OMU-412

MECHATRONICS DESIGN

Asst.Prof. zgr NVER

Feb. 8th, 2016

Mechatronics

Automatic Door

Mechatronics System
Mechanical
Components
Actuators
Sensors

(Chassis, links, fasternes, etc..)

(motor, hydraulic, pneumatic, piezo, etc..)

(laser, sonar, infrared, etc..)

Electronics

(Arduino, computer, PLC, data acq.,etc..)

Software

(Decision making, signal processing, etc..)

Questions!
Who has taken Mechatronics course?

How was the course?

What are your advices for this course?

How should we have this course to maximize the effectiveness

of learning and fun?

OMU412
MECHATRONICSDESIGN

Asst.Prof. zgrNVER

Feb. 15th22nd,2016

Basics
Position

Time

Velocity

Mass

Acceleration

CenterofGravity

Length

Aspongeballtravelingat10m/swonthurtmuch.
However,a baseball,thrownatthe samespeed,will
hurt a lot,WHY?

FreeBodyDiagrams

Totalofforces=0
(x,y,z)
Totalofmoments=0(x,y,z)

Naturalfrequency?
Inputfrequency?
Outputfrequency?

Fridgeispushedsideways,howcanyoucalculate
theforcesonthescrews?

Basics
Force
Pressure
Energy
KineticEnergy
PotentialEnergy
(StroringEnergy:height,
spring,rubberband,
battery,capacitor,etc..)

When ice skaters rotate about themselves,they do

something and their rotational speed increases
without getting any external energy,howcome it
happens then?

Power

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQLtcEAG9v0

Friction

Why doyou think space shuttles rotate about its axis?

Momentum

QuestionsfromtheBasics
Whydowecareaboutstoringenergy?
Howdoyoumoveinspace?
IfIpressagainstawall,doIspendenergy,doesthewallgain

energy,whywouldIsweat?
Ifyoudroptheball,itwillbounceforsometimeandwillstop

eventually,whathappenstotheinitialpotentialenergy?
Whatistheenergyconsumptionofahelicopterstandingstillinthe

air?
What happens to the initial temperature ofthe room if you putthe

fridge inanfully insulated room,open the door wait for one day?
Alliens need water,thats why they want to suck the water from the

ocean,space ship is10kmsabove from the ground surface,canyou

dothat?

QuestionsfromtheBasics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aMqM13EUSKw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XjwO9InuFJk

Takeahalfkilogramball andthrowitat10m/satawall. Assumethewalltakes

1/10ofasecondtostoptheball.
Whatistheforceappliedtotheball overthattenthofasecond,isitlinearornon

linear?
Whatistheaverageandmax.forceappliedtothesurface,whichforceis

importantforus?
Whatifthewallwasreallysoftandtook 1/4secondtostoptheball?

Whatdoesallthishavetodowithrobots?
Lots!

SimpleMachines
PoweroftheTriangules:Truss(mechanicalstrength)
Circleisalsoverystrong

Why rectangular iseasy to deflect

butnottriangle?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YKyBKaM1Is

InclinedPlane
Theinclinedplane,asimpleramp,isthesimplestofthesimplemachines.
What isthe math behind it?
What dowe gain,what dowe lose?

Why doweuseit,whyitiseasiertodo?
Whichoneneedsmoreenergy&powertodo(liftingorgoingoveraninclinedsurface?)

Wedge
Awedgeisessentiallyaninclinedplaneinportableform
What isthe math behind it?
Ifthewedgeislongandskinny,everyunityoupushitdown, it
pushesoutmore(showdxanddymotions,whatisyour
conclusion?).
Whatisthemechanicaladvantage,howdoyouexplainit,
energy?
Whatiftheslopehas0.001degreeinidealcaseandinreal
case(includingfriction)?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IaQA6cUrkAU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5DWm0ab7BU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XYjx0u75HNs

Screw
Ascrewisaninclinedplanewrappedaroundatube. Thescrewputstheinclinedplane
intoacompactform.
(e.g.bolts,screws,wormgears,etc..)
Theangle oftheplanecanbelowandwecangetalotofforceoutofit.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_30665&feature=iv&src_vid=LiBcu
r1aqcg&v=4oPPQpF7bHY

Lever
Aleverisanotherwaytoapplymechanical
advantage.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l8X4S0KxRy4

Doyouthinkthisisagoodidea?Why?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=55YHzyYoJ1k

Pulley
Apulleyprovidesaneasywaytochangethedirectionofmotion andthetotalforce.
Pulley isaformofwheel.
Isthereamechanicaladvantage?
Energy?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9T7tGosXM58
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LiBcur1aqcg

WheelsandTorque
Wheelisaformofpulley
Thewheel reduces thefriction ofmovingobjects.
Notallwheelssimplyroll.Somewheelspush (ground alsopushesagainstthem).
T=Fxr

Whatifthetableissoft?

Gears (rotary lever)andSprockets

Agearisawheelwithteethonitsoitwontslipasitrubs
againstanother gear.
Twoormoregearsconnectedtogethermakeageartrain.
FBDoftwogearsandchain?

GearsandSprockets
Twogearsinatrainconverttorquefromoneshafttoforcewhere thegearsmeet,

andbacktotorqueintheothershaft.
Thismakesthegeartrainarotarylever,withitsmechanicaladvantagecalculated
from theradiusofthegears.

Belts
Flatbelt
Vbelt
TimingBelt

Questions
Whataretheforcesonarobotwhenit

isstationary?
Whataretheforcesonarobotwhenit

ismoving?
Whatkindofleverisyourkneea

fulcrumof?Yourankle?

RotationalJoints
Rotationoccursaroundapivot,axle,

pin,orshaft.
Thesejointsareforgeneralpurpose
use andwouldntworkforahigh
speedorheavymachine.

Bushings
Ifyourmachineisheavy,thefrictionbetweenthepivotandthepartcanget

large.
Youneedtotakeextrastepstoreducethefrictionofthe movingparts.
Thesimplesttooltoreducefrictionisthebushing.
Bushingsaregoodforslowlyrotatingjoints.
Touseabushing,youdrillaholeinyour
partthatisjustslightlysmaller thanthe
outsideofthebushing.
Thebushingispressedintothepartand
friction holdsitinplace.
Arotatingshaftrunsthroughthe middle
ofthebushing.

Bearings
Ballbearingsarehardmetalsphereslockedintoaframe.
Theballsroll insteadofrub,therefore,thereisalmost nofriction.
Likebushings,theballbearingassemblyispressedintoa tightfittingholein

themachineandashaftpassesthroughitscenterhole.
Ballbearings/Cylindericalbearings

Bending
Donebytheactionofthehinge
You canbuildahingeusingthebearingsorbushings

Sliding
Bushings
Linearballbearings
Guides

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bUwO4qyGEQg
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Utm_vuCxTaw
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1fIsn2gQeqA
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vE9X58usGQ

BallandSocket(SphericalJoint)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QdKo9PYwGaU

Whywouldyouneedoutofplanerotationinsteadofradialrotationonly?

UniversalJoint
TheUjoint(CardanJoint)isusedforpowertransmission whererotationisslow.
Vehiclesusesome variationoftheUjointtoconnecttheirenginestotheirwheels.
Athigherspeeds ofrotationitvibrates
Constant velocityorCVjoint,eliminates thissourceofvibration (canrotatefast).

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xlvLgU1WF0c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8xEfygF3tY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vfLLaDsGWk0

Whathappensifthecarchassisflexesandtheinputandoutput
coordinatesofthecardanjointchanges?

Questions
Whatkinds ofjoints areusedincars?
Howdoyou reducefriction?
Howcanthefrictionofthedrawers inyourkitchenbereduced?
Youwanttopowerawheel,butitisnotinlinewiththe motor.

Whatdoyoudo?

References:RoboticsDeMYSTiFied,EdwinWise,McGrawHill.

OMU-412
MECHATRONICS DESIGN

POWER TRANSMISSION & SHAPING MOTION

Asst.Prof. zgr NVER

Feb. 22nd-29th, 2016

Transmission of Mechanical Power

Direct Transmission
Belts
Chains
Gears
Cables
Mechanisms (Ratchet etc..)
Cam
Links

Transmission of Mechanical Power

Direct Transmission:
Attach the wheel to the motor directly
- What may be the limitation? Coaxial attachment, space limitation!
- What may be the manufacturing problem? Precision.
- Advantages: Easiest transmission technique

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3-ilzxawUAs


Suspension?

What is the problem of having the motor
on the wheel in suspension systems?

Solution?

Chains
The sprockets are gears with teeth designed to mesh with a chain instead of

another gear.
The chain is a series of links held together with pins.
Why should we prefer chains instead of gears, advantages/disadvantages?
No space limitation, input and output may be far away, one input many outputs

is possible, reversing of motion is easy, less expensive, can handle deformations

on the body, noisy, less precise, needs tensioning.

On vertical layouts you should tension the slack with a spring loaded idler pulley

For long layouts where the return is on the top there is a danger of the chain touching itself. so
an idler can be placed to keep the return chain out of trouble

Chains and Belts

Long runs dont have to be made with a single chain. The three sprockets in
the middle of the run are double sprockets, one sprocket for each loop
attached at that point.

Single long chain that drives its sprockets in opposite directions.

What are the advantages/disadvantages of using treads over tires?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LvzGfM_0J_M

Belt Types
Flat Belt

V-Belt

Timing Belt

Belt Links
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0vd9QdIZxNA

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Tco9QLKLwM

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q0PHG88NW68

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=twM-GLUYQ-o

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hRJpXuTN1iE

Cables
Steel cable or string can be used to transfer force
The brake cables in a bicycle or motorcycle work like this.
These cables are wrapped around a shaft or a drum
Cables should not be bent more than 50xD_cable (check data sheet!)
What are the adv/disadv. of using cables?

Cables
Cables are useful for pulling (no pushing!).
To get a a return motion the load can have a spring or two way cable.
Cable-driven systems are not preferred to have continuous rotation, but

rather they are used for back and forth motion.

If you route your cable through a tube, the pull doesnt even have to be

in a straight line.
The ends of the tube need to be firmly fastened down.

Gears
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFvj6RQOLtM
Gears are used to convert torque and speed as desired
Gears can be used to carry power from one place to another as well as to

reverse the direction or axis of rotation.

Backlash:
Gears are more precise than pulley belts, but they still introduce errors.
Since their teeth dont mesh together perfectly, there is a little bit of slack in any

system of gears.
Backlash comes into play when the gears are moving in one direction and then

reverse their rotation.

To fix these problems, gears can be preloaded. Preloading is where you apply

tension to the gears.

Gears

Spur Gear

Bevel Gear

Helical Gear

Rack and Pinion

Worm Gear

Planetary Gear

Gears
Spur gear is the simplest and cheapest yet most efficient gear type, they are

noisy
Helical gears can carry more load, quiet but expensive
Bevel gears change the input and output power directions
Worm gears can mesh with spur gears and provide a large reduction in speed

and an equally large increase in torque

Worm gears dont back-drive easily (self locking)
Rack and pinion gears change rotation motion into linear motion
Planetary gears offer very efficient high reduction ratios in an expensive way

Robot Arm

Gearbox

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PRp1wFcuBL0

Couplers
Couplers are used to connect the power source with the actuator while

adjusting for misalignments.

A different type of coupler disconnects the power from the load in the case

of a jam or overload.
Some attachments are naturally weak, such as a set-screw pressing on a

round shaft. If the load becomes too great, the screw slips.
Using a pin or metal key to hold the shaft to its load allows more torque to

be transmitted than the set-screw.

By carefully sizing the key, you can arrange for it to break before your gear-

train does (like a fuse)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pYgyJ7o3Vl8

Differential
If you connect the left and right wheels by a single axle,
you could drive this base in a straight line, but if you try to
turn a corner the outside wheel would skid.

How do you apply power to the two wheels and still be

able to drive in a circle?

Differential
Differential is a system of gears that applies power to two output shafts such
as our wheels, while at the same time allowing those shafts (wheels) to turn
at different rates.

If both wheels are carrying load and providing resistance, it drives them

both equally.
If one wheel is not moving, the other wheel moves twice as fast.
To sum up; same total amount of rotation across the two wheels occur.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F40ZBDAG8-o

Ratchet
A ratchet lets a gear move in one direction but not the other
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bAL_nWjuhOI
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dr2Iyc5Vk7o
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eijyLC4ZzQk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4wQkKdf9ReU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_wqPl2ms2kk
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GSABM0GR-j8
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ctm0T_b_Cz4

CAM Mechanism
CAM Mechanism
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5--XwKmGX1M
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVO5dv0ZlZY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGmX_Blsfr8
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u1d7mGPvzkY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdomzDVsNCM

Shaping Motion
Some of the mechanisms can take simple rotation and turn it into complex

motions.

To control the shape of the motion clever arrangements of links and gears

can be used

Given a choice between using one motor and a complex mechanism, or two

motors and perhaps a simple mechanism,

The one-motor solution will probably cost less and be more reliable.

Single Link Mechanism

A single-link mechanism can be a lever
A lever can be used to reverse the direction of motion,
A lever can also transform the length and strength of the motion.
A rotating link is more like a cam than a lever
It can be used to press on another link, creating an intermittent back and

forth movement, or reciprocal motion.

Degree of freedom?

Two Link Mechanism

Rotary reciprocal motion
Bell cranck mechanism;
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TcnKvH-1RCg
Slider Crank Mehcanism (rotation to linear)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0gjyVqwrf3E
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fBS00ak30OU
Quick Return Mechanism
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=esnV9h-_xRs
http://www.robotee.com/index.php/robotic-mechanisms-linkages-simple-planarlinkages-51009/

Two Link Mechanism

Two link synchronized gripper

Two link synchronized gripper

Two Link Mechanism

Fourbar Mechanism
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AyII9xaAQ7M
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HMQ4u9UlPSQ
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTDvwGblmjI
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3VmSHY3t_gs

Can make parallel motion

Complex Mechanisms
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ozc1i9xJBqg

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HmgrpC0WIPU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6fYq2xp1K5s
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R9IwJ4cHU20

References: Robotics DeMYSTiFied, Edwin Wise, McGraw Hill.

OMU-412
MECHATRONICS DESIGN

ACTUATORS

Asst.Prof. zgr NVER

Feb 29th, 2016

http://www.learnengineering.org/2013/04/degrees-of-freedom-mechanics.html
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~rapidproto/mechanisms/chpt4.html

Forward Kinematics
clear all; close all; clc
l1 = 10; % length of first arm
l2 = 7; % length of second arm
theta1 = 0:0.1:pi/2; % all possible theta1 values
theta2 = 0:0.1:pi; % all possible theta2 values
[THETA1, THETA2] = meshgrid(theta1, theta2); % generate a grid of theta1 and theta2 values
X = l1 * cos(THETA1) + l2 * cos(THETA1 + THETA2); % compute x coordinates
Y = l1 * sin(THETA1) + l2 * sin(THETA1 + THETA2); % compute y coordinates
data = [X(:) Y(:) THETA1(:) THETA2(:)] % create x-y-theta1 dataset
plot(X(:), Y(:), 'r.');
axis equal; grid on;
xlabel('X','fontsize',10); ylabel('Y','fontsize',10);
title('X-Y co-ordinates generated for all theta1 and theta2 combinations using forward kinematics formula','fontsize',10)

Forward Kinematics

Inverse Kinematics

Links

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xWJCxxKuTOw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qyF3Gnu8Hfk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DnWJ3Q_PA5Y
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=imVNg9j7rvU

Actuator Types
Pneumatics (Compressed Air)
Hydraulics
Electric Motors
Novel Technologies (Piezo electic, etc..)

Example
The questions needing to be addressed include:
How thick is the plate?
What is the composition of the plates material?
What is the bending force?
Is there any lubrication used to assist the bending process?
How fast does the bending need to occur?
Will the plate have spring-back?
How many plates will be bent on this machine?
What are the currently available power sources?
Where will this bending machine be located?

Bending Machine

Each of these questions will help us to understand the challenges of actuator

selection.

Application Concerns
The number of different actuator applications is numerous, but there
are a few issues that bear mentioning in general:

Amount of work to be done;

Frictional losses;
Gearing and inertia;
Intermittent motion.

These each represent a larger list of possible concerns that make

actuator selection more difficult than one would expect.

Amount of Work to be Done

The very basic and ideal amount of power a machine needs to provide can be
calculated as (no acceleration, inertia, damping, etc..);
Power = (Force x Velocity) + Friction = (Torque x Rotational Speed) + Friction

How would you calculate the power needed for a car to run at 100 kmph?
Force = rolling resistance + wind + slope
Friction = mechanical losses from engine output shaft to wheel

How would you calculate the ideal average power needed to run from 0 to
100 kmph?
 12 
12 (1600)(1003.6)

= =
=
= 52  = 70 


12

Frictional Losses
Many machine components need to overcome both static friction and kinetic
friction.
The proper use of bushings and bearings will minimize friction

There are also process situations where an actuator needs to overcome a viscous
frictional situation. In general this can appear in two configurations;
linear (dampers)
rotary (journal or sleeve bearings)

Gearing and Inertia

Torque is multiplied by the gear ratio

Efficiency of the gearbox must be taken into account (check the gearbox catalog)
Mass should be linearly or rotationally accelerated or decelerated. During this
period, depending on the mass, forces occur.
The peak force occurs during peak acceleration!
Maximum power must be searced during the acceleration range!

Intermittent Motion
In general motor runs continuously at a fixed rpm
Geneva Mechanism can be used to change the output as an intermitent

motion
However, loading on the motor may vary a lot
In this case, flywheel can be used
Flywheel must be sized correctly (no overshoots!)

Calculate the min torrque required for the motor!

How would you design the geneva mechanism to minimize the motor torque?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7-JvQ4pMB_0
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GbEJFDP8f_E
Which mechanism would you choose for the same load considering the smallest motor size?

PNEUMATICS

Pneumatics
Pneumatics is the use of compressed air through pipes and hoses used to
move something.

The increased volume of air moves the piston to the right.

The air in the right chamber is normally allowed to exit through the hose

fitting on the cylinders upper right.

If the air in the right chamber is not allowed to exhaust, it will become

compressed.

Pneumatics

Solid particle filtering

Moisture removement
Pressure Regulation
Oil addition

Valve

Compressor

Pneumatic Motor

Pneumatic Piston

Pneumatics

Pneumatics
Air is quite compressible (good or bad?)
Allow enough air to go into one side of the piston to move to the other end
If the desired motion has very specific velocity and/or acceleration,

pneumatics are not a good choice

Pneumatic standard pressure is around 5.56.2 bars (8090 psi)
Air cylinders wear out from frictional issue
Contaminated air can induce problems to the cylinders moving surfaces and

the control valves, so filters on the air line are a must.

Pneumatics systems are cheap to purchase, cheap to install and cheap to run.

HYDRAULICS

Application Areas
Benefits of Hydraulic Systems;
Extensively used for driving high-power machine tools,
They can deliver a higher amount of power while being relatively small in size (high power

density).
Very large amount of power that can be transferred through small tubes and flexible hoses,

Hydraulics used in many applications:

Steering/control systems (rudder, planes)
Deck machinery (anchor windlass, capstans, winches)
Masts & antennae on submarines
Weapons systems (loading & launching)
Other: elevators, presses

BASIC PRINCIPLES
Liquids:
Have no Shape
Are incompressible
Transmit force in all directions, equally

FUNDAMENTAL FEATURES

If a hydraulic rotary pump with the displacement 10 cc/rev is connected to a hydraulic rotary
motor with 100 cc/rev, the shaft torque required to drive the pump is 10 times less than the
torque available at the motor shaft, but the shaft speed (rev/min) for the motor is 10 times
less than the pump shaft speed.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Hydraulics

Advantages:
Flexibility
Multiplication of Force
Simplicity? (only actuator)
Compact? (only actuator)
Economy? (only actuator)
Safety

Disadvantages:
Efficiency
Cleanliness

FLUID (HYDRAULIC) SYSTEMS

HYDRAULIC FACTS
Oil takes the path of least resistance
A pump does not create pressure, it creates flow.
Pressure is caused by resistance to flow.
These can produce the same power:
High pressure & low flow
Low pressure & high flow

ELECTRIC MOTORS

ELECTRIC MOTORS
A modern motion control system typically consists of;
a motion controller,
a motor driver or amplifier,
an electric motor,
feedback sensors.

The system might also contain;

one or more belt,
chain,
ballscrew or powerscrew driven linear guides or axis stages.

Their selection must be based on both engineering and

economic considerations (no more than needed!)

Merits of Electric Systems

Most motion control systems today are powered by electric
motors rather than hydraulic or pneumatic systems because;
More precise positioning
Quicker changeovers (customization)
Higher efficiency
Simpler system design for easier installation, programming,
and training.
Lower downtime and maintenance costs.
Cleaner, quieter operation without oil or air leakage.

Motion Control Classification

Can be classified as open-loop or closed-loop.
An open-loop system: does not require that measurements of any

output variables be made to produce error-correcting signals;

Closed-loop system (Servo System): requires one or more feedback

sensors that measure and respond to errors in output variables.

Block diagram of a Velocity Control System.

Feedback sensors;
encoders,
resolvers,
tachometers.

Variations in velocity, position, and torque are typically caused by

variations in load conditions,
A torque-control loop contains electronic circuitry that measures the input current

A speed-control loop

Trapezoidal Velocity Profile

The motion controller must command the motor amplifier;
to ramp up motor velocity gradually until it reaches the desired speed,
then ramp it down gradually until it stops after the task is complete,
This keeps motor acceleration and deceleration within limits,
Minimized current,
Less stressed mechanical structure.

Closed-Loop Control Techniques

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6UNO8binHU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EzmPgw9Hh0s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uTh2DBWAbPs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NpwnqyOmfBM

P-I-D Terms
Proportional: A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given
change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable
In contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less
responsive or less sensitive controller. Because a non-zero error is required to drive it, a
proportional controller generally operates with a steady-state error

Integral term: It is proportional to both the magnitude and the duration of the error. Sum
of the instantaneous error over time

Derivative term: It is calculated by determining the slope of the error over time

proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control: the signal that drives the motor equals the
weighted sum (Kp, Kd, Ki)

PID Controller
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GGAlvpVnZPw

PID in the Software

Hardwired PID
(Electronic Analog)

System Reactions

PID Control (Software)

Software implementations have the advantages that they are relatively cheap and are flexible with
respect to the implementation of the PID algorithm
P depends on the present error,
I on the accumulation of past errors,
D is a prediction of future errors, based on current rate of change.
By tuning the three parameters in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can provide control action
designed for specific process requirements

PID Control
A PID controller will be called a PI, PD, P or I controller

PI controllers are fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive to

measurement noise,

Absence of an integral term may prevent the system from reaching

its target value

Most modern PID controllers in industry are implemented in

programmable logic controllers (PLCs)

Loop Tuning
Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters to the

optimum values for the desired control response.

If the PID controller parameters are chosen incorrectly, the controlled

process input can be unstable,

Specific criteria for command tracking include rise time and settling time.

Manual Tuning
The first rule is to filter out the sensor readings!
First set Ki and Kd values to zero.
Increase Kp until the output of the loop oscillates,
Then the Kp should be set to approximately half of that value
Then increase Ki until any offset is corrected in sufficient time for the

process.
However, too much Ki will cause instability.
Finally, increase Kd, if required, until the loop is acceptably quick to reach its

reference after a load disturbance.

However, too much Kd will cause excessive response and overshoot.

ZieglerNichols method

Advantages
Easy experiment; only need to change the P controller
Includes dynamics of whole process, which gives a more accurate picture of how the

system is behaving
Disadvantages
Experiment can be time consuming
Can venture into unstable regions while testing the P controller, which could cause the

system to become out of control

ZieglerNichols method
It is performed by setting the I (integral) and D (derivative) gains to zero.
The "P" (proportional) gain, Kp is then increased (from zero) until it reaches

the ultimate gain Ku, at which the output of the control loop oscillates with
a constant amplitude. Ku and the oscillation period (not frequency) Tu are
used to set the P, I, and D gains depending on the type of controller used:
Frequency refers to how often
something happens.
Period refers to the time it takes
something to happen.
Frequency is a rate quantity.
Period is a time quantity.

 Document-1

Document-2

Kinds of Controlled Motion

Speed control:
is the control of the velocity of the motor or actuator in a system.

Torque control:
is the control of motor or actuator current so that torque remains constant
despite load changes.

Incremental motion control:

is the simultaneous control of two or more variables such as load location,
motor speed, or torque.

References:
Robot Mechanisms and Mechanical Devices Illustrated by Paul E. Sandin

INTRODUCTION
Asst.Prof.zgrnver
MechatronicsDesign
OMU412,Spring2016
HacettepeUniversity,Ankara,Turkey
1

A devicethattakes informationfromtheoutside
world
Basedonthe information,itcreatesasignalon
whicha systemcanmakeadecision
Ithasaninputandanoutput
Itmeasures somephysicalquantityand converts
itintosomeelectricalsignal(e.g.,voltage,current,
etc)

WHATISASENSOR?

Oxygensensor

BoshKnocksensor

Sensor:isadevicethatreceivesastimulusand
respondswithanelectricalsignal.

Thepurposeofasensor:istorespondtoan
stimulusandtoconvertitintoanelectricalsignal
whichiscompatiblewithelectroniccircuits.
3

BASICSOFSENSORS

Pressuresensor

Sensitivity

Reliability

Resolution

Responsefunction

Accuracy

Dynamicrange

Precision

Noisecharacteristics

Repeatability

Uncertainty
4

SENSORCHARACTERISTICS

 Voltage
Current
Charge (notcommon)

Thesemaybefurtherdescribedintermsof;
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
Digitalcode
5

SENSOR OUTPUTS

Thesensorsoutputsignal:

Anysensorisanenergyconverter.

Anysensorisanenergyconverter.

BASICS OF SENSORS

Apassivesensor:doesnotneedanyadditional
energysource(directlygeneratesanelectricsignalin
responsetoanexternalstimulus.

Example:Thermocouple,aphotodiode,anda
piezoelectricsensor.

Anactivesensor: requiresexternalpower.Sensors
parametermodulatestheexcitationsignal.

Example:Thermistor(itsresistancecanbemeasured
bydetectingvariationsincurrentand/orvoltage
acrossthethermistor).

TYPES OF SENSORS

Telephonymultiplexersystem

BASICS OF SENSORS

Sensitivity:theratioofthechangeinoutputofaninstrument
tothechangeininput(i.e.change inthemeasuredvariable).
Example1:Whatisthesensitivityofananalogscaleinputof
5Vindigital8bitmeasurement?
Ans: Sensitivity=5/2^8=~20mV/division
Question:Whatisthesensitivityofananaloginput?

10

FUNDAMENTALS

SENSITIVITY

Accuracy:deviationofaquantitysmeasuredvaluefromits
knownvalue.
Example:closenessofthecentreofthegrouptothebull'seye.
Precision:abilitytoshowthesameresultswithseveral
measurements.
Example:tightnessofthegroup.

11

FUNDAMENTALS

ACCURACY&PRECISION

Calibration:processofadjustingtheoutputtoagreewiththe
knownvalue.
Example:adjustingthepointofaimtoadjustthelocationof
thegroup.

12

FUNDAMENTALS

CALIBRATION

Staticmeasurement:Ifquantityisnotchangingwithtime.

Dynamicmeasurement:Ifaphysicalquantitychangeswithtime.

13

FUNDAMENTALS

TYPESOFMEASUREMENTS

Threemostimportanttypesofsystemresponse;
1. FrequencyResponse
2. AmplitudeResponse
3. PhaseShiftResponse
Inthefirsttwocasesforgoodoverallsystemresponse,we
wanttheresponsetobelinear

14

FUNDAMENTALS

SYSTEMRESPONSE

LinearFrequencyResponse
Theratioofoutputtoinputamplituderemainsthesame
overthedesiredfrequencyrange
e.g.Bandwidthofbandpassfiltermustbesufficientlylarge
toletalldesiredfrequencies

Humanearworkslikethis(2020.000Hz)

15

FUNDAMENTALS

SYSTEMRESPONSE

LinearAmplitudeResponse
Theratioofoutputtoinputamplituderemainsconstant
overthedesiredrangeofinputamplitudes
e.g.Voltageamplifierwheretoohighinputvoltageisused

16

FUNDAMENTALS

SYSTEMRESPONSE

PhaseShiftResponse
RelatedtoFrequencyResponse
PoorPhaseShiftResponsemaycauseseverdistortion
wherecomplexwaveformsareconcerned

Carsuspensionsystemcanbeanexample
17

FUNDAMENTALS

SYSTEMRESPONSE

FUNDAMENTALS

DISTORTION

Distortion: variationofasignal
fromitstrueform
Causes:
PoorFrequencyResponse
PoorPhaseShiftResponse
ControllingDistortion:
Inpureelectricalmeasurements,distortion
easilycontrolledbyvariousanalogordigital
means
Inmechanicalsystems,dynamicresponseis
notaseasilycontrolledmakingitmore
difficulttocontroldistortion
18

e.g.SoundRecording
Distortioninactualsignalprocessing
eliminatedbyusingvarious
sophisticatedmethods
Howeveratorigin,complexroom
acousticsandmicrophoneplacement
canaffectrecordedsignalbeyond
capabilitiesofelectroniccorrection
Atterminalstage,roomacousticsand
loudspeakerplacementcanalsoproduce
distortion
19

FUNDAMENTALS

DISTORTION

20

SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND DATA ACQUISITION

Threevitalcomponentsofalldataacquisitionsystemsare:
Signalconditioning(toconditionthesignal, sometimesdoneinside
thesensorselectroniccircuits)
Analog toDigitalConverterADC(todigitizetheconditionedsignal)
Software(toanalyze,record,anddisplaytheacquiredsignaldata)

Amplification
Attenuation
Isolation
Filtering
Excitation
Calibration.

21

SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Thereareseveralcriticalsignalconditioning
technologiesthatenhancetheaccuracyand
performanceofthedataacquisitionsystem:

AMPLIFICATION

Amplifiers;

Boosttheamplitudeoftheinputsignal

Increasetheresolutionandsensitivityofthe
measurement

22

23

ATTENUATION

Attenuationdiminishesyourinputsignal'samplitude
tofallwithinthedigitizer'sinputrangesoyoucan
measurehighvoltagesignalswithyourdata
acquisitionsystem.

Contentsofonedataacquisitionchannelaresuperimposed
onanother.

Causessubtletomajormeasurementerrorsthatmaygo
undetected.

Initsmostexaggeratedform,anearlyexactduplicateofone
channelappearsonanadjacentchanneltowhichnothingis
connected

24

CROSS TALK

Mostcommonproblemsare:

Improvesmeasurementaccuracy
Removesunwantedfrequencycomponentsfromthesignal
Eliminatesnoisefromthemeasurement
Preventssignalaliasing(Ifsamplingisperformedvery
coarselyor ifthe resolution istoolow).

25

FILTERING

FILTERING

26

FILTER DESIGN TYPES

27

28

29

FILTER DESIGN TYPES

30

FILTER DESIGN EXAMPLE

31

32

LINEARIZATOIN

linearization referstofindingthe linear

approximation toa function atagivenpoint

DATA ACQUISITION

33

DIGITIZATION

34

8BIT A/D CONVERTER EXAMPLE

35

 Instantaneousvalueand/or
phaseofthewaveformcannot
bepredictedatanytime
Noisecaneitherbegenerated
internallyorexternally
Noisesetsthelimitsof
resolution forsensorsand
detectors
36

BASICSOFNOISE

Noiseisapurelyrandomsignal

 Sincenoisesourceshave
amplitudesthatvaryrandomly
withtime,theycanonlybe
specifiedbyaprobability
densityfunction.
Themostcommonprobability
densityfunctionisGaussian
37

BASICSOFNOISE

Whenplotted,noisevoltage
amplitudesformarandom
patterncenteredonzero

 All input sources are turned off

There is a level of noise that determines the smallest
signal for which the circuit is useful
The objective for the designer is to place the signals
that the circuit processes above the noise floor.
SignaltoNoise Ratio:
38

NOISEFLOOR SIGNALTONOISERATIO

Noise Floor: measure of the signal created from the

sum of all the noise sources and unwanted signals
within a measurement system.

TYPESOFNOISE

Noise
InherentNoise

TechnicalNoise

(Difficulttoovercome)

(CanbeAvoided)

39

Shot
noise

Thermal
noise

40

Flicker

Burst

noise

noise

TYPESOFINHERENTNOISE

Inherent
Noise

Shot
noise

Thermal
noise

Flicker

Burst

noise

noise

41

SHOTNOISE(QUANTUMNOISE)

Inherent
Noise

 Individual electrons arriving at random times

Current is small
Sampling time is short
Signal to noise ratio is small
Alwaysassociatedwithcurrentflow(stopswhen
currentstops)
Independentoftemperature
Presents inanyconductor
Shotnoiseinsemiconductorsismuchmore
pronounced
42

SHOTNOISE(QUANTUMNOISE)

It is caused by random fluctuations in the motion

of charge carriers in a conductor. Reason can be;

 Domainoftheoriginalfunctionistypically time and

calledthe timedomain
Thedomainofthenew
function istypicallycalled
the frequencydomain
Itdescribeswhich
frequencies arepresent
intheoriginalfunction
43

EXTRASLIDE:FOURIERTRANSFORMATION

Fouriertransform isanoperation

Shot
noise

Thermal
noise

44

Flicker

Burst

noise

noise

THERMALNOISE(JOHNSONORNYQUIST)

Inherent
Noise

45

THERMALNOISE(JOHNSONORNYQUIST)

It is the voltage fluctuations caused by the random

Brownian motion of electrons in a resistive medium
Electrons are never at rest, they are always in motion
Heat adds a random component to their motion
Thermal noise only stops at absolute zero
Like shot noise, thermal noise is spectrally flat or has a
uniform power density (white noise)
Thermal noise is independent of current flow.

Shot
noise

Thermal
noise

Flicker

Burst

noise

noise

Its origin is one of the oldest unsolved problems in

physics
It may be related to imperfections in crystalline
structure of semiconductors
It dominates at low frequencies
It is present in all active and many passive devices
46

FLICKERNOISE(1/FNOISE)

Inherent
Noise

FLICKERNOISE(1/FNOISE)

47

Shot
noise

Thermal
noise

Related to imperfections in
semiconductor material and
heavy ion implants
It is characterized by discrete
highfrequency pulses
Burst noise makes a popping
sound at rates below 100 Hz
It is beyond the control of the
designer
48

Flicker

Burst

noise

noise

BURSTNOISE(POPCORNNOISE)

Inherent
Noise

InherentNoise

TechnicalNoise

(Difficulttoovercome)

(CanbeAvoided)

49

TYPESOFNOISE

Noise

Can be avoid easily by taking the necessary precautions

These noises are;
Terrestrial & cosmic radioactivity etc
TV, radio, computers, etc (~MHz ~GHz)
Rotating machinery (~KHz)
Power lines (~100 Hz)
Truck and automobile traffic (~1 Hz)
50

TECHNICALNOISE

Known noise types!

TECHNICALNOISE

51

 Modulation(giveyoursignalasignature)
Moveittoahigherfrequencytoovercome1/fnoise
Locateitfarfromnoisyregionsoftheenvironment(especially
farfromspectrallines)
Filteroutthebackgroundexceptinasmallwindowaround
themodulationfrequency
Filteroutanysignalthathastherightfrequencybutthewrong
phase

52

HOWCANWEBEATTHENOISE

Narrowbanding (lowhighpassfilters)
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OBM5T5_kgdI&feature=relmfu)

 Modulation is the process of varying one or more

properties of a high frequency periodic waveform,
called the carrier signal, with respect to a modulating
signal.
The three key parameters of a periodic waveform
are its amplitude ("volume"), its phase ("timing") and
its frequency ("pitch"),
Typically a highfrequency sinusoid waveform is used
as carrier signal.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ZMPcPR7W3Q
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3I_e7gIyfQg
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2suVkK7Foo
http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod%C3%BClasyon

53

EXTRASLIDE:MODULATION

Sometimes we have to send low frequency

information, like the tone of the voice of someone
talking on a telephone, over a specific channel that
only permits a specific high frequency, such as radio
frequencies (RF).

54

NARROWBANDING

Tosqueezeoutthenoise;

55

Rectifier isanelectricaldevicethat converts alternating

current (AC)to directcurrent (DC),aprocessknown
as rectification
phase
signal
noise

frequency
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PKy5ghLiz6I&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gm7d1lwPPno&feature=related

56

PHASESENSITIVEDETECTION

synchronousrectifierssqueezeoutnoiseinthephasedomain
aswellasthefrequencydomain

 Bothsensorsmustbepositionedascloseaspossible
toeachother;
Theymustbeveryidenticalandsubjectedtothe
sameenvironmentalconditions.
Referencesensorbereliablyshieldedfromtheactual
stimulus

57

EFFECTIVENOISEREDUCTION

Tobeaneffectivemeansofnoisereduction;

Theshieldingcanreducethecouplingof;
Radiowaves,
Electromagneticfields,
Electrostaticfields,
Notstaticorlowfrequencymagneticfields.
58

ELECTROMAGNETICSHIELDING

Processofreducingtheelectromagneticfieldina
spacebyblockingthefieldwithbarriersmadeof
conductiveand/ormagneticmaterials(RFshielding).

59

METALLICCOATING(SKINDEPTH)

Anothercommonlyusedshieldingmethodistocoat
theinsideoftheenclosurewithametallicinkorsimilar
material
Theinkconsistsofcopperornickel(verysmall
particulates)
Itiselectricallyconnectedtothechassisgroundofthe
equipment

SENSORS
Asst.Prof.zgrnver
MechatronicsDesign
OMU412,Spring2016
HacettepeUniversity,Ankara,Turkey
1

INDUSTRIALSENSORS

INDUSTRIALSENSORS

INDUSTRIALSENSORS

INDUSTRIALSENSORS

INDUSTRIALSENSORS

RESISTIVESENSING

A potentiometer (pot) isathreeterminal resistor withaslidingcontactthat

formsanadjustable voltagedivider.
Ifonlytwoterminalsareuseditactsasa variableresistor or rheostat.
Potentiometersarecommonlyusedtocontrolelectricaldevicessuchas
volumecontrolsonaudioequipment.
Lineartaperpotentiometer:Resistanceislinearaccrossit
Logarithmicpotentiometer:Resistanceislogarithmicaccrossit

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rUkrpqEmXb8
8

POTENTIOMETERS(POTS)

Itcanbeusedasaninputdevice(beforebuyingandexpensivesensor,it
cangiveyouaninputsignalasifitisthesensorthatyouwillbuy!)

If RL islargecomparedtotheotherresistances,theoutput
voltagecanbeapproximatedbythesimplerequation

THEORYOFPOTENTIOMETERS

Thepotentiometercanbeusedasa voltagedivider toobtainamanually

adjustableoutputvoltageattheslider(wiper)fromafixedinputvoltage
appliedacrossthetwoendsofthepotentiometer.

 Itis usuallydesirabletohaveverylow
TCRsinresistorsusedinelectroniccircuits.
On theotherhand,astrongtemperature
coefficientofresistivityallowsusto
fabricatea temperaturesensor,knownasa
thermistor (thermal+resistor)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6I4GawSec7U
10

=0[1+(tt0)]

TEMPERATURESENSITIVITY

Theconductivityofamaterialchangeswithtemperature (t).
: temperaturecoefficientofresistance(TCR)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qebl2kNsDZo&feature=related
11

WHEATSTONEBRIDGE

Itisusedtomeasureanunknown electricalresistance by
balancingtwolegsofa bridgecircuit,onelegofwhich
includestheunknowncomponent.Itsoperationissimilarto
the original potentiometer.

STRAINSENSITIVITY

12

 Thebacking isappliedtotheobjectfor
whichstressorforce shouldbemeasured.
Thewiremustbeelectricallyisolatedfrom
theobject.
The coefficientofthermalexpansionofthe
backingshouldbematchedtothatofthe
wire.
Themostcommonmaterials arealloys
constantan,nichrome,advance,andkarma.
Typicalresistancesvaryfrom 100to
severalthousandohms.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=906vpKeqeI&feature=related
13

STRAINSENSITIVITY

Awirestraingaugeiscomposedofa
resistorbondedwithanelasticcarrier
(backing).

 Typically,theyare connectedintoWheatstonebridgecircuits
Semiconductivestraingaugesarequitesensitivetotemperature
variations. Therefore,interfacecircuitsorthegaugesmustcontain
temperaturecompensating networks.

14

STRAINSENSITIVITY

Topossessgoodsensitivity,thesensorshould havelonglongitudinal
andshorttransversesegments,sothattransverse sensitivityisno
morethanacoupleofpercentofthelongitudinal.

Resistancechangeswithhumidity inanonlinearwaywhichcanbe
takenintoaccountduringthecalibration anddataprocessing.

15

MOISTURESENSITIVITY

Amoisturedependentresistorcanbe fabricatedofhygroscopic
materialwhosespecificresistivityisstronglyinfluenced bythe
concentrationoftheabsorbedwatermolecules (hygristors).

CAPACITIVESENSING

16

CAPACITOR

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZYH9dGl4gUE

17

 Blocking directcurrent whileallowing alternating

current topass
Forsmoothingtheoutputof powersupplies
(infilternetworksashighand lowpassfilters)
Tuneradiostoparticular frequencies
(inthe resonantcircuits)

18

APPLICATIONS

Capacitorsarewidelyusedinelectroniccircuitsfor;

BEHAVIOUROFACAPACITORUNDERAC

19

ELECTRICFIELDOFCAPACITORS

20

DIELECTRICCONSTANT

21

Question: Doyouwantaconstantorvaryingdielectricconstant
foryoursensor??
22

DIELECTRICCONSTANT

Dielectricconstantsmustbespecifiedfortestfrequencyand
temperature.Some dielectricshaveaveryuniformdielectric
constantoverabroadfrequencyrange!

23

GOOD&BADCAPACITORS

Goodcapacitorsareessentialcomponentsofelectronic
circuits.
However,ifyouwanttodesignacapacitivesensor,youneedto
makeabadcapacitor, whosevaluevarieswithtemperature,
humidity,pressure,orwhateveryou needtosense.

24

CAPACITIVEHUMIDITYSENSORS

Humidity sensor: dielectricmaterialishygroscopic

(canabsorbwatermoleculesandchangeitsdielectric
constantaccordingly).

CAPACITIVEPRESSURESENSORS

25

26

CAPACITIVEPRESSURESENSORS

Usesadiaphragmandpressurecavitytocreateavariable
capacitor todetectstrainduetoappliedpressure.
Generally,thesetechnologiesaremostappliedtolow
pressures

Capacitanceofthissensorhasalmosta linear
relationshipwiththedisplacement(l).

27

CYLINDRICCAPACITOR

GeometryFactor:

CAPACITIVELIQUIDLEVELSENSORS

Theysensetheliquidlevelinareservoir bymeasuringchangesin
capacitancebetweenconductingplateswhichare immersedinthe
liquid,orappliedtotheoutsideofanonconductingtank.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P9T5ALVMU_0
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0JL85O1BM8g&feature=related
28

HOWTOMEASURECAPACITANCE

29

HOWTOMEASURECAPACITANCE

30

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gxLzgeiJQbE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QItuf6lNvmI
31

CAPACITIVETOUCHPADS

Capacitivesensorsdetectanythingwhichisconductiveor
havingdielectricproperties
Acapacitivetouch screenpanelconsistsofan insulator such
as glass,coatedwithatransparent conductor
Humanbodyisalsoa conductor,touchingthesurfacedistorts
thescreen's electrostatic field,measurableasachange
in capacitance

PROJECTEDCAPACITIVETOUCH

32

33

MUTUALCAPACITANCETOUCHPADS

Thereisa capacitor ateveryintersectionofeachrowand

eachcolumn.
A12by16array,forexample,wouldhave192independent
capacitors.
A voltage isappliedtotherowsorcolumns.
Bringingafingerorconductivestylusclosetothesurfaceof
thesensorchangesthelocalelectrostatic.
Thecapacitancechangeateveryindividualpointonthegrid
canbemeasuredtoaccurately.
Mutualcapacitanceallows multitouch operationwhere
multiplefingerscanbeaccuratelytrackedatthesametime.

34

CAPACITIVETOUCHPADS

Inmutualcapacitance,thecapacitive
circuitryrequirestwodistinctlayers
ofmaterial.Onehousesdrivinglines,
whichcarrycurrentandotherhouses
sensinglines,whichdetectthe
currentatnodes.

35

CAPACITIVETHICKNESSSENSORS

Thicknessmeasurement:Twoplatesincontactwithaninsulator
willmeasurethe insulatorthicknessifitsdielectricconstantis
known,orthedielectricconstantifthe thicknessisknown.

36

CAPACITIVEPOSITIONSENSORS

Linear position: Capacitivesensors

canmeasureangleorposition witha
multiplateschemegivinghigh
accuracyanddigitaloutput,orwith
ananalog outputwithlessabsolute
accuracybutfasterresponseand
simplercircuitry.

37

CAPACITIVEICESENSORS

Airplanewingicingcanbedetectedusinginsulatedmetalstrips
in wingleadingedges.
Anicedetectionsystemusingamicrofabricateddiaphragmas
thesensingelementandportablecapacitancedetection
circuitry.
Duringoperation,actuationforcesareappliedelectrostatically
tocausediaphragmdeformation.
Accumulationoficeonthediaphragmleadstoanincreasein
itseffectivestiffness.
Therefore,foragivenactuationvoltage,theicecovered
diaphragmexhibitsasmallerdeflectionthanthecorresponding
icefreediaphragm.

CAPACITIVEPOSITIONSENSORS

38

39

CAPACITIVELIMITSWITCH

Limitswitch:Limitswitchescandetecttheproximityofametal
machinecomponentasanincreaseincapacitance,orthe
proximityofaplasticcomponentbyvirtueofitsincreased
dielectricconstantoverair.

40

CAPACITIVEOCCUPANCY(PROXIMITY)ANDMOTIONDETECTOR

A sensing probe is embedded into a car seat.

It can be fabricated as a metal plate, metal net, a conductive fabric,
and so forth.
The probe forms one plate of a capacitor Cp. The other plate of the
capacitor is formed either by the body of an automobile or by a
separate plate positioned under a floor mat
At 40 MHz, the dielectric constant of muscle, skin, and blood is about
97. For fat and bone it is near 15.

41

CAPACITIVEOCCUPANCY(PROXIMITY)ANDMOTIONDETECTOR

Under the no-seat occupied conditions, the reference capacitor

is adjusted to be approximately equal to Cp.
Resistors and the corresponding capacitors define time
constants of the networks.
Both RC circuits have equal time constants 1.
When a person is positioned on the seat, his (her) body forms an
additional capacitance in parallel with Cp, thus increasing the
time constant of the R1Cp network from 1 to 2.
This is indicated by the increased spike amplitudes at the output
of a differential amplifier.
The comparator compares Vc with a predetermined threshold
voltage Vref .
When the spikes exceed the threshold, the comparator sends an
indication signal to the logic circuit that generates signal V
manifesting the car occupancy.

The arm is covered with an

electrically isolated conductive
sheath called an electrode.
However, the nearby massive
metal arm forms a much stronger
capacitive coupling with the
electrode
An elegant solution is to shield
the electrode from the arm by an
intermediate shield.
This arrangement allows us to
detect the proximity range of 30
cm.

42

CAPACITIVEOCCUPANCY(PROXIMITY)ANDMOTIONDETECTOR

The arm stops when near people

and other potentially conductive
objects.

Then,adisplacement transducercanbeemployedtogenerate
anelectricalsignalasafunction orproofoftheacceleration.
Thiscomponentisusuallycalledeitheraseismicoran inertial
mass.
Anultimate goalisthedetectionofthemassdisplacementwith
respect totheaccelerometerhousing usingcapacitiVe sensors.
Any suitabledisplacementtransducercapable ofmeasuring
microscopicmovementsunderstrongvibrationsorlinear
acceleration canbeusedasanaccelerometer.
43

ACCELEROMETERS

Anaccelerometerrequiresaspecialcomponentwhose
movementlagsbehindthatof theaccelerometershousing

How do you place the sensor with respect to the motion?

44

ACCELEROMETERS

A maximum displacement of the capacitive accelerometer rarely

exceeds 20 m.
Hence, such a small displacement requires a reliable compensation of
drifts and various interferences.
This is usually accomplished by the use of a differential technique,
where an additional capacitor is formed in the same structure.

COMBDRIVE

Whydoweuse2ofthem
Doyouaddorsubtractthe
results?
Howbigisthisyouthink?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e21aV8tLvWY&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9n9CYJCLcBo&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WLAemH5GARk&feature=related

45

MAGNETICSENSING

46

BASICSOFMAGNETISM

Magneticfieldoccursduetothreereasons;
1. Permanentmagnet
2. Electricfields thatvaryin time
3. Movingchargedparticle
47

48

MAGNETICFORCE

A particlehavingan electriccharge, q,andmovinginaBfield

witha velocity, v,experiencesaforce, F,calledthe Lorentzforce

49

MAGNETOMETER

A magnetometer isascientificinstrumentusedto
measure;
Strength
Direction
ofthe magneticfield.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G9Glw3BUTAQ&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hajIIGHPeuU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SwqM8zpmAD8
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3fBnqWlGc30
50

SOLENOID (ELECTROMAGNETICINDUCTION)

Apracticaldeviceforproducingamagneticfieldiscalledasolenoid.
ItisalongwirewoundinaclosepackedhelixandcarryingacurrentI
Thesolenoidmagneticfieldisthevectorsumofthefieldssetupby
alltheturnsthatmakeupthesolenoid

HALLEFFECTVOLTAGETHEORY

51

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ujc6pjftZ_w&feature=fvst

The Halleffect istheproductionofa voltagedifference (the Hall

voltage)acrossan electricalconductor,transversetoan electric
current intheconductoranda magneticfield perpendicularto
thecurrent
whenamagneticfieldispresent
thatisperpendiculartotheir
motion moving charges
experienceaforcecalled
the Lorentzforce
52

HALLEFFECTBASICS

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ATDraCQtpQ&feature=related

HALLEFFECTVOLTAGETHEORY

Melexis US1881
Halleffectlatch
(Schmitttrigger)

53

54

HALLEFFECTVOLTAGETHEORY

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EHB1m9UMi0s

Frequently,aHallsensoriscombinedwithcircuitrythat
allowsthedevicetoactinadigital(on/off)mode.
55

HALLEFFECTSENSORAPPLICATIONS

Hallsensorsareusedfor;
Proximityswitching,
Positioning(brushlessDCmotorto
detectthepermanentmagnet),
Speeddetection(timethespeedofwheelsandshafts,
ignitiontiming,ABS),
Currentsensing(withoutinterruptingthecircuit)

HALLEFFECTPARAMETERS

56

57

HALLEFFECTPARAMETERS

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RuIislTGOwA&feature=related

EDDYCURRENTS

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H31K9qcmeMU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gK9LD1G6fX8&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OJvEOXsSuaQ

58

 Thedrivercreatesanalternatingcurrentinthesensingcoilin
theendoftheprobe.
Alternatingcurrent createsanalternatingmagneticfieldwith
induced smallcurrents (eddycurrents) inthetargetmaterial
Theeddycurrentscreateanopposingmagneticfieldwhich
resiststhefieldbeinggeneratedbytheprobecoil.
Theinteractionofthemagneticfieldsisdependentonthe
distancebetweentheprobeandthetarget.
Asthedistancechanges,theelectronicssensethe interaction
andproduceavoltageoutputproportionaltothedistance.
Thetargetsurfacemustbeatleastthreetimeslargerthanthe
probediameterfornormal,calibratedoperation
59

EDDYCURRENTSENSORS

EddyCurrentsensorsoperatewithmagneticfields

DynamicMotion
Measuringthedynamicsofacontinuouslymoving
target,suchasavibratingelement,requiressomeform
ofnoncontactmeasurement
Eddycurrentsensorshavehighfrequencyresponse(up
to80 kHz)toaccommodatehighspeedmotion.
Driveshaftmonitoring
Vibrationmeasurements
60

APPLICATIONSOFEDDYCURRENTSENSOR

PositionMeasurement/Sensing
EddyCurrentsensorsarebasicallypositionmeasuring
devices.Thisisusefulin:
Automationrequiringpreciselocation
Machinetoolmonitoring
Finalassemblyofprecisionequipmentsuchasdisk
drives
Precisionstagepositioning

Someareverysmallindiameter(23mm)andothersarequitelarge
(25mm).

61

APPLICATIONSOFEDDYCURRENTSENSOR

Eddy sensorscanbeusedtodetermine;
materialthickness,
nonconductivecoatingthickness,
Conductivityandplatingmeasurements,
cracksinthematerial.

EDDYCURRENTSENSORCOMPARISON

62

Standard PID Tuning Methods

(tbco 2/17/2012)

I.

Cohen-Coon Method (Open-loop Test)

Step 1: Perform a step test to obtain the parameters of a
FOPTD (first order plus time delay) model
i.
Make sure the process is at an initial steady state
ii.
Introduce a step change in the manipulated variable
iii. Wait until the process settles at a new steady state

Figure 1. Step Test for Cohen-Coon Tuning.

Step 2: Calculate process parameters:
 , ,  , , as follows

  ln 2




1  ln 2


 



 








Step 3: Using the process parameters, use the prescribed values given by
Cohen and Coon.

Table 1. Cohen-Coon Tuning Rules



II.



1

1 

3

PI

1

0.9 

12



30  3
9  20

PID

1 4
$  &
 3 4



32  6
13  8





4
11  2

Ziegler-Nichols Method (Closed-loop P-ControlTest)

Step 1: Determine the sign of process gain (e.g. open loop test as in Cohen-Coon).
Step 2: Implement a proportional control and introducing a new set-point.
Step 3: Increase proportional gain until sustained periodic oscillation.
Step 4: Record ultimate gain and ultimate period: ) and -) .
Step 5: Evaluate control parameters as prescribed by Ziegler and Nichols
Table 2. Ziegler Nichols Tuning Rules




)
2

PI

)
2.2

-)
1.2

PID

)
1.7

-)
2



-)
8

III.

Tyreus-Luyben Method (Closed-loop P-Control test)

Step 1-4: Same as steps 1 to 4 of Ziegler-Nichols method above
Step 5: Evaluate control parameters as prescribed by Tyreus and Luyben
Table 2. Tyreus-Luyben Tuning Rules for PI and PID

IV.





PI

)
3.2

2.2-)

PID

)
2.2

2.2-)

Autotune Method (Closed-loop On-Off test)

Step 1: Let process settle to a steady state
Step 2: Move the setpoint to the current steady state
Step 3: Implement an on-off (relay) controller
/ 1
If process gain is positive, /
0 
/  1
/ 1
If process gain is negative, /
0 
/  1

23 4 5 07
23 4 6 0
23 4 5 07
23 4 6 0

Step 4: Let the process settle to a sustained periodic oscillation



-)
6.3

Step 5: Evaluate ultimate gain using autotune formulas ( -) can be obtain from the
plots)
41
)

89
Step 6: Use either Ziegler-Nichols or Tyreus-Luyben prescribed tunings