytes / 12,144 bits
NIC: provides the station with a 6-byte physical address.
Ethernet Address is normally 6 bytes, written in hexadecimal notation.
Source Address is always UNICAST.
Destination Address can be either Unicast, Multicast or Broadcast.
If the least significant bit of the first byte in a destination address is 0 (or the decimal value is
EVEN), the address is unicast; otherwise, it is multicast.
e.g. 1000 ; 810 = even; 1000 = zero UNICAST
e.g. 1001 ; 910 = odd; 1001 = logic 1 MULTICAST
Broadcast Address is a special case of the Multicast address. 48 1s.
How to determine the type of the ff. DA shown below ?
4A:30:13:A1:B8:10 - look at the second hexadecimal from the left. If even, UNICAST. Else,
MULTICAST.
Encoding and Decoding - Uses Manchester scheme (10Mbps)
Transceiver: responsible for transmitting, receiving and detecting collision.
STANDARD ETHERNET

10Base5: *is roughly the size of garden hose

*has external transceiver
*if more than 500m, an excessive degradation
will occur in the signal. Repeater will be
added for more than 500m.

10Base2: *NIC is installed inside the station.

*More expensive.

10Base - T: *connected to a hub via twisted pair of

cable; because of twisted cable, it creates
two paths.

10Base - F: *most common for the optical fiber. The

stations are connected to the hub using
two fiber-optic cables.

Bridges have two effects: *raise the Bandwidth

*separate collision domains
Switched Ethernet: having an N-ports (with 5Mbps)
Fast Ethernet: *Upgrade data rate to 100Mbps (48 bits)
* Auto-negotiation - to communicate
even not compatible.
* allow a station to check a hub's
capabilities.
* to allow one device to have multiple
capabilities.

Gigabit: *designed to connect two or more stations.

Traditional: *keep the minimum length of the frame

Carrier Extension: *allow for a longer network

*increase the minimum frame length
Frame Bursting: *to improve Efficiency
In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit Ethernet, there is no collision; the maximum length of the cable
is determined by the signal attenuation in the cable.

Ten-Gigabit

SUMMARY - Chapter 14 (Wireless LAN 802.11)

IEEE 802.11: (WIRELESS) has 2 services, BSS & ESS.

CSMA/CA: access method used in DCF.
Polling: access method used in PCF.
NAV: a timer used for collision avoidance.
MAC Layer has 9 Layers. Up to 4 address >> addressing!
Wireless LANs: management frames, control frames and data frames.
Bluetooth: connects devices in a small area.
Bluetooth network is called piconet.
Multiple piconets is called scatternet.
Bluetooth has 1 primary device and up to 7 secondary devices.
Piconet can be combined to form scatternet.
Bluetooth uses a 2.4-GHz ISM band divided into 79 channels of 1 MHz each.
_________________________________________________
The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and the extended service
set (ESS).
A BSS without an AP is called an ad hoc network;
a BSS with an AP is called an infrastructure network.
ESS: is made up of two or more BSSs with APs.
The extended service set uses two types of stations: mobile and stationary. The mobile stations
are normal stations inside a BSS. The stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired
LAN.
Three types of stations based on their mobility in a wireless LAN: no-transition, BSS-transition,
and ESS-transition mobility.
No-transition: *either stationary or moving only inside
a BSS.
BSS-transition: *can move from one BSS to another.
ESS-transition: *can move from ESS to another. All BSS.
PCF: *used mostly for time-sensitive transmission.
Fragmentation: It is more efficient to resend a small
frame than a large one.
Frame Control: is 2 bytes long and defines the type of
frame and some control information.
Addresses: there are four address field with 6 bytes
long.
Sequence Control: the sequence number of the frame
to be used in flow control.
Frame Body: can be between 0 and 2312 bytes
FCS: is 4 bytes long and contains a CRC-32 error
detection sequence.

802.11 three categories:

Management Frames: used for the initial
communication between stations
and access points.
Control Frames: used for accessing the channel and
acknowledging frames.
Data frames: are used for carrying data and control
information.
The CTS frame in CSMAICA handshake can prevent collision from a hidden station.
IEEE 802.11 FHSS: uses the 2.4-GHz ISM band.
The band is divided into 79 subbands
of 1 MHz.
Two-level FSK or four-level FSK
A pseudorandom number generator selects the hopping sequence.
IEEE 802.11 DSSS: Modulation technique in this
specification is PSK at 1 Mbaud/s.
IEEE 802.11 Infrared: uses infrared light in the range of
800 to 950 nm

ACRONYM
Chapter 12
MA - Multiple Access
CSMA - Carrier Sense MA
CSMA/CA - / collision avoidance
- WIRELESS network
CSMA/CD - / collision detection
- WIRED network
RAP - Random Access Protocol
CAP - Controlled Access Protocol
CP - Channelization Protocol
IFS - Interframe Space
Chapter 13
LLC - logical link control
MAC - media access control
NIC - network interface card
SSAP - source service access point
DSAP - destination service '' ''
LAN - local area network
ISO - International Standardization Organization
ANSI - American National Standard Institute
PDU - Protocol Data Unit
PARC - Palo Alto Research Paper
SFD - Start Frame Delimiter
Chapter 14
AP - access point
BSS - basic service set
CCK - complementary code keying
DSSS - direct sequence spread spectrum
DCF - distributed coordination function
DIFS - distributed interframe space
ESS - extended service set
FHSS - frequency-hopping spread spectrum
LLCAP - Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol
HR-DSSS - high-rate direct sequence spread spectrum
NAV - network allocation vector
OFOM - orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
PCF - point coordination function
PPM - pulse position modulation
SIFS - short interframe space
SCO - synchronous connection-oriented