Package discretization

February 19, 2015

Type Package
Title Data preprocessing, discretization for classification.
Version 1.0-1
Date 2010-12-02
Author HyunJi Kim
Maintainer HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
Description This package is a collection of supervised discretization
algorithms. It can also be grouped in terms of top-down or
bottom-up, implementing the discretization algorithms.
License GPL
LazyLoad yes
Repository CRAN
Date/Publication 2012-10-29 08:58:35
NeedsCompilation no

R topics documented:
discretization-package
ameva . . . . . . . . .
cacc . . . . . . . . . .
caim . . . . . . . . . .
chi2 . . . . . . . . . .
chiM . . . . . . . . . .
chiSq . . . . . . . . .
cutIndex . . . . . . . .
cutPoints . . . . . . .
disc.Topdown . . . . .
ent . . . . . . . . . . .
extendChi2 . . . . . .
findBest . . . . . . . .
incon . . . . . . . . .
insert . . . . . . . . .

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discretization-package
LevCon .
mdlp . . .
mdlStop .
mergeCols
modChi2
mylog . .
topdown .
value . . .
Xi . . . .

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discretization-package
Data preprocessing, discretization for classification.

Description
This package is a collection of supervised discretization algorithms. It can also be grouped in terms
of top-down or bottom-up, implementing the discretization algorithms.
Details
Package:
Type:
Version:
Date:
License: GPL LazyLoad:

discretization
Package
1.0-1
2010-12-02
yes

Author(s)
Maintainer: HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Choi, B. S., Kim, H. J., Cha, W. O. (2011). A Comparative Study on Discretization Algorithms for
Data Mining, Communications of the Korean Statistical Society, to be published.
Chmielewski, M. R. and Grzymala-Busse, J. W. (1996). Global Discretization of Continuous Attributes as Preprocessing for Machine Learning, International journal of approximate reasoning,
Vol. 15, No. 4, 319331.
Fayyad, U. M. and Irani, K. B.(1993). Multi-interval discretization of continuous-valued attributes
for classification learning, Artificial intelligence, 13, 10221027.
Gonzalez-Abril, L., Cuberos, F. J., Velasco, F. and Ortega, J. A. (2009), Ameva: An autonomous
discretization algorithm,Expert Systems with Applications, 36, 53275332.

ameva

Kerber, R. (1992). ChiMerge : Discretization of numeric attributes, In Proceedings of the Tenth

National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 123128.
Kurgan, L. A. and Cios, K. J. (2004). CAIM Discretization Algorithm, IEEE Transactions on
knowledge and data engineering, 16, 145-153.
Liu, H. and Setiono, R. (1995). Chi2: Feature selection and discretization of numeric attributes,
Tools with Artificial Intelligence, 388391.
Liu, H. and Setiono, R. (1997). Feature selection and discretization, IEEE transactions on knowledge and data engineering, 9, 642645.
Pawlak, Z. (1982). Rough Sets, International Journal of Computer and Information Sciences,
vol.11, No.5, 341356.
Su, C. T. and Hsu, J. H. (2005). An Extended Chi2 Algorithm for Discretization of Real Value
Attributes, IEEE transactions on knowledge and data engineering, 17, 437441.
Tay, F. E. H. and Shen, L. (2002). Modified Chi2 Algorithm for Discretization, IEEE Transactions
on knowledge and data engineering, 14, 666670.
Tsai, C. J., Lee, C. I. and Yang, W. P. (2008). A discretization algorithm based on Class-Attribute
Contingency Coefficient, Information Sciences, 178, 714731.
Ziarko, W. (1993). Variable Precision Rough Set Model, Journal of computer and system sciences,
Vol. 46, No. 1, 3959.

ameva

Auxiliary function for Ameva algorithm

Description
This function is required to compute the ameva value for Ameva algorithm.
Usage
ameva(tb)
Arguments
tb

a vector of observed frequencies, k l

Details
This function implements the Ameva criterion proposed in Gonzalez-Abril, Cuberos, Velasco and
Ortega (2009) for Discretization. An autonomous discretization algorithm(Ameva) implements in
disc.Topdown(data,method=1) It uses a measure based on chi2 as the criterion for the optimal
discretization which has the minimum number of discrete intervals and minimum loss of class
variable interdependence. The algorithm finds local maximum values of Ameva criterion and a
stopping criterion.
Ameva coefficient is defined as follows:
Ameva(k) =

2 (k)
k (l 1)

cacc
for k, l >= 2, k is a number of intervals, l is a number of classes.
This value calculates in contingency table between class variable and discrete interval, row matrix
representing the class variable and each column of discrete interval.

Value
val

numeric value of Ameva coefficient

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Gonzalez-Abril, L., Cuberos, F. J., Velasco, F. and Ortega, J. A. (2009) Ameva: An autonomous
discretization algorithm, Expert Systems with Applications, 36, 53275332.
See Also
disc.Topdown, topdown, insert, findBest and chiSq.
Examples
#--Ameva criterion value
a=c(2,5,1,1,3,3)
m=matrix(a,ncol=3,byrow=TRUE)
ameva(m)

cacc

Auxiliary function for CACC discretization algorithm

Description
This function is requied to compute the cacc value for CACC discretization algorithm.
Usage
cacc(tb)
Arguments
tb

a vector of observed frequencies

caim

Details

The Class-Attribute Contingency Coefficient(CACC) discretization algorithm implements in disc.Topdown(data,method=2

The cacc value is defined as

r
cacc =

y
y+M

for
y = 2 /log(n)
M is the total number of samples, n is a number of discretized intervals. This value calculates in
contingency table between class variable and discrete interval, row matrix representing the class
variable and each column of discrete interval.
Value
val

numeric of cacc value

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Tsai, C. J., Lee, C. I. and Yang, W. P. (2008). A discretization algorithm based on Class-Attribute
Contingency Coefficient, Information Sciences, 178, 714731.
See Also
disc.Topdown, topdown, insert, findBest and chiSq.
Examples
#----Calculating cacc value (Tsai, Lee, and Yang (2008))
a=c(3,0,3,0,6,0,0,3,0)
m=matrix(a,ncol=3,byrow=TRUE)
cacc(m)

caim

Auxiliary function for caim discretization algorithm

Description
This function is required to compute the CAIM value for CAIM iscretization algorithm.
Usage
caim(tb)

chi2

Arguments
tb

a vector of observed frequencies

Details
The Class-Attrivute Interdependence Maximization(CAIM) discretization algorithm implements in
disc.Topdwon(data,method=1). The CAIM criterion measures the dependency between the class
variable and the discretization variable for attribute, and is defined as :
max2r
r=1 M+ r

Pn
CAIM =

for r = 1, 2, ..., n, maxr is the maximum value within the rth column of the quanta matrix. M+r
is the total number of continuous values of attribute that are within the interval(Kurgan and Cios
(2004)).
Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Kurgan, L. A. and Cios, K. J. (2004). CAIM Discretization Algorithm, IEEE Transactions on
knowledge and data engineering, 16, 145153.
See Also
disc.Topdown, topdown, insert, findBest.
Examples
#----Calculating caim value
a=c(3,0,3,0,6,0,0,3,0)
m=matrix(a,ncol=3,byrow=TRUE)
caim(m)

chi2

Discretization using the Chi2 algorithm

Description
This function performs Chi2 discretization algorithm. Chi2 algorithm automatically determines a
proper Chi-sqaure(2 ) threshold that keeps the fidelity of the original numeric dataset.
Usage
chi2(data, alp = 0.5, del = 0.05)

chi2

Arguments
data

the dataset to be discretize

alp

significance level;

del

Inconsistency(data) < , (Liu and Setiono(1995))

Details
The Chi2 algorithm is based on the 2 statistic, and consists of two phases. In the first phase, it
begins with a high significance level(sigLevel), for all numeric attributes for discretization. Each
attribute is sorted according to its values. Then the following is performed: phase 1. calculate
the 2 value for every pair of adjacent intervals (at the beginning, each pattern is put into its own
interval that contains only one value of an attribute); pahse 2. merge the pair of adjacent intervals
with the lowest 2 value. Merging continues until all pairs of intervals have 2 values exceeding the
parameter determined by sigLevel. The above process is repeated with a decreased sigLevel until
an inconsistency rate(), incon(), is exceeded in the discretized data(Liu and Setiono (1995)).
Value
cutp

list of cut-points for each variable

Disc.data

discretized data matrix

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Liu, H. and Setiono, R. (1995). Chi2: Feature selection and discretization of numeric attributes,
Tools with Artificial Intelligence, 388391.
Liu, H. and Setiono, R. (1997). Feature selection and discretization, IEEE transactions on knowledge and data engineering, Vol.9, no.4, 642645.
See Also
value, incon and chiM.
Examples
data(iris)
#---cut-points
chi2(iris,0.5,0.05)$cutp
#--discretized dataset using Chi2 algorithm
chi2(iris,0.5,0.05)$Disc.data

chiM

chiM

Discretization using ChiMerge algorithm

Description
This function implements ChiMerge discretization algorithm.
Usage
chiM(data, alpha = 0.05)
Arguments
data

numeric data matrix to discretized dataset

alpha

significance level;

Details
The ChiMerge algorithm follows the axis of bottom-up. It uses the 2 statistic to determine if the
relative class frequencies of adjacent intervlas are distinctly different or if they are similar enough
to justify merging them into a single interval(Kerber, R. (1992)).
Value
cutp

list of cut-points for each variable

Disc.data

discretized data matrix

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Kerber, R. (1992). ChiMerge : Discretization of numeric attributes, In Proceedings of the Tenth
National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 123128.
See Also
chiSq, value.
Examples
#--Discretization using the ChiMerge method
data(iris)
disc=chiM(iris,alpha=0.05)
#--cut-points
disc$cutp

chiSq

#--discretized data matrix

disc$Disc.data

chiSq

Auxiliary function for discretization using Chi-square statistic

Description
This function is required to perform the discretization based on Chi-square statistic( CACC, Ameva,
ChiMerge, Chi2, Modified Chi2, Extended Chi2).
Usage
chiSq(tb)
Arguments
tb

a vector of observed frequencies

Details
The formula for computing the 2 value is
k
2 X
X
(Aij Eij )2
=
Eij
i=1 j=1
2

k = number of (no.) classes, Aij = no. patterns in the ith interval, jth class, Ri = no. patterns in
Pk
P2
the jth class = j=1 Aij , Cj = no. patterns in the jthe class = i=1 Aij , N = total no. patterns
P2
= i=1 Ri j, Eij = expected frequency of Aij = Ri Cj /N . If either Ri or Cj is 0, Eij is set to
0.1. The degree of freedom of the 2 statistic is on less the number of classes.
Value
val

2 value

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Kerber, R. (1992). ChiMerge : Discretization of numeric attributes, In Proceedings of the Tenth
National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 123128.
See Also
cacc, ameva, chiM, chi2, modChi2 and extendChi2.

10

cutIndex

Examples
#----Calulate Chi-Square
b=c(2,4,1,2,5,3)
m=matrix(b,ncol=3)
chiSq(m)
chisq.test(m)$statistic

cutIndex

Auxiliary function for the MDLP

Description
This function is required to perform the Minimum Description Length Principle.mdlp

Usage
cutIndex(x, y)

Arguments
x

a vector of numeric value

class variable vector

Details
This function computes the best cut index using entropy

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>

See Also
cutPoints, ent, mergeCols, mdlStop, mylog, mdlp .

cutPoints

cutPoints

11

Auxiliary function for the MDLP

Description
This function is required to perform the Minimum Description Length Principle.mdlp
Usage
cutPoints(x, y)
Arguments
x

a vector of numeric value

class variable vector

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
See Also
cutIndex, ent, mergeCols, mdlStop, mylog, mdlp .

disc.Topdown

Top-down discretization

Description
This function implements three top-down discretization algorithms(CAIM, CACC, Ameva).
Usage
disc.Topdown(data, method = 1)
Arguments
data

numeric data matrix to discretized dataset

method

1: CAIM algorithm, 2: CACC algorithm, 3: Ameva algorithm.

Value
cutp

list of cut-points for each variable(minimun value, cut-points and maximum

value)

Disc.data

discretized data matrix

12

ent

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Gonzalez-Abril, L., Cuberos, F. J., Velasco, F. and Ortega, J. A. (2009) Ameva: An autonomous
discretization algorithm, Expert Systems with Applications, 36, 53275332.
Kurgan, L. A. and Cios, K. J. (2004). CAIM Discretization Algorithm, IEEE Transactions on
knowledge and data engineering, 16, 145153.
Tsai, C. J., Lee, C. I. and Yang, W. P. (2008). A discretization algorithm based on Class-Attribute
Contingency Coefficient, Information Sciences, 178, 714731.
See Also
topdown, insert, findBest, findInterval, caim, cacc, ameva
Examples
##---- CAIM discretization ---##----cut-potins
cm=disc.Topdown(iris, method=1)
cm$cutp
##----discretized data matrix
cm$Disc.data
##---- CACC discretization---disc.Topdown(iris, method=2)
##---- Ameva discretization ---disc.Topdown(iris, method=3)

ent

Auxiliary function for the MDLP

Description
This function is required to perform the Minimum Description Length Principle.mdlp
Usage
ent(y)
Arguments
y

class variable vector

extendChi2

13

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
See Also
cutPoints, ent, mergeCols, mdlStop, mylog, mdlp .

extendChi2

Discretization of Numeric Attributes using the Extended Chi2 algorithm

Description
This function implements Extended Chi2 discretization algorithm.
Usage
extendChi2(data, alp = 0.5)
Arguments
data

data matrix to discretized dataset

alp

significance level;

Details
In the extended Chi2 algorithm, inconsistency checking(InConCheck(data) < ) of the Chi2 algorithm is replaced by the lease upper bound (Xi()) after each step of discretization (discretized <
original ). It uses as the stopping criterion.
Value
cutp

list of cut-points for each variable

Disc.data

discretized data matrix

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Su, C. T. and Hsu, J. H. (2005). An Extended Chi2 Algorithm for Discretization of Real Value
Attributes, IEEE transactions on knowledge and data engineering, 17, 437441.
See Also
chiM, Xi

14

findBest

Examples
data(iris)
ext=extendChi2(iris,0.5)
ext$cutp
ext$Disc.data

findBest

Auxiliary function for top-down discretization

Description
This function is required to perform the disc.Topdown().

Usage
findBest(x, y, bd, di, method)

Arguments
x

a vector of numeric value

class variable vector

bd

current cut points

di

candidate cut-points

method

each method number indicates three top-down discretization. 1 for CAIM algorithm, 2 for CACC algorithm, 3 for Ameva algorithm.

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>

See Also
topdown, insert and disc.Topdown.

incon

incon

15

Computing the inconsistency rate for Chi2 discretization algorithm

Description
This function computes the inconsistency rate of dataset.
Usage
incon(data)
Arguments
data

dataset matrix

Details
The inconsistency rate of dataset is calculated as follows: (1) two instances are considered inconsistent if they match except for their class labels; (2) for all the matching instances (without considering
their class labels), the inconsistency count is the number of the instances minus the largest number of instnces of class labels; (3) the inconsistency rate is the sum of all the inconsistency counts
divided by the total number of instances.
Value
inConRate

the inconsistency rate of the dataset

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Liu, H. and Setiono, R. (1995), Chi2: Feature selection and discretization of numeric attributes ,
Tools with Artificial Intelligence, 388391.
Liu, H. and Setiono, R. (1997), Feature selection and discretization, IEEE transactions on knowledge and data engineering, Vol.9, no.4, 642645.
See Also
chi2
Examples
##---- Calculating Inconsistency ---data(iris)
disiris=chiM(iris,alpha=0.05)$Disc.data
incon(disiris)

16

LevCon

insert

Auxiliary function for Top-down discretization

Description
This function is required to perform the disc.Topdown().
Usage
insert(x, a)
Arguments
x

cut-point

a vector of minimum, maximum value

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
See Also
topdown, findBest and disc.Topdown .

LevCon

Auxiliary function for the Modified Chi2 discretization algorithm

Description
This function computes the level of consistency, is required to perform the Modified Chi2 discretization algorithm.
Usage
LevCon(data)
Arguments
data

discretized data matrix

Value
LevelConsis

Level of Consistency value

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>

mdlp

17

References
Tay, F. E. H. and Shen, L. (2002). Modified Chi2 Algorithm for Discretization, IEEE Transactions
on knowledge and data engineering, Vol. 14, No. 3, 666670.
Pawlak, Z. (1982). Rough Sets, International Journal of Computer and Information Sciences,
vol.11, No.5, 341356.
Chmielewski, M. R. and Grzymala-Busse, J. W. (1996). Global Discretization of Continuous Attributes as Preprocessing for Machine Learning, International journal of approximate reasoning,
Vol. 15, No. 4, 319331.
See Also
modChi2

mdlp

Discretization using the Minimum Description Length Principle(MDLP)

Description
This function discretizes the continuous attributes of data matrix using entropy criterion with the
Minimum Description Length as stopping rule.
Usage
mdlp(data)
Arguments
data

data matrix to be discretized dataset

Details
Minimum Discription Length Principle
Value
cutp

list of cut-points for each variable

Disc.data

discretized data matrix

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Fayyad, U. M. and Irani, K. B.(1993). Multi-interval discretization of continuous-valued attributes
for classification learning, Artificial intelligence, 13, 10221027.

18

mdlStop

See Also
cutIndex, cutPoints, ent, mergeCols, mdlStop, mylog .
Examples
data(iris)
mdlp(iris)$Disc.data

mdlStop

Auxiliary function for performing discretization using MDLP

Description
This function determines cut criterion based on Fayyad and Irani Criterion, is required to perform
the minimum description length principle.
Usage
mdlStop(ci, y, entropy)
Arguments
ci

cut index

class variable

entropy

this value is calculated by cutIndex()

Details
Minimum description Length Principle Criterion
Value
gain

numeric value

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Fayyad, U. M. and Irani, K. B.(1993). Multi-interval discretization of continuous-valued attributes
for classification learning, Artificial intelligence, 13, 10221027.
See Also
cutPoints, ent, mergeCols, cutIndex, mylog, mdlp .

mergeCols

mergeCols

19

Auxiliary function for performing discretization using MDLP

Description
This function merges the columns having observation numbers equal to 0, required to perform the
minimum discription length principle.
Usage
mergeCols(n, minimum = 2)
Arguments
n

table, column: intervals, row: variables

minimum

min # observations in col or row to merge

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
See Also
cutPoints, ent, cutIndex, mdlStop, mylog, mdlp .

modChi2

Discretization of Nemeric Attributes using the Modified Chi2 method

Description
This function implements the Modified Chi2 discretization algorithm.
Usage
modChi2(data, alp = 0.5)
Arguments
data

numeric data matrix to discretized dataset

alp

significance level,

Details
In the modified Chi2 algorithm, inconsistency checking(InConCheck(data) < ) of the Chi2
algorithm is replaced by maintaining the level of consistency Lc after each step of discretization
(Lcdiscretized < Lcoriginal ). this inconsistency rate as the stopping criterion.

20

mylog

Value
cutp
Disc.data

list of cut-points for each variable

discretized data matrix

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Tay, F. E. H. and Shen, L. (2002). Modified Chi2 Algorithm for Discretization, IEEE Transactions
on knowledge and data engineering, 14, 666670.
See Also
LevCon
Examples
data(iris)
modChi2(iris, alp=0.5)$Disc.data

mylog

Auxiliary function for performing discretization using MDLP

Description
This function is required to perform the minimum discription length principle, mdlp().
Usage
mylog(x)
Arguments
x

a vector of numeric value

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Fayyad, U. M. and Irani, K. B.(1993). Multi-interval discretization of continuous-valued attributes
for classification learning, Artificial intelligence, Vol. 13, 10221027.
See Also
mergeCols, ent, cutIndex, cutPoints, mdlStop and mdlp.

topdown

21

Auxiliary function for performing top-down discretization algorithm

topdown

Description
This function is required to perform the disc.Topdown().
Usage
topdown(data, method = 1)
Arguments
data

numeric data matrix to discretized dataset

method

1: CAIM algorithm, 2: CACC algorithm, 3: Ameva algorithm.

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Gonzalez-Abril, L., Cuberos, F. J., Velasco, F. and Ortega, J. A. (2009) Ameva: An autonomous
discretization algorithm, Expert Systems with Applications, 36, 53275332.
Kurgan, L. A. and Cios, K. J. (2004). CAIM Discretization Algorithm, IEEE Transactions on
knowledge and data engineering, 16, 145153.
Tsai, C. J., Lee, C. I. and Yang, W. P. (2008). A discretization algorithm based on Class-Attribute
Contingency Coefficient, Information Sciences, 178, 714731.
See Also
insert, findBest and disc.Topdown .

value

Auxiliary function for performing the ChiMerge discretization

Description
This function is called by ChiMerge diacretization fucntion, chiM().
Usage
value(i, data, alpha)

22

Xi

Arguments
i

ith variable in data matrix to discretized

data

numeric data matrix

alpha

significance level;

Value
cuts

list of cut-points for any variable

disc

discretized ith variable and data matrix of other variables

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Kerber, R. (1992). ChiMerge : Discretization of numeric attributes, In Proceedings of the Tenth
National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 123128.
See Also
chiM.
Examples
data(iris)
value(1,iris,0.05)

Xi

Auxiliary function for performing the Extended Chi2 discretization algorithm

Description
This function is the , required to perform the Extended Chi2 discretization algorithm.
Usage
Xi(data)
Arguments
data

data matrix

Xi

23

Details
The following equality is used for calculating the least upper bound() of the data set(Chao and
Jyh-Hwa (2005)).
(C, D) = max(m1 , m2 )
where C is the equivalence relation set, D is the decision set, and C = {E1 , E2 , . . . , En } is
the equivalence classes. m1 = 1 min{c(E, D)|E C and 0.5 < c(E, D)}, m2 = 1
max{c(E, D)|E C and c(E, D) < 0.5}.
c(E, D) = 1

card(E D)
card(E)

card denotes set cardinality.

Value
Xi

numeric value,

Author(s)
HyunJi Kim <polaris7867@gmail.com>
References
Chao-Ton, S. and Jyh-Hwa, H. (2005). An Extended Chi2 Algorithm for Discretization of Real
Value Attributes, IEEE transactions on knowledge and data engineering, Vol. 17, No. 3, 437441.
Ziarko, W. (1993). Variable Precision Rough Set Model, Journal of computer and system sciences,
Vol. 46, No. 1, 3959.
See Also
extendChi2

Index
Topic package
discretization-package, 2
ameva, 3, 9, 12
cacc, 4, 9, 12
caim, 5, 12
chi2, 6, 9, 15
chiM, 7, 8, 9, 13, 22
chiSq, 4, 5, 8, 9
cutIndex, 10, 11, 1820
cutPoints, 10, 11, 13, 1820
disc.Topdown, 46, 11, 14, 16, 21
discretization
(discretization-package), 2
discretization-package, 2
ent, 10, 11, 12, 13, 1820
extendChi2, 9, 13, 23
findBest, 46, 12, 14, 16, 21
findInterval, 12
incon, 7, 15
insert, 46, 12, 14, 16, 21
LevCon, 16, 20
mdlp, 10, 11, 13, 17, 1820
mdlStop, 10, 11, 13, 18, 18, 19, 20
mergeCols, 10, 11, 13, 18, 19, 20
modChi2, 9, 17, 19
mylog, 10, 11, 13, 18, 19, 20
topdown, 46, 12, 14, 16, 21
value, 7, 8, 21
Xi, 13, 22

24