HEMATOLOGY

Dr. I. Quirt
Susan Armstrong and Tara Weir, editors
Eyal Cohen, associate editor
ANEMIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Clinical Approach to Anemia
IRON METABOLISM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Iron Intake (Dietary)
Physiologic Causes of Increased Fe Requirements
Iron Absorption
Iron Transport
Iron Storage
Iron Indices
Interpreting Iron Indices
Laboratory Features
IRON DEFICIENCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Physiologic Causes
Pathological Causes
Clinical Presentation
Diagnosis
Iron Treatment
Anemia Refractory to Oral Iron
SIDEROBLASTIC ANEMIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
THE ANEMIA OF CHRONIC DISEASE . . . . . . . . . 7
HEMOGLOBIN AND. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES
Thalassemia
I. Heterozygous: -Thalassemia Minor
II. Homozygous: -Thalassemia Major
III. Alpha Thalassemias
Sickle Cell Anemia
Megaloblastic Anemia
B12 Deficiency
Pernicious Anemia
Folate Deficiency
Hemolytic Anemias
I. Hereditary Hemolytic Anemia
Structural Abnormalities in Cytoskeleton
Enzymatic Abnormalities in RBC
Hemoglobinopathies
II. Acquired Hemolytic Anemia
Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia
RBC Fragmentation Syndromes
Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura and
Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome
APLASTIC ANEMIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
HEMOSTASIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Three Phases of Hemostasis
Tests of Hemostasis
Thrombocytopenia and Other Disorders of Primary
Hemostasis
Idiopathic (Autoimmune)
Thrombocytopenic Purpura
Chronic (Adult-type) ITP
Disorders of Secondary Hemostasis
Hereditary
Acquired
Thrombosis
Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia
MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

LEUKEMIAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Acute Leukemia (AML, ALL)
Bone Marrow Transplantation
Myelodysplastic Syndromes
CHRONIC MYELOPROLIFERATIVE. . . . . . . . . . . 28
DISORDERS
Common Features
Polycythemia Rubra Vera
Chronic Granulocytic (Myelogenous) Leukemia
Idiopathic Myelofibrosis
Essential Thrombocythemia
MALIGNANT CLONAL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
PROLIFERATIONS OF B CELLS
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
Plasma Cell Myeloma (Multiple Myeloma)
Light Chain Disease
Monoclonal Gammopathy of Unknown Significance
Macroglobulinemia of Waldenstrom
Macroglobulinemia-Hyperviscosity Syndrome
LYMPHOMAS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Hodgkin's Disease and Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma
Staging
Hodgkin's Disease
Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma
TUMOUR LYSIS SYNDROME. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
WBC DISORDERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Neutrophilia
Leukemoid Reactions
Neutropenia
Agranulocytosis
BLOOD PRODUCTS AND TRANSFUSIONS . . . 40
Red Cells
Blood Groups
Platelets
Coagulation Factors
Group and Reserve Serum
Acute Complications of Blood Transfusions
Delayed Complications in Transfusions
APPROACH TO SPLENOMEGALY . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
APPROACH TO BLOOD FILM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
EXAMINATION
MEDICATIONS COMMONLY USED IN . . . . . . . . 44
HEMATOLOGY

Hematology 1

Notes

ANEMIA
CLINICAL APPROACH TO ANEMIA
Table 1. Approach to Anemia
Low or Normal Reticulocytes

High Reticulocytes

hypochromic microcytic (mean red cell volume MCV < 80)

iron deficiency
thalassemia
sideroblastic anemia
lead poisoning
chronic disease

treated nutritional deficiency

normochromic normocytic (80 < MCV < 100)

chronic disease
liver disease
uremia
endocrine disorders (hypo/hyperthyroid, Addisons)
connective tissue diseases
primary marrow abnormalities
myelodysplasia
infiltration (leukemia, myeloma, mets, infection)
myelofibrosis
aplasia

hemolytic anemia
post hemorrhagic anemia

macrocytic/megaloblastic (MCV > 100)

megaloblastic B12
folate
drugs (MTX, cyclophosphamide, nitrous oxide, arsenic)
macrocytic
hypothyroidism
hypoplastic marrow, aplasia
liver disease
alcohol
smoking

History
bleeding
drugs e.g. ASA, NSAIDs
family history and ethnic background
diet
malabsorption
recent pregnancy
Symptoms
general: fatigue, malaise, weakness
CVS: palpitations, syncope, dyspnea
neurologic: headache, vertigo, tinnitus
Signs
CVS: tachycardia, systolic flow murmur, wide pulse pressure, CHF
pallor: mucous membranes, conjunctivae (Hb < 90), skin creases (Hb < 75)
ocular bruits (Hb < 55)
splenomegaly
lymphadenopathy
rectal (occult blood)
rare
koilonychia (spoon-shaped nails) as in iron deficiency anemia
telangiectasia as in hemolytic anemia
jaundice as in hemolytic anemia
CBC
WBC or platelet count abnormal
marrow disease
hypersplenism
DIC
WBC and platelet count normal
focused history, physical exam, CBC, and peripheral blood film (PBF)

Hematology 2

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Notes

ANEMIA . . . CONT.
RDW (Red Cell Distribution Width)
normal
anemia of chronic disease
thalassemia
increased
iron deficiency
dual deficiency (e.g. iron and folate)
myelodysplastic syndrome
AIHA
liver disease
pernicious anemia
folate deficiency

IRON METABOLISM
IRON INTAKE (Dietary)

average Canadian adult diet = 10-20 mg Fe/day

absorption = 5-10% (0.5-2 mg/day)
Fe absorption increases with
increased erythropoiesis e.g. pregnancy
anemia
Fe depletion
males have a positive Fe balance
menstruating females have a negative Fe balance

PHYSIOLOGIC CAUSES OF INCREASED

FE REQUIREMENTS

infancy-growth spurt
puberty-growth spurt, menarche
pregnancy-maternal RBC, fetus
blood donation
500 mL blood = 250 mg Fe
4 donations/year = 1 g

2x basal need
3x basal need
4x basal need
4x basal need

IRON ABSORPTION

occurs in duodenum mainly with iron combining with apoferritin to

form ferritin and then absorbed through villi

Table 2. Intraluminal Factors in Absorption of

Non-Heme Iron
Promoters

Inhibitors

gastric HCl

achlorhydria
antacids

reducing agents
ascorbic acid

oxidants

in Fe2+ form

in Fe3+ form

inorganic form

organic form

soluble chelators
amino acids
sugars
alcohol

non-absorbable chelators
phosphate (milk)
phytates (cereals)
oxalate (spinach)
tannin (tea)

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 3

Notes

IRON METABOLISM . . . CONT.

IRON TRANSPORT

majority of non-heme Fe in plasma is bound to a beta-globulin

called transferrin
transferrin
carries Fe from mucosal cell to RBC precursors in marrow
carries Fe from storage pool in hepatocytes and
macrophages to RBC precursors in marrow

IRON STORAGE

Fe stored in two forms: ferritin and hemosiderin

ferritin
ferric Fe complexed to a protein called apoferritin
hepatocytes are main site of ferritin storage
minute quantities are present in plasma in equilibrium with the
intracellular ferritin
hemosiderin
aggregates or crystals of ferritin with the apoferritin partially removed
macrophage-monocyte system is main source of hemosiderin storage

IRON INDICES

bone marrow biopsy is the gold standard test for iron stores
serum ferritin
single most important blood test for iron stores
falsely elevated in inflammatory disease, liver disease (from
necrotic hepatocytes), neoplasm and hyperthyroidism
serum iron
a measure of all non-heme Fe present in blood
virtually all serum iron is bound to transferrin
only a trace of serum Fe is free or complexed in ferritin
total iron binding capacity (TIBC)
measure of total amount of transferrin present in blood
normally, one third of the TIBC is saturated with Fe, remainder is
unsaturated
saturation
serum Fe divided by TIBC, expressed as a proportion or a %

INTERPRETING IRON INDICES

Fe deficiency (uncomplicated): serum Fe is low, TIBC is elevated,

saturation is very low and serum ferritin is very low
anemia of chronic disease: serum Fe is slightly reduced, but
the TIBC is low normal or reduced; therefore, saturation is normal
or only slightly reduced; serum ferritin is normal or slightly increased
iron overload: serum iron is elevated, TIBC is normal, saturation is
elevated and serum ferritin is elevated

Table 3. Iron Laboratory Features

ferritin serum iron
iron deficiency
chronic disease
sideroblastic anemia
thalassemia
iron overload

99
8/N
8
8/N
8

9
9/N
8
8/N
8

TIBC

RDW

Saturation

99

N
N
8/N

8
9/N
N
9/N
N

LABORATORY FEATURES

Fe stores diminished
decreased stainable iron in marrow
serum ferritin decreased
Fe stores absent (in order of increasing Fe deficiency)
serum Fe falls
TIBC increases
hemoglobin falls
microcytosis (Hb levels of 100-110 g/L)
hypochromia (Hb 90-100 g/L)

Hematology 4

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

IRON DEFICIENCY

Notes

most common cause of anemia in Canada

imbalance of intake vs. requirements or loss

PHYSIOLOGIC CAUSES

increased need for iron in the body

infancy
adolescence, menstruation
pregnancy, lactation

PATHOLOGIC CAUSES

in adult males and post-menopausal females, Fe

deficiency is usually related to chronic blood loss
dietary deficiencies (rarely the only etiology)
cows milk (infant diet)
tea and toast (elderly)
absorption imbalances
post-gastrectomy
malabsorption
hemorrhage
obvious causes - menorrhagia
occult - peptic ulcer disease, aspirin, GI tract cancer
intravascular hemolysis
hemoglobinuria
hemosiderinuria
cardiac valve RBC fragmentation

CLINICAL PRESENTATION

iron deficiency may cause fatigue before clinical anemia develops

brittle hair
dry skin
dysphagia (esophageal web, Plummer-Vinson ring)
nails
brittle
koilonychia
glossitis
angular stomatitis
pica (appetite for bizarre substances e.g. ice, paint, dirt)

DIAGNOSIS

serum
ferritin < 20 is diagnostic of iron deficiency anemia
iron deficiency anemia unlikely if ferritin > 100
platelet count may be elevated
peripheral blood film (see Colour Atlas E1)
hypochromic microcytosis
pencil forms
target cells (thin)
bone marrow
intermediate and late erythroblasts
micronormoblastic maturation
Fe stain (Prussian blue) shows decreased iron in macrophages
decreased normal sideroblasts

IRON TREATMENT

treat the underlying cause

different preparations available: tablets, syrup, parenteral (if malabsorption)
dose: ferrous sulphate 325 mg PO TID or ferrous gluconate 300 mg PO
TID until anemia corrects and then for 3 months after
reticulocytes begin to increase after one week
Hb normalizes by 10 grams per week
ensure that the hemoglobin returns completely to normal
if serum ferritin normal discontinue iron therapy

ANEMIA REFRACTORY TO ORAL IRON

medication
poor preparation (e.g. expired)
drug interactions
patient
poor compliance
bleeding continues
malabsorption (rare)
physician
misdiagnosis
MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 5

Notes

SIDEROBLASTIC ANEMIA
group of disorders with various defects in porphyrin biosynthetic
pathway leading to a reduction in heme synthesis and thus an increase
in cellular iron uptake
characterized by presence of abnormal erythroid precursors in marrow
Types of sideroblasts
normal sideroblasts
aggregates of ferritin, diffusely spread throughout the red blood
cell cytoplasm
small
found in normal individuals
ring sideroblasts
iron deposited in mitochondria forms ring around the red blood
cell nucleus
large
abnormal finding
Etiology
hereditary
rare
X-linked (defective D-aminolevulinic acid synthetase, the
rate-limiting enzyme in heme synthesis)
median survival 10 years
acquired
primary
often a preleukemic phenomenon (10%)
secondary
toxins
drugs (isoniazid), ethanol and lead (basophilic stippling)
neoplasms and consequent chemotherapy
(alkylating agents)
collagen vascular disease
Diagnosis
serum
increased serum iron, normal TIBC, increased ferritin
peripheral blood
dimorphic picture (normal and hypochromic population)
bone marrow
required for diagnosis
bizarre megaloblastic changes
ring sideroblasts
increased iron stores
Management
treatment of underlying disorder
oral pyridoxine (vitamin B6)
hereditary and secondary acquired forms usually responsive
myelodysplastic sideroblastic anemia not responsive

Hematology 6

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

THE ANEMIA OF CHRONIC DISEASE

Notes

Etiology
infections
cancer
inflammatory and rheumatologic disease
renal disease
endocrine disorders (e.g. thyroid)
Pathophysiology
a mild hemolytic component is often present
red blood cell survival modestly decreased
erythropoietin levels are normal or slightly elevated but are
inappropriately low for the degree of anemia
erythropoietin level is low in renal failure
iron cannot be removed from its storage pool in hepatocytes and
reticuloendothelial cells
Diagnosis
serum
serum iron, TIBC, and % saturation all normal or slightly reduced
serum ferritin is normal or increased
peripheral blood
usually normocytic and normochromic if the anemia is mild
may be microcytic and normochromic if the anemia is moderate
may be microcytic and hypochromic if the anemia is severe but
rarely < 90 g/L
bone marrow
normal or increased iron stores
decreased normal sideroblasts
Management
resolves if underlying disease treated
erythropoietin may normalize the hemoglobin value
dose of erythropoietin required is lower for patients with renal disease
only treat patients who can benefit from a higher hemoglobin level

HEMOGLOBIN AND
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES
Hemoglobin Structure and Production
fetal hemoglobin, HbF (2 2) switches to adult forms HbA (2 2)
and HbA2 (2 2) at 3-6 months of life
HbA constitutes 97% of adult hemoglobin
HbA2 constitutes 3% of adult hemoglobin
4 genes are located on chromosome 16
2 genes are located on chromosome 11
beware of the possibility of mixed defects
e.g. -thalessemia minor and sickle cell (HbS) trait

THALASSEMIA
I. HETEROZYGOUS: -Thalassemia Minor

common condition in Canada, particularly in Greeks, Italians,

Chinese, and Blacks

Clinical Presentation
mild or no anemia
spleen may be palpable
may be masked by Fe deficiency
Diagnosis
serum
Hb 90-140 g/L, MCV < 70
MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 7

HEMOGLOBIN AND
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES . . . CONT.

Notes

peripheral blood
microcytosis +/ hypochromia
target cells and oval-shaped cells (fish RBC) may be present
basophilic stippling usually present
Hb electrophoresis
specific: Hb A2 increased to 0.025-0.05 (2.5-5%)
normal 1.5-3.5%
non-specific: 50% have slight increase in HbF
Management
not necessary to treat
patient and family should receive genetic counselling

II. HOMOZYGOUS: -Thalassemia Major

Pathophysiology
autosomal recessive
ineffective beta chain synthesis due to point mutation in the beta gene
promoter or enhancer on chromosome 11
excess alpha chains relative to beta chain leading to ineffective
erythropoiesis and hemolysis of RBC
compensatory increase in HbF
Clinical Presentation
start presenting at 3-6 months because of replacement of HbF by HbA
severe anemia developing in the first year of life
jaundice
stunted growth and development (hypogonadal dwarf)
gross hepatosplenomegaly (extramedullary hematopoiesis)
skeletal changes (expanded marrow cavity)
skull x-ray has hair-on-end appearance
pathological fractures common
evidence of increased Hb catabolism (e.g. gallstones)
death from
untreated anemia (transfuse!)
infection (early)
hemochromatosis (late, secondary to transfusions), usually
20-30 years old
Diagnosis
serum
hemoglobin 40-60 g/L
peripheral blood
hypochromic microcytosis
increased reticulocytes
basophilic stippling, target cells
postsplenectomy blood film shows Howell Jolly bodies,
erythroblasts, and thrombocytosis
Hb electrophoresis
Hb A: 0-0.10 (0-10%) - normal > 95%
Hb F: 0.90-1.00 (90-100%)
Management
transfusions
Fe chelators to prevent iron overload
bone marrow transplant (if suitable donor)

III. ALPHA THALASSEMIAS

Pathophysiology
autosomal recessive
deficit of alpha chains
4 grades of severity depending on the number of defective alpha genes
1 - silent
2 - trait
3 - Hb H Disease (presents in adults)
4 - Hb Barts (hydrops fetalis)
Hematology 8

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

HEMOGLOBIN AND
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES . . . CONT.

Notes

Hb Barts made of 4 gamma chains; not compatible with life

Hb H made of 4 beta chains, is unstable, and leads to inclusion bodies
Diagnosis
peripheral blood film
microcytes, hypochromia, occasional target cells
screen for Hb H inclusion bodies
Hb electrophoresis not diagnostic
DNA analysis using alpha gene probe
Management
same as beta thalassemia

SICKLE CELL ANEMIA

autosomal recessive
amino acid substitution of valine for glutamate in position 6 of beta
globin chain

Mechanisms of Sickling
at low pO2, deoxy Hb S polymerizes, leading to rigid crystal-like rods
that distort membrane = SICKLES (see Figure 1)
the pO2 level at which sickling occurs is related to the % of Hb S present
if the patient is heterozygous (Hb AS), the sickling phenomenon occurs
at a pO2 of 40 mmHg
if the patient is homozygous (Hb SS), sickling occurs at 80 mmHg
sickling also aggravated by
increased H+
increased CO2
increased 2,3-DPG
increased temperature and osmolality
blood flow
slows

impaction
infarction

blood
viscosity

pO2

distorted RBC
sickle cells

deoxy Hb S

H+
CO2
Hb S
polymers

Figure 1. Pathophysiology of Sickling

Heterozygous: Hb S Trait
clinical presentation
the patient will appear normal except at times of extreme
hypoxia and infection
diagnosis
serum: Hb normal
peripheral blood: normal except for a few target cells
Hb electrophoresis (confirmatory test): Hb A fraction of 0.65 (65%);
Hb S fraction of 0.35 (35%)
Homozygous: Hb S Disease
clinical presentation
chronic hemolytic anemia
jaundice in the first year of life
vaso-occlusive crises (infarction) leading to pain, fever and leukocytosis
e.g. acute chest syndrome (pulmonary infarct) associated with
infection, such as parvovirus, leading to aplastic anemia, acidosis,
dehydration, and hypoxia
MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 9

HEMOGLOBIN AND
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES . . . CONT.

Notes

susceptibility to infections by encapsulated organisms due to

hyposplenism
retarded growth and development +/ skeletal changes
spleen enlarged in child and atrophic in adult
diagnosis
peripheral blood: sickled cells (see Colour Atlas E5)
screening test: sickle cell prep
Hb electrophoresis (confirmatory test): Hb S fraction > 0.80
Management
prevention is the key
establish diagnosis
avoid conditions that favor sickling (hypoxia, acidosis,
dehydration, fever)
vaccination in childhood e.g. pneumococcus, meningococcus
consider prophylaxis - penicillin V 250 mg PO bid
good hygiene and nutrition
genetic counselling
folic acid to avoid folate deficiency
hydroxyurea to enhance production of Hb F
causes derepression of the gene for Hb F or by initiating
differentiation of stem cells in which this gene is active;
presence of Hb F in the SS cells decreases polymerization and
precipitation of Hb S
Note: hydroxyurea is cytotoxic and may cause bone marrow suppression
Treatment of Vaso-Occlusive Crisis
oxygen
hydration (reduces viscosity)
antimicrobials
correct acidosis
analgesics/narcotics (give enough)
magnesium (inhibits potassium and water efflux from RBCs thereby
preventing dehydration)
exchange transfusion for CNS crisis
experimental anti-sickling agents
Table 4. Organs Affected by Vaso-Occlusive Crisis
Organ

Problem

brain
eye
lung
gall bladder
heart
spleen
kidney
intestine
placenta
penis
digits
femoral head
bone
ankle

seizures, hemiplegia
hemorrhage, blindness
chest syndrome
stones
hyperdynamic flow murmurs
enlarged (child); atrophic (adult)
hematuria; loss of renal concentrating ability
acute abdomen
stillbirths
priapism
dactylitis
aseptic necrosis
infarction, infection
leg ulcers

MEGALOBLASTIC ANEMIA

megaloblast = large, nucleated RBC precursor; macrocyte = large RBC

Causes of Megaloblastosis
folate deficiency (seen after 4 months of decreased intake)
B12 deficiency (seen after 10-15 years decreased intake)
antimetabolite drugs
methotrexate
folate analogues (sulpha drugs)
purine/pyrimidine analogues (6-MP, 5-FU)
Hematology 10

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

HEMOGLOBIN AND
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES . . . CONT.

Notes

nitrous oxide
myelodysplasia/some cases of AML

B12 DEFICIENCY
Etiology
diet
rare (strict vegetarians)
gastric
mucosal atrophy of pernicious anemia
post-gastrectomy
intestinal absorption
malabsorption (e.g. Crohns, celiac sprue, pancreatic disease)
stagnant bowel (e.g. blind loop, stricture)
fish tapeworm
resection of ileum as in Crohns and celiac sprue
rare genetic causes
Pernicious Anemia
auto-antibodies produced against gastric parietal cells leading to
achlorhydria and no intrinsic factor secretion; often associated with
hypoparathyroidism, hypogammaglobulinemia
intrinsic factor is required to stabilize B12 as it passes
through the bowel
decreased intrinsic factor leads to decreased ileal absorption of B12
female:male = 1.6:1
associated with thyroid and adrenal deficiency
often > 60 years old
Neurological Lesions in B12 Deficiency
cerebral (common; reversible with B12 therapy)
confusion
dementia
cranial nerves
optic atrophy (rare)
cord (irreversible damage)
subacute combined degeneration
posterior columns - paresthesias, disturbed
vibration, decreased proprioception
pyramidal tracts - spastic weakness, hyperactive reflexes
peripheral neuropathy (variable reversibility)
usually symmetrical
affecting lower limb more than upper limb
psychiatric symptoms
dementia
delirium
never give folate alone to individual with megaloblastic anemia because
it will mask B12 deficiency and neurological degeneration will continue
Diagnosis
serum
anemia often severe +/ neutropenia +/ thrombocytopenia
MCV > 120 femtoliters
low reticulocyte count relative to the degree of anemia
serum B12 and RBC folate
caution: low serum B12 leads to low RBC folate because of
failure of folate polyglutamate synthesis in the absence of B12
blood film (see Colour Atlas E3)
oval macrocytes
hypersegmented neutrophils
bone marrow
differentiates between megaloblastic and
myelodysplastic anemias
hypercellularity
failure of nuclear maturation
elevated unconjugated bilirubin and LDH due to
marrow cell breakdown
MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 11

HEMOGLOBIN AND
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES . . . CONT.

Notes

Schilling test to distinguish pernicious anemia from other causes

Schilling test: part 1
tracer dose (1g) of labelled B12 (Co*), PO
flushing dose (1mg) of cold B12, IM to saturate tissue binders
of B12 thus allowing radioactive B12 to be excreted in urine
24 hour urine Co* measured
normal: > 5% excretion
Schilling test: part 2
tracer dose B12 (Co*) plus intrinsic factor, PO
flushing dose of cold B12, injected IM
24 hour urine Co* measured
normal test result (> 5% excretion) = pernicious anemia
abnormal test result (< 5% excretion) = intestinal causes
(malabsorption)
Management
B12 100 g IM monthly for life
watch for hypokalemia (due to return of potassium to intracellular sites)
and thrombocythemia

FOLATE DEFICIENCY

folate complexes with gastric R binder

R binder is replaced by intrinsic factor in the duodenum
this complex is absorbed in the jejunum

Etiology
diet (folate present in leafy green vegetables)
most common cause
e.g. infancy, poverty, alcoholism
intestinal
malabsorption
drugs/chemicals
alcohol
anticonvulsants
antifolates (MTX)
birth control pills
increased needs
pregnancy
prematurity
hemolysis
hemodialysis
psoriasis, exfoliative dermatitis
Clinical Presentation
mildly jaundiced due to hemolysis of RBC secondary to ineffective
hemoglobin synthesis
glossitis and angular stomatitis
rare
melanin pigmentation
purpura secondary to thrombocytopenia
folate deficiency at conception and early pregnancy has been linked to
neural tube defects
Management
folic acid 15 mg PO/day x 3 months; then 5 mg PO/day maintenance if
cause not reversible
folic acid supplementation 1 mg PO/day will protect against
elevated homocysteine levels (risk factor for CAD)

HEMOLYTIC ANEMIAS
Classification
hereditary causes
abnormal membrane (spherocytosis, elliptocytosis)
abnormal glycolytic pathway (hexokinase deficiency)
abnormal glutathione metabolism (G6PD deficiency)
abnormal hemoglobin synthesis (thalassemias, hemoglobinopathies)
Hematology 12

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

HEMOGLOBIN AND
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES . . . CONT.

Notes

acquired causes
immune
hemolytic transfusion reaction
idiopathic immune HA
drugs
cold agglutinins
secondary autoimmune HA
non-immune
RBC fragmentation syndromes
paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
liver disease
hypersplenism
march hemoglobinuria
Clinical Presentation
jaundice
cholelithiasis
splenomegaly
skeletal abnormalities
leg ulcers
regenerative crisis
folic acid deficiency
iron overload with extravascular hemolysis
iron deficiency with intravascular hemolysis
Diagnosis
indirect - not specific to hemolytic anemias
increased reticulocyte count (see Colour Atlas E2)
increased unconjugated bilirubin
increased urine bilinogen
increased LDH
tests exclusive for intravascular hemolysis
reduced haptoglobin
serum free hemoglobin present
methemalbuminemia (heme + albumin)
hemoglobinuria (immediate)
hemosiderinuria (delayed)
Antiglobulin Tests (Coombs Tests)
direct Coombs test (direct antiglobulin test)
purpose: detect antibodies or complement on the surface
antigens of RBC
by adding anti-antibodies to the RBC; the RBC agglutinate
in a positive test
indications
hemolytic disease of newborn
hemolytic anemia
AIHA
hemolytic transfusion reaction
indirect Coombs test (indirect antiglobulin test)
purpose: detect antibodies in serum that can
recognize antigens on RBC
by mixing serum with donor RBC and then
anti-antibodies; the RBC agglutinate in a positive test
indications
cross-matching of recipient serum with donors RBC
atypical blood group
blood group antibodies in pregnant women
antibodies in AIHA

I. HEREDITARY HEMOLYTIC ANEMIAS

STRUCTURAL ABNORMALITIES IN CYTOSKELETON
Hereditary Spherocytosis
autosomal dominant with variable penetrance
22 per 100 000
most common type of hereditary hemolytic anemia
abnormality in spectrin
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HEMOGLOBIN AND
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES . . . CONT.

Notes

blood film shows spherocytes (see Colour Atlas E16)

increased osmotic fragility
positive autohemolysis test
sometimes confused with immune hemolytic anemia
treatment: splenectomy (immunize against pneumococcus first)
avoid in childhood

Hereditary Elliptocytosis
autosomal dominant
20-50 per 100 000
abnormality in spectrin interaction with other membrane proteins
25-75% elliptocytes
hemolysis is usually mild
treatment: splenectomy for severe hemolysis (immunize against
pneumococcus first)

ENZYMATIC ABNORMALITIES IN RBC

G6PD Deficiency
Clinical Presentation
X-linked recessive
oxidant drug-induced hemolysis
sulfonamides
primaquine
nitrofurantoin
acetanilid
favism
neonatal jaundice
chronic hemolytic anemia
infection
Diagnosis and Management
high index of suspicion
transfusion in severe cases
stop offending drugs or food
G-6-PD assay
should not be done when reticulocyte count is high
in acute crisis, PBF shows Heinz bodies (granules in red blood cells
due to damaged hemoglobin molecules) and features of intravascular
hemolysis

HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES (see Thalassemia/Sickle Cell Anemia Section)

II. ACQUIRED HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
AUTOIMMUNE HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA
Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia with Warm-Reacting
Antibodies (IgG)
Pathophysiology
RBC coated with IgG or complement (C3d) or both
associated with extravascular hemolysis (mainly in spleen)
Classification
idiopathic
secondary to
lymphoproliferative disorders (CLL, Hodgkins disease,
non-Hodgkins lymphoma)
autoimmune (SLE)
drug induced (penicillin, quinine/quinidine, alpha methyl dopa)

Hematology 14

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HEMOGLOBIN AND
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES . . . CONT.

Notes

Diagnosis
positive direct antiglobulin test (direct Coombs) best detected at 37C
(hence warm-reacting antibodies)
spherocytes in blood film
exclude delayed transfusion reaction
Management
treat underlying cause
corticosteroids
splenectomy
immunosuppressives
Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia with Cold-Reacting
Antibodies (IgM)
Pathophysiology
either monoclonal or polyclonal IgM attached to RBC surface antigens in
peripheral circulation where 4C < T < 37C
antibodies will detach from the surface antigen if T > thermal amplitude
thermal amplitude is the temperature at which IgM is
attached to RBC surface
associated with intravascular hemolysis
Classification
idiopathic
secondary to
lymphoproliferative disorders (CLL, Hodgkins disease,
non-Hodgkins lymphoma)
infections (Mycoplasma pneumoniae, EBV)
Diagnosis
positive cold agglutinin test best at 4C
positive direct Coombs for complement at any temperature
agglutination in blood film (see Colour Atlas E4)
Management
treat underlying cause
warm the patient above the thermal amplitude of the antibody
plasmapheresis
immunosuppressives

RBC FRAGMENTATION SYNDROMES

Classification
cardiac and large vessel abnormalities
small vessel disease (microangiopathic)
thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP)/
hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS)
DIC
metastatic carcinoma
eclampsia
malignant hypertension
vasculitis
infection (malaria, clostridia)
drowning
thermal injury
Diagnosis
evidence of hemolysis, schistocytes, hemosiderinuria, hemoglobinuria
Management
treat underlying disease, replace iron if indicated

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Hematology 15

HEMOGLOBIN AND
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES . . . CONT.

Notes

THROMBOTIC THROMBOCYTOPENIC PURPURA

AND HEMOLYTIC UREMIC SYNDROME
Table 5. Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia purpura (TTP)
and Hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS)
TTP
predominantly adult
neurological symptoms (90%)
H/A, somnolence, confusion,
focal neurological findings
convulsion, stupor, coma
purpura (90%) due to
severe thrombocytopenia
epistaxis, hematuria,
hemoptysis and GI bleed
microangiopathic hemolytic
anemia (see Colour Atlas E6)
fever (90-100%)
GI
N/V, abdominal pain
renal (40-80%)
abnormal UA, oliguria, ARF
etiology
idiopathic
familial
secondary TTP
infection
enterobacteriaceae
viral: flu, HIV
systemic diseases
SLE and other CVD
cancer and chemotherapeutics
diagnosis
by clinical picture
CBC: anemia, thrombocytopenia
PT, PTT: normal
ESR: normal
negative Coombs

HUS
predominantly children
renal symptoms (90%)
abnormal UA,
oliguria, ARF
purpura (90-100%)
due to severe
thrombocytopenia
epistaxis, hematuria,
hemoptysis and GI bleed

etiology
E. coli serotype
O157:H7 virotoxin

diagnosis
by clinical
picture
the same as TTP
stool C+S

Management
plasmapheresis with platelet transfusion is the treatment of choice
steroid is treatment of choice only in mild diseases

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APLASTIC ANEMIA

Notes

Etiology
radiation
drugs
anticipated (chemotherapy)
idiosyncratic (chloramphenicol, phenylbutazone)
chemicals
benzene and other organic solvents
DDT and insecticides
post viral e.g. hepatitis B, parvovirus
idiopathic
often immune (cell mediated)
paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
marrow replacement
congenital
Clinical Presentation
occur at any age
slightly more common in males
can present acutely or insidiously
anemia or neutropenia or thrombocytopenia (any combination)
+/ pancytopenia
thrombocytopenia with bruising, bleeding gums, epistaxis
anemia as SOB, pallor and fatigue
presentation of neutropenia ranges from infection in the mouth to
septicemia
Diagnosis
serum
neutrophil count < 5.0 x 109/L
platelet count < 20 x 109/L
corrected reticulocyte count < 1%
bone marrow
aplasia or hypoplasia of marrow cells with fat replacement
Management
removal of offending agents
supportive care (red cell and platelet transfusions, antibiotics)
antithymocyte globulin (50-60% patients respond)
cyclosporin
allogeneic bone marrow transplantation
minimize blood products on presentation
only irradiated, leuko-depleted blood products should be used
CMV negative blood for CMV negative patients

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Hematology 17

Notes

HEMOSTASIS
THREE PHASES OF HEMOSTASIS
Adhesion to collagen in
subendothelium
Release

of ADP and
thromboxane A2

Aggregation
(platelet plug)

Figure 2. Primary Hemostasis

Kallikrein:
XII
XI
Partial
Thromboplastin
Time
(PTT)

VIIa

XIIa

XIa
IX

+ Tissue
Thromboplastin

IXa

Intrinsic

+Ca
+VIII

Extrinsic

Xa

Prothrombin
Thrombin
Time
(TT)

Prothrombin
Time
(PT)

Common

+V
+Ca
Thrombin

Fibrinogen

Fibrin

* tissue factor pathway

Figure 3. Secondary Hemostasis

XIII
Thrombin
XIIIa
Fibrinogen

Fibrin
Monomer

Cross-linked
Fibrin

Plasmin
Fibrin(ogen)
Degradation
Products
(FDP)

Plasminogen

Plasminogen
Activators
(Urokinase,
Tissue activator,
etc...)

Figure 4. Fibrin Stabilization and Fibrinolysis

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Notes

HEMOSTASIS . . . CONT.
TESTS OF HEMOSTASIS
Platelets
number: count, estimate
bleeding time
aggregation
Coagulation
PTT (partial thromboplastin time)
purpose: measure intrinsic pathway i.e. factors VIII, IX, XI
and XII
normal: 25 seconds
PT (prothrombin time)
purpose: measure the extrinsic pathway i.e. factor VII in
particular
normal: 12 seconds
INR (international normalized ratio)
ratio of patients PT is compared to mean PT for a group of
normal individuals
ratio is then adjusted for sensitivity of the labs thromboplast
determined by the international sensitivity index; thus
INR = (PT of patient/PT of the norm)
use of INR permits doctors to obtain the appropriate level of
anticoagulation independent of lab reagents and to follow
published recommendations for intensity of anticoagulation
normal: 1
TT (thrombin time)
purpose: measure deficiency of fibrinogen and
inactivation of prothrombin
normal: 14-16 seconds
Fibrinolysis
euglobulin lysis time
Other
fibrinogen
fibrinogen degradation products (FDPs)
indications
DIC
HELLP
microangiopathic hemolytic anemia
heparin induced thrombocytopenia
specific factor assays
tests of physiological inhibitors (antithrombins, protein S, protein C,
hereditary resistance to APC)
tests of pathologic inhibitors (lupus anticoagulant)
Table 6. Signs and Symptoms of Disorders of Hemostasis
Primary (platelet)

Secondary (coagulation)

surface cuts

excessive, prolonged

normal/slightly prolonged

onset after injury

immediate

delayed

typical type and

site of bleeding

superficial
i.e. mucosal (nasal, gingival,
GI tract, uterine), petechiae

deep
i.e. into joints, muscles, GI tract,
GU tract, excessive, post-traumatic

THROMBOCYTOPENIA AND OTHER

DISORDERS OF PRIMARY HEMOSTASIS
Classification
I. Vascular (Non-Thrombocytopenic Purpura)
hereditary
hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (Osler-Weber-Rendu)
connective tissue disorders
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Notes

HEMOSTASIS . . . CONT.
acquired
purpura simplex (easy bruising)
senile purpura
dysproteinemias
Henoch-Schonlein Purpura
scurvy
Cushings syndrome
infections
drugs
II. Platelets
dysfunction
hereditary
von Willebrands disease, others (rare)
acquired
drugs (ASA, EtOH, NSAIDs)
uremia
myeloproliferative disorders
dysproteinemias
thrombocytopenia (usually acquired)
decreased production
drugs, toxins
radiation
marrow infiltrate or failure
ineffective production
megaloblastic anemias
myelodysplasia
vitamin B12, folic acid or iron deficiency
viral infections (e.g. varicella, mumps, HIV, EBV, CMV, parvo)
increased destruction
drugs (quinidine, sulfas, thiazides, heparin)
ITP
allo-antibodies
HIV positivity
sepsis
increased consumption
DIC
microangiopathies (TTP)
sequestration
splenomegaly
dilutional
massive transfusion with stored blood

IDIOPATHIC (AUTOIMMUNE)
THROMBOCYTOPENIC PURPURA (ITP)
Table 7. Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura
Features

Acute ITP

Chronic ITP

peak age

2-6 years

20-40 years

sex predilection

none

F > M (3:1)

history of recent infection

common

rare

onset of bleed

abrupt

insidious

platelet count

< 20 x 109/L

30-80 x 109/L

duration

usually weeks

months to years

spontaneous remissions

80% or more

uncommon

CHRONIC (ADULT-TYPE) ITP

most common cause of isolated thrombocytopenia

Pathophysiology
IgG autoantibody
spleen
site of antibody production and platelet destruction
usually not palpable
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HEMOSTASIS . . . CONT.

Notes

Clinical Presentation
insidious onset
mucosal or skin bleeding
easy bruising
female with menorrhagia
Laboratory Results
peripheral blood film: decreased platelets, large platelets
bone marrow: plentiful megakaryocytes
anti-platelet antibodies present in most
Management
conservative if mild
steroids: moderate dose, then taper (80% responsive)
splenectomy if steroids fail
other: immunosuppressives, platelets, plasma exchange,
Danazol, IV gamma globulin
Prognosis
fluctuating course
major concern is cerebral hemorrhage at platelet counts < 5,000

DISORDERS OF SECONDARY HEMOSTASIS

Classification
I. Hereditary
Factor VIII: Hemophilia A, von Willebrands
Factor IX: Hemophilia B (Christmas Disease)
Factor XI
other factor deficiences are rare
II. Acquired
liver disease
DIC
vitamin K deficiency
circulating anti-coagulants (inhibitors)
other (e.g. primary fibrinolysis)

HEREDITARY
I. Hemophilia A (factor VIII)
X-linked
mild (> 5% VIII ), moderate (1-5%), severe (< 1%)
Clinical Presentation
hemarthroses, hematomas, GI and GU bleeding
bleeding in response to trauma (mild and moderate disease)
spontaneous bleeding (severe disease)
Laboratory Results
prolonged PTT, normal INR (PT)
decreased factor VIII
vWF usually normal or increased
Management
minor but not trivial bleeding (e.g. hemarthroses)
heat treated Factor VIII concentrate (or cryoprecipitate)
major potentially life-threatening bleeding (e.g. multiple trauma)
heat treated Factor VIII concentrate
prophylaxis (e.g. multiple dental extractions, surgery)
heat treated Factor VIII concentrate
DDAVP in mild or moderate hemophilia A
II. Von Willebrands Disease
heterogeneous group of defects
usually autosomal dominant
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Notes

HEMOSTASIS . . . CONT.
qualitative or quantitative abnormality of vWF
vWF needed for platelet adhesion and acts as carrier for factor VIII
vWF exists as a series of multimers ranging in size
the largest ones are most active in mediation of platelet adhesion
both large and small complex with factor VIII
both primary and secondary hemostasis affected
usually mild to moderate in severity
Classification
type I -decreased vWF in platelets and plasma (will see
prolonged bleeding time, decreased factor VIII)
type IIA -decreased large and intermediate sized multimers in plasma
and platelets (will see prolonged bleeding time, normal levels of
factor VIII)
type IIB - largest multimers are missing from plasma but not from platelets
Clinical Presentation
mild
asymptomatic
mucosal and cutaneous bleeding, easy bruising
moderate to severe
as above but worse, occasionally soft-tissue hematomas,
petechiae rare
Course
may fluctuate, often improves during pregnancy and with age
Laboratory Results
prolonged bleeding time and PTT
decreased factor VIII (5-50%)
normal platelet count (except in Type IIB)
decreased ristocetin cofactor activity
analysis of multimers
Management
DDAVP is treatment of choice except in Type IIB
causes release of vWF and plasminogen activator from
endothelial cells
in type IIB, the appearance of the large multimers in the
circulation can cause thrombocytopenia
cryoprecipitate in selected cases
conjugated estrogens
III. Factor IX Deficiency
Christmas disease, hemophilia B
X-linked recessive
clinical picture identical with hemophilia A
main treatment is Factor IX concentrate
IV. Factor XI Deficiency
autosomal recessive inheritance
usually mild, often diagnosed in adulthood
treatment: fresh frozen plasma

ACQUIRED
I. Liver Disease
deficient synthesis of all factors except VIII
aberrant synthesis: fibrinogen
deficient clearance: of hemostatic debris and fibrinolytic activators
accelerated destruction due to dysfibrinogenemias: increased
fibrinolysis, DIC
thrombocytopenia: hypersplenism, folate deficiency, EtOH intoxication
(chronic, acute), DIC
platelet dysfunction: EtOH
miscellaneous: inhibition of secondary hemostasis by FDPs
peripheral blood smear: target cells
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HEMOSTASIS . . . CONT.

Notes

diagnosis
factor V because it has the shortest half-life
elevated INR (PT), PTT and bleeding time
treatment: fresh frozen plasma, platelets
II. Vitamin K Deficiency
Etiology
poor diet
biliary obstruction
malabsorption e.g. celiac disease
drugs
oral anticoagulants via inhibition of factors II, VII, IX, X and
Protein C and Protein S
antibiotics eradicating gut flora which is 50 % of vitamin K supply
hemorrhagic disease of newborn
Diagnosis
PTT is normal but INR (PT) is elevated
decreased factors II, VII, IX and X (because vitamin K dependent)
Management
vitamin K 10-20 mg SC (not IM)
III. Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)
Clinical Conditions Associated with DIC
activation of procoagulant activity
anti-phospholipid antibody
intravascular hemolysis (incompatible blood, malaria)
tissue factor
tissue injury (obstetric catastrophes, leukemia, tumours,
liver disease, trauma, burns)
snakebite
fat embolism
heat stroke
endothelial injury
infections
vasculitis
metastatic disease (adenocarcinoma)
aortic aneurysm
giant hemangioma
reticuloendothelial injury
liver disease
splenectomy
vascular stasis
hypotension
hypovolemia
pulmonary embolus
other
acute hypoxia/acidosis
extracorporeal circulation
Signs of Microvascular Thrombosis (Early DIC)
neurological
multifocal
delirium
coma
skin
focal ischemia
superficial gangrene
renal
oliguria
azotemia
cortical necrosis
pulmonary
ARDS
GI
acute ulceration
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Notes

HEMOSTASIS . . . CONT.
RBC

microangiopathic hemolysis

Signs of Hemorrhagic Diathesis (Late DIC)

neurologic
intracranial bleeding
skin
petechiae
eccyhmosis
oozing from puncture sites
renal
hematuria
mucosal
gingival oozing
epistaxis
massive bleeding
Diagnosis
clinical picture
laboratory
primary hemostasis (decreased platelets)
secondary hemostasis (prolonged INR (PT), PTT, TT,
decreased fibrinogen and other factors)
fibrinolysis (increased FDPs, short lysis time)
extent of fibrin deposition (urine output, urea, RBC fragmentation)
Management
recognize early
TREAT UNDERLYING DISORDER!
life support measures
replacement with plasma and platelets

THROMBOSIS
Virchows Triad
stasis
hypercoaguable state
endothelial injury
Mechanisms
endothelial damage
blood flow
stasis
turbulence
hyperviscosity
blood components
platelets
contact factors
thrombin
Factor VIII
fibrin
hypercoagulability
cancer
pregnancy
birth control pills
DIC
lipids
decrease of physiological inhibitors (antithrombin-III,
protein C, protein S)
hereditary resistance to activated protein C
(Factor V Leiden mutation)
Management (acute and prophylaxis)
anticoagulants
low molecular weight heparin
no test required
reduced incidence of HIT
unfractionated heparin
maintain PTT 1.5-2.5 x the normal control
coumadin (see Table 8)
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Notes

HEMOSTASIS . . . CONT.
thrombolytics
plasminogen activators (streptokinase, urokinase, TPA)
snake venom enzymes (ancrod)
antiplatelet agents
ASA
sulfinopyrazone
dipyridamole
Table 8. Monitoring Coumadin Therapy (therapeutic ranges)
INR
pre-operative
surgery
hip surgery
prevention of venous thrombosis
active venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism
and prevention of recurrent venous thrombosis
prevention of arterial thrombo-embolism
including mechanical heart valves
INR should never exceed 5

Range

Target

1.5-2.5
2-3
2-3
2-4

2
2.5
2.5
3

3-4.5

3.5

HEPARIN-INDUCED THROMBOCYTOPENIA
HIT-I
non-immune
decrease in platelet count usually seen early, but may take up to
1 week to appear
transient thrombocytopenia, returns to normal once heparin discontinued
no intravascular thrombosis
likely due to platelet aggregation and sequestration
HIT-II
immune-mediated
typically occurs 5 to 15 days into heparin therapy.
HIT can begin sooner in patients who have received heparin in the past
three months
delayed-onset HIT occurs several days after discontinuing heparin
typical platelet count in patients with HIT ranges from 25 to 100 x 109/L
Pathogenesis
immunoglobulin-mediated adverse drug reaction
pathogenic antibody, usually IgG recognizes a multimolecular complex of
heparin and platelet factor 4, resulting in platelet activation via
platelet Fc receptors and activation of the coagulation system
Clinical Complications
cases of serious bleeding related to thrombocytopenia have been reported
intravascular thrombosis
both venous (DVT, PE, venous gangrene) and arterial thrombi
(MI, stroke, limb vessels) can form
heparin-induced skin necrosis
unusual thrombotic complications include mesenteric artery or vein
occlusion, adrenal hemorrhage and infarction
acute platelet activation syndromes
acute inflammatory reactions (e.g. fever/chills, flushing, etc...),
transient global amnesia
Laboratory Features
many assays under development
C-serotonin release assay is the one currently used in Toronto
Management
discontinuation of heparin
platelet count should return to normal in a few days
danaparoid (organon) is the preferred agent if anti-thrombic therapy is indicated
low-molecular-weight heparin is less likely to cause HIT in de novo use
but still carries an increased risk if previously sensitized with unfractionated heparin
other alternatives include warfarin, ancrod and hirudin
patient may be re-exposed to heparin only under careful supervision
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Hematology 25

Notes

LEUKEMIAS
ACUTE LEUKEMIA (AML, ALL)

malignant disease
clonal proliferation of immature hematopoietic cells
malignant transformation of hematologic progenitor cells
followed by cellular replication and expansion of the transformed clone

Pathophysiology
uncontrolled growth of blasts in marrow leads to
suppression of normal hematopoetic cells which leads to
marrow failure i.e. anemia, infections, bleeding complications
appearance of blasts in peripheral blood
accumulation of blasts in other sites e.g. lymph nodes,
liver, spleen, skin, gums, CNS
metabolic consequences of a large tumour mass
chronic myeloproliferative disorders can transform into AML
myelodysplastic syndromes can transform into AML
Clinical Features of Acute Leukemia
decrease in normal hematopoiesis
anemia
pallor, weakness, fatigue
thrombocytopenia
purpura
mucosal bleeding
associated with DIC (promyelocytic leukemia
a type of AML)
neutropenia > infections
septicemia
pneumonitis
skin and mucosa
accumulation of blast cells in marrow
skeletal pain
bony tenderness, especially sternum
accumulation of blast cells in other sites
lymphadenopathy, especially ALL
hepatosplenomegaly, especially ALL
gums, especially monocytic leukemia (a type of AML)
skin, especially monocytic leukemia
CNS, especially ALL e.g. N/V, H/A, blurring of vision,
diplopia, papilledema +/ hemorrhage
gonads, especially ALL
Roth spots (oval retinal hemorrhages surrounding pale spot)
metabolic effects - aggravated by treatment
increase in uric acid > uric acid nephropathy
release of phosphates > decrease in Ca2+ and Mg2+
release of pro-coagulants > DIC
Diagnosis
peripheral blood film (see Colour Atlas E7, E11)
decreased hemoglobin (usually normocytic, normochromic
anemia) and platelets
variable leukocyte count
decrease in normal granulocytes
presence of blast cells
bone marrow
usually hypercellular
increased blast cells (normal: < 5%)
decrease in normal erythropoiesis, myelopoiesis,
megakaryocytes
cytogenetics and molecular analysis
INR (PT), PTT, FDP, fibrinogen in case of DIC
increased uric acid, LDH, Ca2+, and LFTs
baseline urea and creatinine
chest x-ray to r/o mediastinal compression and infection
LP to r/o meningeal involvement as in ALL

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Notes

LEUKEMIAS . . . CONT.
Table 9. To Differentiate AML From ALL
- Remember Big and Small
AML

ALL

big people (adults)

small people (kids)

big blasts

small blasts

lots of cytoplasm

little cytoplasm

lots of nucleoli (3-5)

few nucleoli (1-3)

lots of granules and Auer rods

no granules

big toxicity of treatment

little toxicity of treatment

big mortality rate

small mortality rate

myeloperoxidase, sudan black stain

PAS (periodic acid schiff)

maturation defect beyond myeloblast

or promyelocyte

maturation defect beyond lymphoblast

Management of Acute Leukemia

to cure - defined as survival that parallels age-matched population
first step is complete remission, defined as normal peripheral blood smear,
normal bone marrow with no excess blasts, and normal clinical state
leukemia will recur after complete remission if no further treatment given
aims of treatment
eliminate abnormal clone - cytotoxic therapy
allow repopulation of marrow with normal hemopoietic
cells (including bone marrow transplant)
supportive treatment
eliminate abnormal clone
ALL
AML
1. Induction
1. Induction
2. Consolidation
2. Consolidation
3. Intensification
or BMT
4. Maintenance
5. Prophylaxis
CNS with XRT or MTX
supportive care
prophylaxis against infection via regular C&S of urine, feces,
sputum, oropharynx, catheter sites, perianal area
antibiotics if developed fever with C&S of all orifices and chest x-ray
platelet and red cell transfusions - CMV negative products
prevention and treatment of metabolic abnormalities
Prognosis
achievement of first remission: 60-90%
childhood ALL: 70% long term remission (> 5 years)
adult ALL: 20% 5 year survival
AML
median survival: 12-24 months
5 year survival: 20%
these statistics may be improved by BMT
risk of leukostasis with WBC count > 100 000

BONE MARROW TRANSPLANTATION

allows even more intensive therapy

very high doses of chemo +/ whole body RT
marrow rescue
allogeneic - HLA identical sibling
donor must be < 55 years
autologous - from self
complications
cytopenias - especially neutropenia and thrombocytopenia
infections - especially opportunistic
drug toxicity

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Notes

LEUKEMIAS . . . CONT.
graft rejection
graft vs. host disease = graft versus leukemia (G vs. L)
NB: A small amount of G vs. L may actually be beneficial as
graft immune system destroys malignant host cells

MYELODYSPLASTIC SYNDROMES

set of clonal disorders characterized by one or more cytopenias

with anemia present
ineffective hematopoiesis despite presence of adequate numbers of
progenitor cells (bone marrow is usually hyper-cellular)
present with fatigue, infection, and/or bleeding related to bone marrow failure
most common in elderly, usually > 70 and post-chemotherapy or radiation
usually insidious in onset
clinical presentation
fatigue, weakness, pallor, infections, bruising and rarely
weight loss, fever, and hepatosplenomegaly
diagnostic triad
1. anemia thrombocytopenia neutropenia
2. bone marrow hypoplasia
3. dysmyelopoiesis in bone marrow precursors
hematological changes
RBC: variable morphology with decreased reticulocyte count
WBC: decrease in granulocytes and abnormal function
platelet: either too large or too small and thrombocytopenia

Types
refractory anemia (RA)
refractory anemia with ring sideroblasts (RARS)
refractory anemia with excess blasts (RAEB)
refractory anemia with excess blasts in transformation (RAEB-T)
chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML)
Management
symptomatic (transfusion, antibiotics)
bone marrow transplant may be curative

CHRONIC MYELOPROLIFERATIVE
DISORDERS
clonal abnormalities of stem cell resulting in qualitative and
quantitative changes to erythroid, myeloid, and platelet cells
may develop marrow fibrosis with time
all disorders may progress to acute myelogenous leukemia
mainly middle-aged and older patients

COMMON FEATURES

increased
uric acid
LDH
serum B12
transcobalamin I
eosinophils
basophils
blood histamine (from basophils)
pruritus
bruising
thrombosis
peptic ulcer disease (histamine increases acid secretion)

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CHRONIC MYELOPROLIFERATIVE
DISORDERS . . . CONT.

Notes

Table 10. Chronic Myeloproliferative Disorders

PRV

CGL (CML)

IMF

ET

HCT

88

9/N

WBC

88

8/9

PLT

8/9

8/9

888

LAP

88

8/N

8/N

9/N

marrow fibrosis

+++

splenomegaly

+++

+++

hepatomegaly

++

PRV = polycythemia rubra vera

CGL = chronic granulocytic leukemia
IMF = idiopathic myelofibrosis
ET = essential thrombocythemia
LAP = leukocyte alkaline phosphatase

POLYCYTHEMIA RUBRA VERA

autonomous overproduction of erythroid cells

Clinical Features
secondary to high red cell mass and hyperviscosity
headache, dizziness, tinnitus
congestive heart failure
thrombosis
secondary to platelet abnormalities
cerebrovascular accident
myocardial infarction
phlebitis
bleeding, bruising
secondary to high blood histamine (from basophils)
pruritus, especially post-bath or shower
peptic ulcer
secondary to high cell turnover
gout (due to hyperuricemia)
Management
phlebotomy
if symptoms are due to erythrocytosis alone and platelet
count normal or only slightly increased
alkylating agents
if symptoms systemic or secondary to splenic enlargement
antihistamines
allopurinol
32P
Complications
vascular complications (thrombosis, hemorrhage)
myeloid metaplasia
acute leukemia
Causes of Secondary Polycythemia
poor tissue oxygenation
high altitude
chronic cardiovascular or pulmonary disease
hemoglobinopathies with increased O2 affinity
local renal hypoxia
renal artery stenosis
renal cysts
MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 29

CHRONIC MYELOPROLIFERATIVE
DISORDERS . . . CONT.

Notes

ectopic production of erythropoietin

uterine leiomyoma
cerebellar hemangioma
hepatocellular CA
pheochromocytoma
renal cell CA
spurious (decrease in plasma volume)

CHRONIC GRANULOCYTIC (MYELOGENOUS) LEUKEMIA

disorder of middle-age characterized by an overproduction of myeloid cells

Clinical Features
secondary to splenic involvement
upper left quadrant pain and fullness
shoulder tip pain due to splenic infarction
secondary to high blood histamine
pruritus, peptic ulcer
secondary to rapid cell turnover
fever, weight loss
secondary to anemia
symptoms of anemia
secondary to gross elevation of the WBC (rare)
encephalopathy
priapism
Diagnostic Features
Philadelphia (Ph1) chromosome
translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22
the c-abl proto-oncogene is translocated from chromosome
9 to breakpoint cluster region (bcr) of chromosome 22 to
produce bcr-c-abl fusion gene
detection of this fusion gene is a diagnostic test for CML
(present in over 90% of patients)
leukocyte alkaline phosphatase (LAP)
a normal constituent of secondary neutrophil granules
low and often 0 (normal or increased in other chronic
myeloproliferative diseases and reactive states)
peripheral blood film (see Colour Atlas E9)
leukocytosis with early myeloid precursors
eosinophils and basophils may be increased
hypogranular basophils
bone marrow
myeloid hyperplasia with a left shift, increased
megakaryocytes and increased reticulin or fibrosis
Management
hydroxyurea or occasionally busulfan
allopurinol and antihistamines
interferon
only curative treatment is bone marrow transplantation
Outcomes
chronic phase
normal bone marrow function
white blood cells differentiate and function normally
accelerated phase
fever
marked increase in basophils
increased extramedullary hematopoiesis (unusual sites)
transformation > disease similar to idiopathic
myelofibrosis
pancytopenia secondary to marrow aplasia
acute phase (blast transformation)
2/3 develop a picture similar to AML
unresponsive to remission induction
1/3 develop a picture similar to ALL
remission induction (return to chronic phase) achievable
sepsis
bleeding
thrombosis
Hematology 30
MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

CHRONIC MYELOPROLIFERATIVE
DISORDERS . . . CONT.

Notes

IDIOPATHIC MYELOFIBROSIS

marrow replaced by fibrosis - abnormal megakaryocytes stimulate

collagen deposition

Clinical Features
as for CGL except no priapism or encephalopathy
Diagnostic Features
often a significant degree of hemolysis due to hypersplenism and red
cell fragmentation
peripheral blood film (see Colour Atlas E14)
tear drop cells
red cell and megakaryocyte fragments
increased polychromasia
nucleated red blood cells and poikilocytes (red blood cells
of irregular shape)
giant abnormal platelets due to early release from marrow
leukoerythroblastic changes i.e. due to the space occupying
lesions in the bone marrow, a variable number of erythroid
and myeloid cells are released into the circulation
bone marrow
replaced with fibrosis, difficult to aspirate
megakaryocytes normal or increased
Management
transfusion
erythropoietin
androgens
allopurinol and antihistamines
folic acid if stores depleted
desferoxamine for iron overload (iron and aluminum chelator)
hydroxyurea in extremely small doses
splenectomy in highly selected cases
bone marrow transplantation
Complications
refractory anemia
pancytopenia
transformation to AML
thrombosis and bleeding

ESSENTIAL THROMBOCYTHEMIA

overpopulation of platelets in absence of recognizable stimulus

invariably above 400 000/mL

Clinical Features
bleeding - although plentiful, platelets are not working
thrombosis
those secondary to splenic enlargement, high blood histamine, and
rapid cell turnover - as with CGL and IMF
Laboratory Features
defect in platelet function may be present
elevation of phosphatase and potassium in plasma sample due to
release of cytoplasmic content from aggregation of platelet
Diagnosis
exclude other myeloproliferative diseases and secondary
thrombocythemia
Management
hydroxyurea
32P
plasmapheresis
avoid splenectomy as spleen is removing unwanted platelets
MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 31

CHRONIC MYELOPROLIFERATIVE
DISORDERS . . . CONT.

Notes

Complications
bleeding
thrombosis
leukemic transformation
transformation to myelofibrosis
Note: there is an asymptomatic benign form of essential thrombocythemia
with a stable or slowly rising platelet count; treatment includes
observation, ASA, sulfinpyrazone or dipyridamole
Causes of Secondary Thrombocythemia
infection
inflammation (IBD, arthritis)
malignancy
hemorrhage
Fe deficiency
hemolytic anemia
post splenectomy
post chemotherapy

MALIGNANT CLONAL
PROLIFERATIONS OF B CELLS
CHRONIC LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA

indolent disorder of middle-age characterized by the clonal

malignancy of poorly functioning B cells

Laboratory Values
absolute lymphocytosis > 5.0 x 109/L (usually > 10.0 x 109/L)
smudge cells (see Colour Atlas E8)
diffuse or focal infiltration of marrow by lymphocytes
Complications
bone marrow failure
bulky lymphadenopathy
hypersplenism
immune hemolytic anemia
immune thrombocytopenia
hypogammaglobinemia
monoclonal gammopathy (IgM, IgD)
hyperuricemia with treatment
transformation to histiocytic lymphoma
Management
the gentlest treatment that will control symptoms
observation
intermittent chlorambucil
corticosteroids
radiotherapy
intravenous chemotherapy
currently no cure possible

PLASMA CELL MYELOMA (MULTIPLE MYELOMA)

monoclonal malignancy of plasma cells engaged in the production of a

specific protein (paraprotein) characterized by replacement of bone
marrow and bone destruction
often presents with bone pain, anemia, and infection
incidence: 3 per 100 000
increasing frequency with age
the protein produced is monoclonal i.e. one class of heavy chains and
one type of light chains (M protein)
IgG: 50%
IgA: 25%

Hematology 32

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MALIGNANT CLONAL
PROLIFERATIONS OF B CELLS . . . CONT.

Notes

IgM: 10% (macroglobulinemia)

light chains: only 15% (light chain disease)
IgD (1%) and IgE are rare
Clinical Features
onset between 40-70 years
bone pain, tenderness, deformity
weakness, fatigue (due to anemia)
weight loss, night sweats with advanced disease
abnormal bleeding (epistaxis, purpura)
infection e.g. pneumococcal diseases
on exam: pallor, bone deformity, pathologic fractures, bone
tenderness, hepato/splenomegaly, petechiae and purpura
renal failure
Laboratory Features
peripheral blood
rouleaux (see Colour Atlas E10)
rare plasma cells
normocytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, leukopenia
bone marrow
focal or diffuse increase in plasma cells (see Colour Atlas E12)
primitive plasma cells
monoclonal protein on serum protein electrophoresis
heavy chain and light chain types identified by serum immunoelectrophoresis
decreased normal immunoglobulins
urine electrophoresis (Bence-Jones protein, a light chain dimer)
hypercalcemia (N/V, apathy, weakness, polydipsia, polyuria)
creatinine increased
increased ESR
narrow anion gap (myeloma protein is a cation)
Diagnosis
bone pain, anemia, increased ESR or increased rouleaux suggests myeloma
classic diagnostic triad: diagnosis depends on demonstrating
increased numbers of atypical immature plasma cells
1. greater than 10% abnormal plasma cells in bone marrow
2. lytic bone lesions
3. monoclonal protein spike in serum or urine
Complications
bone abnormalities
osteoporosis, pathological fractures - common due to osteoclastic
activating factor and PTHrP
lytic lesions are classical (skull, spine, proximal long bones, ribs)
osteoclast activating factor (hypercalcemia, normal ALP)
renal failure secondary to
myeloma kidney (intratubular deposition of light chains)
hypercalcemic nephropathy
pyelonephritis
amyloidosis from chronic inflammation
obstructive uropathy
renal infiltration by plasma cells
hyperuricemia
hyperviscosity compromising renal blood flow
transformation to acute leukemia
hyperviscosity syndrome (caused by M protein)
amyloidosis (CHF, nephrotic syndrome, joint pain, carpal tunnel syndrome)
Management
melphalan or other alkylating agents
corticosteroids
radiotherapy to local painful lesions
bisphosphonates
follow serum or urine M protein as indicator of response
early identification and treatment of complications
MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 33

MALIGNANT CLONAL
PROLIFERATIONS OF B CELLS . . . CONT.

Notes

treatment of renal failure

hydration
corticosteroids
plasmapheresis
autologous stem cell transplant
Prognosis
over 10 years of survival for most patients

LIGHT CHAIN DISEASE

plasma cells produce only light chains

15% of patients with myeloma
diagnosis
urine immunoelectrophoresis
serum studies often non-diagnostic as light chains can pass
through glomerulus
renal failure a MAJOR problem
survival: kappa > lambda light chains

MONOCLONAL GAMMOPATHY OF UNKNOWN

SIGNIFICANCE
(BENIGN MONOCLONAL GAMMOPATHY)

1% of the total population

3% of people > 70 years of age
diagnosis
exclude myeloma
no rise in the M protein with time
10% of these patients develop multiple myeloma each year in the first 3 years

MACROGLOBULINEMIA OF WALDENSTROM

uncontrollable proliferation of lymphoplasmacytoid cells

(a hybrid of lymphocytes and plasma cells)
monoclonal IgM para protein is produced
symptoms: weakness, fatigue, bleeding (oronasal), recurrent
infections, dyspnea, CHF, weight loss, neurological symptoms
(peripheral neuropathy, cerebral dysfunction)
signs: pallor, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, lymphadenopathy, retinal lesions
bone marrow shows plasmacytoid lymphocytes
bone lesions usually not present
cold hemagglutinin disease possible
normocytic anemia, rouleaux, high ESR if hyperviscosity not present
watch for hyperviscosity syndrome

MACROGLOBULINEMIAHYPERVISCOSITY SYNDROME
Clinical Features
hypervolemia causing:
congestive heart failure
headache
lethargy
dilutional anemia
retina shows venous engorgement and hemorrhages
bleeding diathesis
due to impaired platelet function, absorption of soluble
coagulation factors e.g. nasal bleeding, oozing gums
ESR usually very low
CNS symptoms
headache, vertigo, ataxia, stroke
Management of Macroglobulinemia
chlorambucil or melphalan
corticosteroids
plasmapheresis for hyperviscosity

Hematology 34

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

MALIGNANT CLONAL
PROLIFERATIONS OF B CELLS . . . CONT.

Notes

Table 11. Characteristics of B Cell Malignant Proliferation

CLL

Macroglobulinemia

Myeloma

cell type

lymphocyte

plasmacytoid
lymphocyte

plasma cell

protein

IgM if
present

IgM

IgG, A, D or E

lymph nodes

very common

common

rare

hepatosplenomegaly

common

common

rare

bone lesions

rare

rare

common

hypercalcemia

rare

rare

common

renal failure

rare

rare

common

immunoglobulin
autoimmune
complications

common

infrequent

rare

LYMPHOMAS
HODGKINS DISEASE AND NON-HODGKINS
LYMPHOMA STAGING

Stage I
involvement of a single lymph node region OR
extralymphatic organ or site
Stage II
involvement of two or more lymph node regions OR an
extralymphatic site and one or more lymph node regions
on SAME side of diaphragm
Stage III
involvement of lymph node regions on BOTH sides of the diaphragm
may or may not be accompanied by single
extralymphatic site or involvement of spleen
Stage IV
diffuse involvement of one or more extralymphatic organs including
bone marrow

Subtypes
A = Absence of B symptoms
B = Presence of B symptoms
B Symptoms
unexplained fever > 38C
unexplained weight loss (> 10% of body weight in 6 months)
night sweats

HODGKINS DISEASE

bimodal distribution with peaks at the age of 20 years and > 50 years

Clinical Features
lymphadenopathy (neck, axilla)
B symptoms
classical symptoms
pruritus
painful nodes following alcohol consumption

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 35

Notes

LYMPHOMAS . . . CONT.
Diagnosis
nodal biopsy
bone marrow biopsy for Reed-Sternberg cell (see Colour Atlas E13)
nodular sclerosis is the most common histological subtype
Work-up
CBC
normocytic normochromic anemia
leukocytosis in 1/3 of patients
eosinophilia
platelet count is normal or increased in early disease but
decreased in advanced disease
biochemistry
RFT to assess renal excretion of chemotherapeutics
(e.g. creatinine)
LFT to r/o liver involvement
uric acid
ESR to monitor disease progress
Ca2+, ALP, phosphate for bone metastasis
chest x-ray to r/o mediastinal masses and lung metastases
CT of chest, abdomen and pelvis
Management
high cure rate
Stage I-II: radiation therapy
Stage III-IV: combination chemotherapy e.g. ABVD
Complications of Treatment
diminished fertility
consider oophoropexy/sperm banking before radiation
post-splenectomy sepsis
give pneumovax pre-splenectomy
hypothyroidism
secondary malignancies
< 2% risk of MDS, AML, usually within 4 years after
exposure to alkylating agents and radiation
solid tumours in the radiation fields
accelerated cardiovascular disease
Prognosis
Stage I and II: 85%
Stage IIIA: 70%
Stage IIIB and IV: 50%

NON-HODGKINS LYMPHOMA
Clinical Features
painless superficial lymphadenopathy usually > 1 lymph region
constitutional symptoms: not as common as in Hodgkins disease
fever
weight loss
night sweats
cytopenia: anemia +/ neutropenia +/ thrombocytopenia if bone marrow fails
abdominal symptoms or signs
hepatosplenomegaly
retroperitoneal and mesenteric involvement (2nd most
common site of involvement)
oropharyngeal involvement in 5-10% with sore throat and obstructive apnea
Diagnosis
lymph node biopsy
bone marrow biopsy
PBF sometimes shows lymphoma cells
Work-Up
CBC
normocytic normochromic anemia
autoimmune hemolytic anemia
advanced disease: thrombocytopenia,
neutropenia, and leukoerythroblastic anemia
Hematology 36

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

LYMPHOMAS . . . CONT.

Notes

biochemistry
increase in uric acid
abnormal LFTs in liver metastases
elevated LDH (rapidly progressing disease and
poor prognostic factor)
chest x-ray for thoracic involvement
CT for abdominal involvement
Working Formulation for Subtypes of NHL
low-grade
Stage I/II curable
Stage III/IV not curable but initially responds to therapy
despite long-term survival, rarely cured and usually die of
lymphoma
intermediate-grade
Stage I/II curable
50-60% with Stage III/IV curable with combination chemotherapy
high-grade
all stages: 30% curable with intensive combination chemo
miscellaneous
composite
mycosis fungoides (cutaneous T-cell lymphoma)
true histiocytic
unclassifiable
Management of NHL
localized disease (e.g. GI, brain, bone, head and neck)
surgery (if applicable)
radiotherapy to primary site and adjacent nodal areas
adjuvant chemotherapy often used, especially if the lymphoma is
a type in which early dissemination is common
Stage I or limited Stage II
uncommon except for Diffuse Large Cell
low-grade: radiotherapy
higher grades: radiotherapy, often with adjuvant chemotherapy
generalized disease (extensive Stage II or Stage III-IV)
low-grade
asymptomatic: no treatment or gentle chemotherapy
symptomatic: single agent or mild combination
higher grades: aggressive combination chemotherapy
NHL Complications
hypersplenism
infection
autoimmune hemolytic anemia and thrombocytopenia
vascular obstruction (from enlarged nodes)
Note: never give live vaccines like MMR and oral polio!
Indicators for Poor Prognosis
> 60 years old
poor response to therapy
multiple nodal regions
elevated LDH
> 5cm nodes
previous history of low grade disease or AIDS
Prognosis
low grade: survival > 5 years
high grade with local disease is curable with radiation
high grade systemic disease: 40-50% in 2 years

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 37

Notes

TUMOUR LYSIS SYNDROME

more common in diseases with large tumour burden and high
proliferative rate (high grade lymphoma, leukemia)
metabolic abnormalities
hyperuricemia
hyperkalemia
hyperphosphatemia
hypocalcemia
complications
lethal cardiac arrhythmia
acute renal failure
management
prevention - adequate IV hydration, allopurinol, correction
of pre-existing metabolic abnormalities
symptomatic

WBC DISORDERS
NEUTROPHILIA
Definition
ANC (absolute neutrophil count) > 7.5 x 109/liter
Mechanisms
increased mitosis/proliferation e.g. response to chronic infection
decreased marrow storage pool e.g. acute response to infection
decreased marginal pool e.g. acute response to infection
decreased egress from circulating pool e.g. chronic steroids
Etiology
acute infections especially bacterial
inflammation
metabolic derangement e.g. uremia, acidosis, gout
acute hemorrhage or hemolysis
malignant neoplasm and myeloproliferative disorders
steroid therapy (because poor migration) common

LEUKEMOID REACTIONS

blood findings resembling those seen in certain types of

leukemia with immature WBC in the PBF
myeloid leukemia mimicked by
pneumonia
other acute bacterial infections
intoxications
burns
malignant disease
severe hemorrhage or hemolysis
lymphoid leukemia mimics (see Infectious Diseases Notes)
pertussis
TB
infectious mononucleosis (see Colour Atlas E15)
monocytic leukemia mimicked by
TB

NEUTROPENIA
Definition
ANC < 2.5 x 109/liter
Mechanisms
decreased stem cells e.g. aplastic anemia
decreased mitosis e.g. marrow hypoplasia secondary to alkylating agents
increased ineffective mitosis e.g. megaloblastic anemia
increased peripheral destruction e.g. hypersplenism
combinations e.g. lymphoma
increased marginal pool or decreased storage pool egress e.g. viremia
Hematology 38

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WBC DISORDERS . . . CONT.

Notes

Etiology
overwhelming infection
viral: HIV, hepatitis, EBV
bacteria: typhoid, miliary TB
drugs and chemicals
examples: ionizing radiation, benzene, chemotherapeutic
drugs, anti-inflammatory drugs
dose-dependent predictable e.g. anticonvulsants
dose-dependent idiosyncratic e.g. ASA, phenothiazine,
indomethacin
dose-independent hypersensitivity
antibody-mediated e.g. penicillins
marrow disease
low B12/folate
bone marrow infiltration (hematologic malignancies
> solid tumours)
aplastic anemia
hereditary: cyclic neutropenia, Kostmann syndrome
hypersplenism
Clinical Features
fever, chills
infection by opportunistic organisms
painful ulceration on skin, anus, mouth and throat by opportunistic
organisms
septicemia in later stage
Diagnosis
CBC
bone marrow biopsy to r/o marrow failure

AGRANULOCYTOSIS

virtually complete disappearance of granulocytes from the blood

and granulocyte precursors from the marrow; drugs often implicated
abrupt onset of
fever, chills and weakness
oropharyngeal ulcers
drug induced (e.g. clozapine)
highly lethal without vigorous treatment

Management
discontinue offending drug
antimicrobial therapy e.g. SMX-TMP, ciprofloxacin, antifungal
Filgrastim (G-CSF) - growth factor that stimulates neutrophil
production

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 39

BLOOD PRODUCTS AND TRANSFUSIONS

Notes

RED CELLS
Table 12. Red Cells
Product

Indication

packed cells

symptomatic anemia
bleeding with hypovolemia

frozen red cells

rare blood groups

multiple alloantibodies

Packed Cells
stored at 4C
transfuse within 35 days of collection, otherwise hyperkalemia due to cell lysis
transfuse within 7 days of collection if renal failure or hepatic failure is
present to reduce solute load
each unit will raise hematocrit by about 4% or hemoglobin by 10 gm/l
Selection of Red Cells for Transfusion
donor blood should be crossmatch compatible (by mixing
recipient serum with donor RBC)
donor blood should be free of irregular blood group antibodies
the donor blood should be the same ABO and Rh group as the recipient

BLOOD GROUPS
Table 13. Blood Groups
Group

Antigen

Antibody

anti-A, anti-B

anti-B

anti-A

AB

A and B

nil

group compatible uncrossmatched blood is safer than

O-negative uncrossmatched blood - there is no universal donor

PLATELETS
Table 14. Platelet Product Use
Product

Indication

random donor (pooled)

thrombocytopenia with bleeding

single donor platelets

potential BMT recipients

HLA matched platelets

refractoriness to pooled or single donor platelets

each unit of random donor platelets should increase the platelet count
by approximately 10 x 109/L
single donor platelets should increase the platelet count by 40-60 x 109/L
if an increment in the platelet count is not seen, alloantibodies,
bleeding, sepsis or hypersplenism may be present

Hematology 40

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BLOOD PRODUCTS AND TRANSFUSIONS . . . CONT.

Notes

COAGULATION FACTORS
Table 15. Coagulation Factor Use
Product

Indication

Fresh frozen plasma

Depletion of multiple coagulation factors

Cryoprecipitate

Factor VIII deficiency

Von Willebrands disease
Hypofibrinogenemia

Factor VIII concentrate

Factor VIII deficiency

Factor IX concentrate

Factor IX deficiency

Special Considerations
irradiated blood products
potential BMT recipients
immunocompromised patients
CMV negative blood products
potential transplant recipients
neonates

GROUP AND RESERVE SERUM

an alternative to holding crossmatched blood for

individuals who may require transfusion
recipients ABO and Rh group is determined
recipients serum is tested for the presence of irregular
blood group antibodies
the serum is kept frozen
compatible blood can be issued immediately in an
emergency or within 30 minutes electively

ACUTE COMPLICATIONS OF BLOOD

TRANSFUSIONS

minutes to hours
Febrile Nonhemolytic Transfusion Reactions
due to antibodies stimulated by previous transfusions or
pregnancies against antigens on donor lymphocytes, granulocytes,
platelets
signs and symptoms: chills, fever
management and prevention
stop transfusion
acetaminophen
steroids
filtered blood
washed blood
Allergic (Urticarial) Reactions
usually due to interaction between donor plasma proteins and
recipient IgE antibodies
management and prevention
antihistamines
slow infusion
steroids
washed blood
Anaphylaxis
rare, usually in IgA deficient patients reacting against IgA in donor plasma
management
IV epinephrine
IgA deficient blood components in future
Acute Hemolytic Transfusion Reactions
usually due to incorrect patient identification
intravascular hemolytic reaction due to complement activation
signs and symptoms
muscle pain, back pain
fever, N/V, chest pain, wheezing
MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 41

BLOOD PRODUCTS AND TRANSFUSIONS . . . CONT.

Notes

dyspnea, tachypnea (acute respiratory distress syndrome)

feeling of impending doom
hemoglobinemia
renal failure - DIC
patient under general anesthetic may present with bleeding
investigations
repeat crossmatch and donor and recipient blood groups
direct antiglobulin test (direct Coombs test)
management
stop transfusion
hydrate aggressively
transfuse with compatible blood products
Citrate Toxicity
seen with massive transfusion and with liver disease
toxicity secondary to hypocalcemia
prevented by giving 10 mL of 10% calcium gluconate for
every 2 units of blood
Hyperkalemia
Circulatory Overload
with prior CHF and in elderly patients
minimize the amount of saline given with the blood
Hemorrhagic State due to Dilutional Coagulopathy
with massive transfusion
packed cells contain no Factor VIII or V or platelets
correct with fresh frozen plasma and platelets
Bacterial Infections
never give blood > 4 hours after a bag has been entered!
signs and symptoms: chills, rigors, fever, hypotension, shock, DIC
(profound symptoms with Gram negatives)

DELAYED COMPLICATIONS IN TRANSFUSIONS

days to weeks

Viral infection
the risk of infections due to
HIV < 1:500 000
HBV < 1:250 000
HCV < 1: 10 000
Delayed Hemolytic Transfusion Reaction
may be delayed up to 5 to 10 days
it is due to alloantibodies that are too weak to be detected by indirect
antiglobulin test or by crossmatch that leads to extravascular hemolysis
may be confused with autoimmune hemolytic anemia
signs and symptoms: anemia, fever, history of recent transfusion,
jaundice, positive direct Coombs test
further transfusion should be avoided
Iron Overload
often occurs in patients with repeated transfusion
e.g. beta-thalassemia major
use of iron chelators after transfusion can reduce the chance of
iron overload
complications include secondary hemochromatosis
dilated cardiomyopathy
cirrhosis
DM, hypothyroidism, delayed growth and puberty
Graft versus Host Disease
transfused T-lymphocytes recognize and react against the host (recipient)
between 4-30 days later
most patients with this have severely impaired immune systems
(Hodgkins, NHL, acute leukemias)
signs and symptoms: fever, diarrhea, liver function abnormalities, pancytopenia
mortality about 90%
prevention: gamma irradiation of blood components
Hematology 42

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APPROACH TO SPLENOMEGALY

Notes

immunologic-inflammatory
infections: subacute bacterial endocarditis, brucellosis,
tuberculosis, infectious mononucleosis, cytomegalovirus,
histoplasmosis, malaria, schistosomiasis
connective tissue diseases: rheumatoid arthritis,
Feltys syndrome, SLE
sarcoidosis
hematologic disorders
neoplastic: lymphomas, histiocytoses, myeloproliferative
syndromes, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute leukemia
non-neoplastic: hemolytic anemias
congestive splenomegaly due to portal hypertension: cirrhosis,
portal or splenic vein thrombosis
metabolic-infiltrative: Gauchers, Niemann-Picks, amyloidosis
miscellaneous: cyst, abscess, cavernous hemangioma
Mild Spleen Enlargement
0-4 cm below costal margin
CHF, SBE, SLE, RA, thalassemia minor, acute malaria, typhoid fever
Moderate Spleen Enlargement
4-8 cm below costal margin
hepatitis, cirrhosis, lymphomas, infectious mononucleosis, hemolytic anemias,
splenic infarct, splenic abscess, amyloidosis, acute leukemias, hemolytic anemias
Massive Spleen Enlargement
> 8 cm below costal margin
chronic leukemias, lymphoma, myelofibrosis, hairy cell leukemia, leishmaniasis,
portal vein obstruction, polycythemia vera (end-stage), primary thrombocythemia,
lipid-storage disease, sarcoidosis, thalassemia major

APPROACH TO BLOOD
FILM EXAMINATION
Size
macrocytic
increased size
e.g. megaloblastic anemia, EtOH
microcytic
reduced size
e.g. iron deficiency, thalassemia
Colour
hypochromatic
increased in the size of the central pallor (normal = less than a
half of the diameter of RBC)
decreased hemoglobin
e.g. anemia
Shape
normal = discocyte (biconcave)
spherocyte = spherical RBC
e.g. hereditary spherocytosis, immune hemolytic anemia
fragmented cells (schistocytes) = split RBC
e.g. microangiopathic hemolytic anemia (TTP, DIC, vasculitis,
glomerulonephritis), prosthetic heart valve
elliptocyte (ovalocyte) = oval, elongated RBC
e.g. hereditary elliptocytosis, thalassemia, Fe deficiency, megaloblastic
anemia
sickle cell = sickle-shaped RBC
e.g. sickle cell disorders, HbC
target cell = bell-shaped, looks like target on dried film
e.g. liver disease, hemoglobin S and C, thalassemia, Fe deficiency
teardrop cell (darcocyte) = single pointed end, looks like a teardrop
e.g. myelofibrosis
MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 43

APPROACH TO BLOOD
FILM EXAMINATION . . . CONT.

Notes

Distribution
rouleaux formation = aggregates of RBC resembling stacks of coins
e.g. artifact, paraprotein (multiple myeloma, macroglobulinemia)
Inclusion
nuclei
immature RBC
indicates serious medical disease
e.g. severe anemia, leukemia, bone marrow metastases
Heinz bodies
denatured hemoglobin
e.g. G6PD deficiency
Howell-Jolly bodies
small nuclear remnant with the colour of a pyknotic nucleus
e.g. post-splenectomy, hyposplenism, hemolytic anemia,
megaloblastic anemia
basophilic stippling
deep blue granulations of variable size and number, pathologic
aggregation of ribosomes
i.e. lead intoxication, thalassemia

MEDICATIONS COMMONLY
USED IN HEMATOLOGY
Table 16. Drugs for Anemia
Drug

Common
Formulary

Mechanism
of Action

Clinical Uses

Common Side

Contraindications
Effects

iron

iron gluconate
iron sulphate
iron fumarate

for synthesis
of hemoglobin

iron deficiency
anemia
treatment and
prevention
pregnancy

in children: acute
iron toxicity as
necrotizing
enterocolitis
shock
metabolic
acidosis
coma and death

iron overload

B12

cyanocobalamin
synthesis of
hydroxycobalamin
folic acid and
DNA

B12 deficiency

no significant toxicity

N/A

folic acid

folic acid

synthesis of

folic acid

no significant toxicity
purines and
thymidylate
thus DNA

N/A
deficiency
pregnancy

erythropoietin

Epo

stimulate RBC
synthesis

renal failure
marrow failure
myelodysplastic
syndrome
autologous
blood donation

no significant toxicity

N/A

Hematology 44

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

MEDICATIONS COMMONLY
USED IN HEMATOLOGY . . . CONT.

Notes

Table 17. Chemotherapeutic Agents

Class

Example

Mechanism of Action

Common Toxicity

Examples of
Clinical Use

alkylating agent nitrogen mustard

cyclophosphamide
nitrosurea
busulfan
cisplatin

cell cycle non-specific drugs

via alkylation of nucleophilic
groups in base pairs
leading to cross-linking of
bases or abnormal basepairing or DNA breakage

marrow suppression
GI irritation
change in gonadal function
nitrogen mustard
(cyclophosphamide):
hemorrhagic cystitis
busulfan: adrenal
insufficiency and pulmonary
fibrosis

cyclophosphamide
breast CA
small cell lung CA
NHL
busulfan
CML
cisplatin
advanced ovarian CA
testicular CA

antimetabolites folic acid antagonist

(methotrexate)
purine antagonist
(mercaptopurine)
pyrimidine antagonist
(5-FU)
hydroxyurea

all are cell cycle

specific drugs
all inhibit DNA synthesis
methotrexate inhibits
synthesis of
tetrahydrofolate
mercaptopurine inhibits
purine synthesis
5-FU inhibits thymidylate
synthesis
hydroxyurea inhibits
nucleotide reductase

marrow suppression
oral mucositis
nausea and vomiting

methotrexate
breast CA
gestational trophoblastic
CA
ovarian CA
mercaptopurine
AML
5-FU
breast CA
GI CA
hepatocellular CA
hydroxyurea
CML

antibiotics

anthracyclines
(doxorubicin)
bleomycin
mitomycin-C

anthracycline is cell cycle

non-specific which
intercalates between basepairs and thus blocks DNA
and RNA synthesis
bleomycin is cell cycle
specific (G2) which produces
free radicals leading to DNA
breaks and inhibits DNA
synthesis
mitomycin-C is cell cycle
non-specific which is
metabolized in liver to
alkylating agent

anthracyclines
marrow suppression
severe alopecia
cardiomyopathies
bleomycin
pulmonary fibrosis
pneumonitis
hypersensitivity
mucocutaneous reactions
mitomycin-C
myelo-suppression
nephrotoxic

anthracyclines
breast CA
AML
lymphomas
bleomycin
testicular CA
lymphomas
mitomycin-C
GI malignancies

alkaloids

vinblastine
vincristine
podophyllotoxin
(etoposide)
taxol

all are cell cycle specific

vincristine and vinblastine
inhibit assembly of
microtubules therefore
mitotic spindles and M
phase
podophyllotoxin activates
topoisomerase II therefore
DNA breaks down
taxol inhibits disassembly of
microtubules therefore cells
are stuck in M phase

all have marrow suppression

vincristine and vinblastine
neurotoxic with areflexia,
peripheral neuritis and
paralytic ileus
taxol
neurotoxic as above

vincristine and vinblastine

lymphomas
Wilms tumor
podophyllotoxin
small cell lung CA
prostate CA
testicular CA
taxol
advanced breast CA
ovarian CA

hormones

glucocorticoids
tamoxifen
flutamide
aminoglutethimide

tamoxifen
as a partial E2 antagonist
flutamide: androgen
receptor antagonist
aminoglutethimide:
aromatase inhibitor in E2
synthesis

glucocorticoid
refer to endocrinology
under Cushings syndrome
tamoxifen
menopausal symptoms
long term: retinopathy
aminoglutethimide
menopausal symptoms
skin rashes

glucocorticoids
CML
lymphomas
tamoxifen
breast CA
flutamide
prostate CA
aminoglutethimide
metastatic breast CA

others

carboplatin
mitoxantrone

carboplatin
DNA binding
mitoxantrone
?DNA breaks

carboplatin
myelo-suppression
nausea, vomiting
nephrotoxicity
mitoxantrone
cardiotoxicity
alopecia

carboplatin
ovarian CA
mitoxantrone
AML
NHL
breast CA
ovarian CA
lung CA

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series

Hematology 45

MEDICATIONS COMMONLY
USED IN HEMATOLOGY . . . CONT.

Notes

Table 18. Anticoagulants

Drug

Generic
Drug

Mechanism
of Action

Clinical Uses

Common Side
Effects

Contraindications

heparin

liquaemin sodium

a catalyst to
antithrombin III
prolonged PT
and PTT

MI
DVT
stroke, acute

bleeding leading to
hemorrhagic stroke
heparin induced
thrombocytopenia in 25%
prolonged use:
osteoporosis

hypersensitivity to
heparin
actively bleeding
hemophiliac
thrombocytopenia
purpura
severe hypertension
bacterial endocarditis
ulceration in GI tract
during and after
neurosurgery,
lumbar puncture

low
molecular
weight
heparin

danaparoid sodium activates

dalteparin sodium
antithrombin III

warfarin

coumadin

Acetylsalicylic
acid (ASA)

Ticlid

Hematology 46

thrombosis
bleeding
prophylaxis
thrombocytopenia
non-hemorrhagic is rare
stroke
hemodialysis

same as above

inhibits vit K
dependent
clotting factors II,
VII, IX and X
from undergoing
gamma carboxylation in liver
prolonged PT
or INR

DVT
PE
atrial fibrillation
2-6 months
after MI

bleeding and
hemorrhagic stroke
teratogenic
cutaneous necrosis
during 1st week of
therapy

actively bleeding
hemophilia
purpura
ulceration of GI tract
pregnancy

aspirin

inhibits the
synthesis of
TXA2 by
platelets and
therefore
platelet
aggregation

MI prevention
TIA

GI upset
gastric ulcers
bleeding
tinnitis, vertigo
(high dose)
hyperventilation and
polyps and ASA
respiratory alkalosis
(high dose)
metabolic acidosis,
dehydration,
hyperthermia, coma,
death ( v. high dose)
Reyes syndrome in
children esp. with
viral infection

ticlopidine

inhibits
AMP release
by platelets

TIA
carotid
stenosis

GI upset
bleeding
leukopenia

bleeding disorders

bleeding
PUD
pregnancy
children
asthma and nasal
hypersensivity

MCCQE 2000 Review Notes and Lecture Series