INTRODUCTION

A cave is a natural opening or cavity within the earth, generally extending from the earth's
surface to beyond the zone of light. Three generic classes of caves can be recognized
according to the major sculpturing process: (1) caves formed by pressure or flow, (2) caves
carved by erosion, and (3) caves dissolved by solution. Those structures formed by
mechanical pressure or flow include lava tunnels associated with volcanoes (e.g., Catacombs
Cave in Lava Beds National Monument, California) and "badland caves" excavated from
poorly consolidated rock by hydraulic pressure (e.g., small caves of the arid Badlands of
South Dakota). The caves carved by erosion include shoreline grottos created by the
mechanical action of waves (e.g., La Jolla sea caves near San Diego, California) and rock
shelters cut by river meanders (e.g., the massive sandstone alcoves of the famed cliffdwelling Pueblo Indians). The caves dissolved by solution include ice caves associated with
glaciers and the familiar limestone caverns or caves. Limestone caves are, by far, the most
common type of caves.
The great size and beauty of limestone caves have made them features of public
amazement and wonder. More than 130 caves in the United States are open commercially,
and at least 13 national parks and monuments contain caves. The world's longest cave
appears to be Kentucky's Mammoth Cave which has more than 240 kilometers (150 miles)
of accessible passages. The largest subterranean chamber yet discovered is the Big Room of
New Mexico's Carlsbad Caverns. The Big Room is about 400 meters (1,312 feet) long, 200
meters (656 feet) wide, 90 meters (295 feet) high, and contains the Great Dome, a
stalagmite 19 meters (62 feet) tall. Gouffre Berger Cave near Grenoble, France, descends at
least 1,100 meters (3,680 feet) below the surface and is the deepest cave yet explored by
man. Records of the National Speleological Society of America indicate more than 11,000
caves in the United States, and it appears likely that 100,000 caves exist in the whole earth.
Caves are of interest to the student of the Bible because the Bible lands are rich in
limestone caves. In Old Testament times caves often served as refuge or emergency shelter
(Genesis 19:30; 1 Samuel 22:1, 24:1-8; Hebrews 11:37-40). Caves were also used as
places of burial (Genesis 23:17; John 11:38). After the great confrontation between Elijah
and the prophets of Baal, Elijah lodged in a cave and received the Word of the Lord there (1
Kings 19:9 - 11). Psalms 57 and 142 were composed in a cave by David after he fled from
Saul. The famed "Dead Sea Scrolls" were discovered in caves.
A great deal of scientific interest has been generated by caves. Speleology is a
multidisciplinary science which deals with the cave environment: cave discovery,
exploration, surveying, archaeology, zoology, botany, paleontology, meteorology, and
geology. Mineralogists and gem collectors know that caves contain many large and perfect
crystals. Paleontologists have found fossils in caves which shed light on the history of man
(e.g., Neanderthal man). Geologists have attempted to answer several theoretical and
practical questions posed by caves. One of the most difficult problems has been to interpret
the history of limestone caves in relation to the Biblical framework for earth history.

SOLUTION OF LIMESTONE
Solution cave chemistry can be simply stated: limestone and dolostone, the host rocks for
most caves, are dissolved by natural acids (carbonic, sulfuric, and various organic acids)
which occur in groundwater. Calcite (CaCO3), the principal mineral comprising limestone, is
dissolved in the presence of acid to produce calcium ion (Ca++) and bicarbonate ion (HCO3_).
Dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2], the most important mineral in dolostone, is dissolved by acid to
produce calcium ion (Ca++), magnesium ion (Mg++), and bicarbonate ions (HCO3_ ). If the acid

is able to flow through the rock, ions will be removed and a cavity or solution conduit will
form.
That many limestone caves formed by the solution process is indicated by four types of
geologic evidence.

1. Modern limestone caves often show evidence of ongoing solution - the groundwater
leaving a cave often has a higher concentration of calcium and bicarbonate ions than
the water entering the cave.1 Dripstone deposits on the interior of caves prove that
solution occurs above the cave.

2. The shapes of bedrock structures in limestone caves often resemble those produced
in solution experiments. For example, the shapes produced at intersections of joints
in cave bedrock can be predicted based on the theory of solution kinetics. 2

3. The passages in limestone caves usually follow joints, fractures, and the level of the
land surface in such a way as to suggest that the permeability of the bedrock has
influenced the position of cave passages. Maps and cross-sections of caves often
show the regular spacing and orientation of passageways caused by joints.3

4. Caves resembling those found in limestone and dolostone do not occur in insoluble,
non-carbonate rocks. The apparent causal relationship implies that some
characteristic of the rock (i.e., solubility) has affected the occurrence of the caves.

SOLUTION THEORIES
That solution is a major factor in the formation of limestone caves appears to be well
substantiated. The hydrologic conditions and sequence of events leading to cave formation,
however, are poorly understood by geologists. The Encyclopedia Americana begins its
discussion of the origin of solution caves with the following admission:
The origin of solution caves in limestone and related rocks is complex, and scientists are not
in full accord as to the exact sequence of events that lead to the formation of such caves. 4
The problem is that we are attempting to understand the origin of a cavity for which the
evidence of the events forming it has been largely dissolved. Two basic types of theories
concern the water conditions when the cave formed. These are
the vadose and phreatic theories.5 The vadose theory suggests that solution of the cavity
occurred while the limestone was above the level of groundwater (water table) and that the
cavity was largely filled with air. The phreatic theory claims that the cavity formed when it
was below the level of groundwater when it was completely filled with water.

NON - SOLUTION PROCESSES

Although solution was a major process in the formation of limestone caves, some major
problems are encountered if these caves are considered to have formed only by solution.
The first problem is the origin of the original fracture porosity along which circulation of
acidic groundwater could be initiated. The original hairline fractures in the limestone would
not transmit water, and, therefore, solution conduits would not be expected to form.
Davis6 suggested that groundwater flow could be initiated by tectonic stresses on the rock
which opened fractures and created the driving force for fluid flow. The process of "piping"
(the production of underground conduits by removal of fine particles by water driven by

pressure through poorly consolidated material) may also be important in producing fracture
porosity. "Badlands caves" in shaly rocks form by this process.
A second problem for solution theory is the evidence of erosion and abrasion in limestone
caves. Many caves contain large amounts of clay, gravel, cobbles, and boulders which could
not have been dissolved from the limestone. Instead, the cave-filling material appears to
have been transported by moving water from a sediment source outside the cave. These
cave deposits show that some caves at one time were essentially "underground rivers," and,
as such, could have experienced abrasion and erosion such as occurs in modern channels.
The amount of material removed from caves by this process, however, appears to be small
compared to that removed by solution.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUTION

The solubility of calcite and dolomite, and the rate at which solution occurs, are dependent
on at least eight factors: amount of carbon dioxide in solution, pH, oxidation of organic
matter, temperature, pressure, concentration of added salts, rate of solution flow, and
degree of solution mixing. Calcite is more soluble if carbon dioxide is increased, acidity is
increased, oxygen and organic matter are increased, temperature is decreased, pressure is
increased, concentration of salts is increased, rate of flow is increased, and degree of mixing
is increased.7
The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) in solution is probably the single most important factor
affecting solution because carbon dioxide combines with water to produce carbonic acid
(H2CO3). The air, which normally has a pressure of 1 atmosphere, has a partial pressure of
only 0.0003 atmosphere of CO2. Rain water in equilibrium with air can dissolve very little
calcite. Water containing oxygen and decaying organic material, however, can possess 0.1
atmosphere of CO2 (over 300 times more CO2 than normal rain water) and is able to dissolve
a lot of calcite.8 It is possible to make undersaturated solutions simply by mixing two types
of water having different pressures of CO2, different salinities, or different temperatures.
Undersaturation occurs in the case of CO2 because a non-linear relationship exists between
the partial pressure of CO2 and the solubility of calcite. A swiftly moving, turbulent flow
promotes washing of the limestone walls of its conduit, and is, also, more effective at
dissolving calcite.9

RATES OF LIMESTONE SOLUTION

Because at least eight complex variables determine the rate of solution of limestone, an
estimate of solution rates based on the theory of chemical thermodynamics and kinetics
would be a monumental task! A better way to estimate solution rates would be to go to the
cave environment, measure the various physical and chemical parameters, and relate them
to observed solution rates. Unfortunately, the cave environment where solution may be
occurring exists deep in the earth, in total darkness, in passages which are completely
flooded with water. This environment is very inhospitable to man, and no data are available.
Another way of attacking the problem is to study a large cave-containing area where water
chemistry and flow rates are known in order to estimate overall rates. An excellent area for
this type of study is the large limestone and dolostone Sinkhole Plain-Mammoth Cave
Upland region of central Kentucky. The area is between Green River, Barren River, and
Beaver Creek, and comprises several hundred square kilometers. Although it receives 122
centimeters (48 inches) mean annual rainfall10 and would naturally have about 51
centimeters (20 inches) of average annual runoff,11 the area has virtually no surface
streams! The runoff is channeled into sinkholes which distribute the water into a widespread
limestone and dolostone formation which is about 100 meters (330 feet) thick. Caves and

solution conduits in the aquifer transport most of the water northward where it discharges
at springs into the Green River.
Chemical analyses of the area's groundwater by Thrailkill12 indicate that mean calcium ion
concentration is 49.0 milligram per liter and the mean magnesium ion is 9.7 milligram per
liter. Because rain water has only trace amounts of calcium and magnesium, essentially all
of the dissolved calcium and magnesium in the groundwater must come from solution of
calcite and dolomite. By simple chemical calculation it can be shown that these
concentrations represent 0.16 gram of dissolved calcite and dolomite per liter of
groundwater.
It is reasonable to assume that about 1.0 meter of the 1.22 meters of mean annual rainfall
go into the aquifer. Therefore, each square kilometer (1 million square meters) of central
Kentucky receives about 1 million cubic meters of infiltration each year (1,000,000 m2 x l m
= 1,000,000 m3). Because a cubic meter of water contains 1 thousand liters, 1 billion liters
of water enter the ground through each square kilometer of land surface each year.
The above data can be used to calculate the amount of calcite and dolomite dissolved each
year. This is done by multiplying the mass of minerals per liter times the water infiltration
rate (0.16 g/l x 1,000,000,000 l/yr = 160,000,000 g/yr). The answer is 160 million grams
(176 tons) of dissolved calcite and dolomite per year over each square kilometer of land
surface. If the mass of calcite and dolomite dissolved is divided by the density of the
minerals, the volume is obtained (160,000,000 g/yr 2,700,000g/m 3 = 59 m3/yr). Thus, if
the dissolving power of the acid in one square kilometer of central Kentucky is carried in one
conduit, a cave 1 meter square and 59 meters long could form in a year! 13
The high rate of solution of limestone and dolostone should be a matter of alarm to
uniformitarian geologists. In 2 million years (the assumed duration of the Pleistocene Epoch
and the inferred age of many caves), a layer of limestone well over 100 meters thick could
be completely dissolved off of Kentucky (assuming present rates and conditions). Any
reasonable estimate of the volume of limestone actually removed by solution of Kentucky
caves and karst would be insignificant compared to that predicted by an evolutionary model.
The solution data are not at odds with a catastrophist interpretation of earth history. The
data of Thrailkill14 show that the groundwater in central Kentucky is
actually undersaturated with respect to calcite and dolomite, and that the full dissolving
power of the acidic water is not being utilized in attacking the limestone. Calcite is dissolved
only to about 55% of saturation and dolomite only to about 14% of
saturation.15 Furthermore, climatic and geomorphic evidence in Kentucky suggests that rates
of groundwater flow and rates of solution have not remained unchanged. The more humid,
cooler climate of the Pleistocene would have increased groundwater flow and increased rates
of solution. It is also probable that the atmosphere had more CO2. In the final analysis there
appears to be no major obstacle to a short time period for the solution of limestone caves.

STALACTITES, STALAGMITES, AND FLOWSTONE

The formations which hang from the ceiling of a cave are stalactites; those built up above
the floor of a cave are stalagmites; whereas those sheet-like, layered deposits on the walls
or floors are flowstone. A column forms by the joining of a stalactite and a stalagmite.
Together these cave formations are known as speleothems.
The origin and age of speleothems is a controversial subject. A popular theory for the origin
of caves involves two stages. The first stage was when the cavity was filled with water, and
solution of limestone occurred. The second stage was when the cavity or cavern was filled
with air, and deposition of speleothems began from solutions depositing calcium carbonate.

A less popular theory is that there was only one stage in cave formation with solution
occurring in the water-filled part of the chamber concurrently with speleothem deposition in
the air-filled spaces.
Radiocarbon (C-14) dating of speleothems has been used by some scientists to support the
great age of cave formations. However, attempts to date the carbonate minerals directly
give deceptively old ages because carbon from limestone with infinite radiocarbon age
(carbon out of equilibrium with atmospheric carbon) has been incorporated in minerals with
atmospheric carbon.
Most of the stalactites and stalagmites in modem caves are not growing, and it appears
impossible to estimate their former rate of growth. The ones that are growing may be
subject to extreme variation in growth rate.16 Because the Pleistocene Epoch was a time of
higher humidity and rainfall than today, it is probable that more speleothems were growing
and that they were growing at faster rates than today. It must be remembered that the
rates of deposition of calcite are subject to the same complex environmental factors which
affect the rates of solution of calcite (see above discussion). Therefore, some of the great
ages for speleothems claimed by cave guides and "spelunkers" may be significantly in error.
A large number of reports concern the rapid growth of stalactites and stalagmites. 17 Most of
these observations have been made in tunnels, bridges, dams, mines, or other dated manmade structures which approximate cave conditions. Fisher18 summarized some of the early
literature where stalactite growth averages about 1.25 centimeters (0.5 inch) yearly with
some observed to grow over 7.6 centimeters (3 inches) yearly. Stalagmites observed by
Fisher grew 0.6 centimeter (0.25 inch) in height and 0.9 centimeter (0.36 inch) in diameter
at the base each year. At this rate of height increase the 1,900 centimeter tall stalagmite
called "Great Dome" in Carlsbad Caverns might grow in less than 4,000 years.
A large stalagmite like Great Dome may contain 100 million cubic centimeters of calcite,
which, if accumulated in 4,000 years, would require a deposition rate of 25,000 cubic
centimeters (67,000 grams) of calcite yearly. If the dripping water is assumed to deposit 0.5
gram of calcite per liter, 133,000 liters of water would have to drip over the stalagmite each
year. Because about 6,000 drops comprise 1 liter, it would take about 800 million drops of
water per year to form the stalagmite. This works out to 25 drops of water per second;
which is a considerable flow. Whether a stalagmite would be deposited in the above
hypothetical situation is not known. One would want to carefully examine the assumptions
and the complex environmental factors which might affect stalagmite growth.
In addition to the observations of speleothem growth in cave or cave-like natural
environments, some interesting experiments have been performed to simulate stalactite and
stalagmite growth in control led laboratory situations. Williams and Herdklotz19 are studying
the effects of acidity, salinity, temperature, humidity, and other factors on rates of stalactite
growth in the laboratory. Their work applies to natural cave environments, and indicates
that stalactites can form very rapidly.

A MODEL FOR THE ORIGIN OF CAVES

Having examined the processes which can form limestone caves, we are now ready to
formulate a model which is consistent with the geologic data and in harmony with a Biblical
framework for earth history.20
Step 1 - Deposition and burial of limestone.
The first step for the formation of a cave is obviously to deposit the limestone. Most major
limestone strata appear to have accumulated during the Flood. After a lime sediment layer
(which later contained a cave) was deposited, it would have been buried rapidly under

perhaps several thousand feet of sediments. The weight of overburden would compact the
lime sediment and tend to expel interstitial water. Although the fluid pressure would have
been great within the sediment, the lack of a direct escape route for the pore water would
impede water loss and prevent complete lithification. The major means of water loss was
probably through joints which formed during the early stage of compaction while the
sediment was only partially consolidated.
Step 2 - Deformation and erosion of limestone and overburden.
As the Flood waters receded, tectonic activity would deform the sediments and bevel the
upper layers down to a new level. The lime sediment layer would again be near the surface.
The tectonic forces would induce movement on joints and build up fluid pressure, and the
removal of overburden would make compaction in and flow from partially consolidated
sediments proceed at faster rates. The pressure gradient would have been highest near the
surface, causing sediment to be removed by piping. As the joints were opened, a conduit
system for vertical and horizontal flow would have been established.
Step 3 - Horizontal groundwater drainage and solution of limestone.
After the flood waters had completely receded, the regional groundwater level would be in
disequilibrium and horizontal flow would be significant. Acids from organic decomposition at
the surface and at depth would tend to move to just below the water table where the
highest horizontal velocities of flow would exist. Solution of newly consolidated limestone
would occur chiefly in horizontal conduits at a level just below the water table. The mixing of
vadose water (CO2 rich, oxygen rich, organic poor, and low salinity) with phreatic water
(CO2 poor, oxygen poor, organic rich, and high salinity) would also produce conditions ideal
for solution of limestone near the water table. As a result, a cave system would be
developed at a certain level.
Step 4 - Deposition of speleothems.
After the groundwater drainage had been largely accomplished and the caves dissolved out,
the water table would be at a lower level and caves would be filled with air, not water. Thus,
the final step would be the rapid deposition of stalactites, stalagmites, and flowstone.

CONCLUSION
Caves are among the most fascinating structures in the earth's crust. The processes which
removed material from caves in principle are rather simple, but they were manifest
geologically in response to many environmental factors. Deposition in caves was also
complex. Although there is much in caves to challenge further study, it appears that they
can be interpreted within the basic framework of earth history presented in Scripture.

Geographic distribution[edit]
Domica Cave in Slovak Karst (Slovakia)

Caves are found throughout the world, but only a small portion of them have been explored and
documented by cavers. The distribution of documented cave systems is widely skewed toward
countries where caving has been popular for many years (such as France, Italy, Australia, the UK,
the United States, etc.). As a result, explored caves are found widely in Europe, Asia, North America
and Oceania, but are sparse in South America, Africa, and Antarctica.
This is a rough generalization, as large expanses of North America and Asia contain no documented
caves, whereas areas such as the Madagascar dry deciduous forests and parts of Brazil contain

many documented caves. As the world's expanses of soluble bedrock are researched by cavers, the
distribution of documented caves is likely to shift. For example, China, despite containing around half
the world's exposed limestonemore than 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi)has
relatively few documented caves.

Ecology[edit]
Main article: Biospeleology
Townsend's big-eared bats in a cave in California

Olms in a Slovenian cave

Cave-inhabiting animals are often categorized as troglobites (cave-limited

species), troglophiles (species that can live their entire lives in caves, but also occur in other
environments), trogloxenes (species that use caves, but cannot complete their life cycle fully in
caves) and accidentals (animals not in one of the previous categories). Some authors use separate
terminology for aquatic forms (for example, stygobites, stygophiles, and stygoxenes).
Of these animals, the troglobites are perhaps the most unusual organisms. Troglobitic species often
show a number of characteristics, termed troglomorphic, associated with their adaptation to
subterranean life. These characteristics may include a loss of pigment (often resulting in a pale or
white coloration), a loss of eyes (or at least of optical functionality), an elongation of appendages,
and an enhancement of other senses (such as the ability to sense vibrations in water). Aquatic
troglobites (or stygobites), such as the endangered Alabama cave shrimp, live in bodies of water
found in caves and get nutrients from detritus washed into their caves and from the feces of bats and
other cave inhabitants. Other aquatic troglobites include cave fish, and cave salamanders such as
the olm and the Texas blind salamander.
Cave insects such as Oligaphorura (formerly Archaphorura) schoetti are troglophiles, reaching 1.7
millimetres (0.067 in) in length. They have extensive distribution and have been studied fairly widely.
Most specimens are female, but a male specimen was collected from St Cuthberts Swallet in 1969.
Bats, such as the gray bat and Mexican free-tailed bat, are trogloxenes and are often found in caves;
they forage outside of the caves. Some species of cave crickets are classified as trogloxenes,
because they roost in caves by day and forage above ground at night.
Because of the fragile nature of the cave ecosystem, and the fact that cave regions tend to be
isolated from one another, caves harbor a number of endangered species, such as the Tooth cave
spider, liphistius trapdoor spider, and the gray bat.
Caves are visited by many surface-living animals, including humans. These are usually relatively
short-lived incursions, due to the lack of light and sustenance.
Cave entrances often have typical florae. For instance, in the eastern temperate United States, cave
entrances are most frequently (and often densely) populated by the bulblet fern, Cystopteris
bulbifera.

Archaeological and cultural importance[edit]

Tano petroglyphs in a cave in Puerto Rico

Throughout history, primitive peoples have made use of caves. The earliest human fossils found in
caves come from a series of caves near Krugersdorp and Mokopane in South Africa. The cave sites

of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai B, Drimolen, Malapa, Cooper's D, Gladysvale, Gondolin and

Makapansgat have yielded a range of early human species dating back to between three and one
million years ago, including Australopithecus africanus, Australopithecus sediba and Paranthropus
robustus. However, it is not generally thought that these early humans were living in the caves, but
that they were brought into the caves by carnivores that had killed them.
The first early hominid ever found in Africa, the Taung Child in 1924, was also thought for many
years to come from a cave, where it had been deposited after being predated on by an eagle.
However, this is now debated (Hopley et al., 2013; Am. J. Phys. Anthrop.). Caves do form in the
dolomite of the Ghaap Plateau, including the Early, Middle and Later Stone Age site of Wonderwerk
Cave; however, the caves that form along the escarpment's edge, like that hypothesised for the
Taung Child, are formed within a secondary limestone deposit called tufa. There is numerous
evidence for other early human species inhabiting caves from at least one million years ago in
different parts of the world, including Homo erectus in China at Zhoukoudian, Homo rhodesiensis in
South Africa at the Cave of Hearths (Makapansgat), Homo neandertalensis and Homo
heidelbergensis in Europe at Archaeological Site of Atapuerca, Homo floresiensis in Indonesia, and
the Denisovans in southern Siberia.
In southern Africa, early modern humans regularly used sea caves as shelter starting about 180,000
years ago when they learned to exploit the sea for the first time (Marean et al., 2007; Nature). The
oldest known site is PP13B at Pinnacle Point. This may have allowed rapid expansion of humans out
of Africa and colonization of areas of the world such as Australia by 60-50,000 years ago.
Throughout southern Africa, Australia, and Europe, early modern humans used caves and rock
shelters as sites for rock art, such as those at Giants Castle. Caves such as the yaodong in China
were used for shelter; other caves were used for burials (such as rock-cut tombs), or as religious
sites (such asBuddhist caves). Among the known sacred caves are China's Cave of a Thousand
Buddhas[13] and the sacred caves of Crete.
Cave Safety

Cave & Karst Program

Entering any cave involves inherent risks. Ensure your trip is enjoyable and
safe by following these safety rules:

Background
Information
Cave Safety,
Conservation, & Ethics
Objectives, Policy, &
Guidance
Outreach, Partners,
& Links
Cave & Karst
Literature
Contacts

Leave word with someone stating what cave you will be visiting and an approximate return
time;

Take three dependable and independent

sources of light;

Wear sturdy shoes that protect the ankle

and have non-leather, non-skid, nonmarking soles;

Bring gloves and kneepads if necessary;

Wear a helmet to protect against low

ceilings and falling rocks, and use a
chinstrap to prevent losing your helmet
and light;

Mount your main source of light on your helmet to free your hands for climbing;

Travel in groups of three or more for safety;

Stay within your abilities and experience level to avoid injuring yourself and to avoid damaging
the cave;

Avoid drowning by not entering gypsum caves or other storm drain types of caves if there is a
threat of rain;

Bring your own ascending and descending devices and be experienced in their use, for caves
requiring rope work; and

Always watch for and avoid poisonous creatures such as snakes and insects.

Cave Conservation & Ethics

Every entry into a cave, by any person, creates disturbance. The cumulative impact of even slight
changes and disturbances, whether deliberate or otherwise, can lead to dramatic alterations of the
cave environment, or to peoples enjoyment of the cave. As you enter and enjoy caves remember that
your actions while caving will be one of the greatest determining factors in the condition of cave
resources and enjoyment of the caves by future generations. It's everyone's responsibility to respect
cave environments.
A boot scuff mark on rocks is one example of the types of signs of human usage. Boot marks are very
difficult, if not impossible, to remove; and, thus, the use of non-marking boots is strongly encouraged.
Do not track mud through the cave. Periodic cleaning of hands and boot soles can contribute greatly to
the wild caving experience for everyone else that follows.
Bats use many caves, and several bat species live in BLM caves. Some of these species are extremely
sensitive to the presence of humans. To reduce stress and mortality levels in bats, please do not
disturb them. This is best accomplished by avoiding bats altogether. If you are visiting a cave and
come upon a bat or a colony of bats leave the area as quickly and quietly as you can, reduce the
amount of time near bats, do not shine lights directly on them, and do not make any sudden
movements or loud noises.
Besides bats and cavers, other creatures inhabit caves. Often neglected or overlooked, cave
invertebrates are often more sensitive than many other cave adapted species. There are over 200
species of invertebrates found in BLM caves. Please watch out for them and leave them undisturbed.

BLM caves are being managed both to perpetuate the cave and its associated values, and to provide
for educational and recreational and scientific uses now, and in the future. You can affect not only the
cave environment, but also future management decisions. People can impact caves far faster than
nature can repair them, or create new ones. Please cave softly and Leave No Trace.
Cave Conservation & Ethics Tips

Plan ahead, be prepared, and know what to expect from the cave you are visiting.

Choose appropriate clothing, equipment, and safety gear.

Move carefully through the cave to avoid damaging cave features.

Stay on established trails.

Pack it in; pack it out including all human waste. Take out everything you take in, and leave
nothing in the cave.

Leave what you find; never remove natural or historic features from cave. These resources are
protected under the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988.

Respect wildlife, and avoid disturbing or killing cave wildlife, including bats, cave crickets and
all other living things in the cave.

Respect other visitors while in the cave area, stay quiet and keep a clean camp.

CAVES AND CAVE RESOURCES

The slow and gradual formation that takes hundreds of years makes caves
and cave resources worth protecting. In the Philippines, there are 1,756
identified caves, although experts believe there are still more that are yet to
be discovered and explored. Of the identified caves, 258 caves have
already undergone detailed assessment by the Protected Areas and Wildlife
Bureau (PAWB), with assistance from other institutions.
Republic Act 9072, also known as the National Cave and Cave Resources
Management and Protection Act, mandates the DENR to formulate, develop
and implement a national program for the management, protection and
conservation of caves and cave resources.
Caves are unique, natural and non-renewable resources valued for their
scientific, economic, educational, cultural, historical and aesthetic
importance. They serve as key to biodiversity conservation because they
provide habitat to many endangered animals.
In the Philippines, a total of 44 species of bats, reptiles, birds and frogs have
been recorded to dwell in caves.
There are many resources available inside caves, such as the following:
Situationer:

Speleothems are usually mineral or crystal deposits that include dripstone and flowstone forms
such as stalactites, stalagmites and draperies that are controlled by gravity; and erratic
formations from crystal growth, such as pool deposits, helictites and cave pearls.

Speleogens are part of the bedrock the cave is formed in, that has been sculpted by erosion or
dissolved into distinct interesting shapes, usually as relief features on the caves walls, ceilings
and floor.

Flora and fauna in caves are usually classified as troglobites, true cave dwellers that are
relatively rare and unable to survive outside the cave environment; troglophiles, who live and
breed inside the cave and are assumed to be able to live on the surface as well, but usually in
similar dark, humid habitats; and trogloxenes, species such as bats and swiftlets who seek
refuge in caves but leave to feed.

Guano, or the excretion of cave dwelling animals, is known as an effective fertilizer and
gunpowder ingredient due to its high phosphorus and nitrogen content.

The conservation of caves depends on the proper protection and

management of the surrounding ecosystem and terrain, including the native
vegetation and their watershed functions. There are also existing or
proposed policies banning or regulating treasure-hunting in caves as well as
extraction of cave resources because these contribute to the deterioration of
the physical conditions of caves and disturb the wildlife within them. Guanoharvesting is also discouraged because this leads to loss of biodiversity,
specifically of guano-dependent animals.