Oil Shale, 2014, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp.

238249
doi: 10.3176/oil.2014.3.04

ISSN 0208-189X
2014 Estonian Academy Publishers

APPLICATION OF A TUBULAR FLOW REACTOR FOR

OIL SHALE PYRO-GASIFICATION
YURY Y. PECHENEGOV, VENJAMIN F. SIMONOV,
BORIS A. SEMYONOV, OLGA YU. KOSOVA,
ANTON N. MRAKIN*
Faculty of Power Engineering, Yuri Gagarin State Technical University of Saratov,
77 Politechnitcheskaya street, Saratov, Russia, 410054
Abstract. This article presents the results of testing a horizontal tubular reactor
for pyro-gasification of pulverized oil shales to obtain shale gas. The parameters characterizing the thermokinetics of pyro-gasification and heat
exchange between the chemically reacting flow of shale gas suspension and the
wall of the reactor have been obtained. The algorithm for the reactor design,
and the inherent calculation data are provided: residence time for particles in
the reactor 0.30.4 s and thermal stress volume of reaction 1827.2 GJ/(m3h).
It is shown that a unit having a tubular reactor exhibits higher performance
characteristics compared to existing systems for thermal processing of solid
fuels.
Keywords: oil shale, pyrolysis, gasification, tubular reactor, thermokinetics,
heat exchange, specific indicators.

1. Introduction
Energy and chemical application of oil shales using a technology based on
pyrolysis and gasification is cost effective and environmentally friendly.
Additionally, the chemical and energy potential of the fuel can be utilized to
the maximum degree. The current research provides the key concepts of the
main pyro-gasification processes:
1) high-speed heating of the processed fuel (103104 K/s) to control
chemical transformations, which involves processing pulverized fuel
with a particle size of 0.250.35 mm;
2) limiting the maximum temperature to avoid softening of the fuel ash;
3) limiting the residence time for fuel particles in the reaction zone to
fractions of a second to avoid unwanted secondary reactions;

Corresponding author: e-mail anton1987.87@mail.ru

Application of a Tubular Flow Reactor for Oil Shale Pyro-Gasification

239

4) controlling the process by introducing additives into the fuel dissociation

zone, where these are primarily gaseous, oxidizing and reductive;
5) quenching gases recovered through pyro-gasification to maximize the
amount of target components.
The above requirements for the pyro-gasification process can be achieved
using tubular flow reactors operating on a gas-suspension basis. One of the
key advantages of tubular reactors is the possibility of supplying large
amounts of heat from the external source into the reaction zone through the
wall. Figure 1 shows the designed experimental unit [1] for the thermal
treatment of pulverized oil shale with a horizontal tubular reactor placed in a
fluidized bed of inert materials.
The dried oil shale within the gas flow is transported via reactors where it
is heated to the temperature tp needed for the processing. Thus the heat is
received through the reactor wall from the fluidized bed. If necessary, the
additional heat required for the process can be obtained using the carrier gas to
oxidize a certain amount of organic matter from the transported shale. Upon
exiting the reactor the gas suspension separates into phases inside the
separator. The gas which is the target product from the oil shale processing is
transported from the separator and is directed to quenching and further processing. The separated coke is partially burned in the furnace. The greatest

Fig. 1. Experimental equipment setup: 1 vessel; 2 gas distribution grid; 3

fluidized bed; 4 tubular reactor; 5, 8 feeders; 6, 9 separators; 7 quench coil;
10 ash heat exchanger; 11 technological furnace; 12 gas-air heat exchanger;
13 riser.

240

Yury Y. Pechenegov et al.

amount of coke is utilized for external purposes. The combustion gases coming from the furnace are used as a coolant and fluidizing agent in the hightemperature fluid bed.
A more detailed description of the principles of operation of the unit is
given in [1].
Air (for thermo-oxidative pyrolysis), steam, recycled gas or other gases
can be used as the carrier gas in the tubular reactor. The choice of carrier gas
depends on the source of oil shale and the desired product. High-speed
heating of shale gas suspension in the tubular reactor and rapid cooling of
the steam end-products in the quenching heat exchanger, as well as the
possibility of regulating the temperature level and residence time of the two
streams in the area of heat treatment, can effectively manage the process and
thereby influence the composition of the resulting products.
In a complex set of processes that take place in the tubular reactor, heat
transfer processes are the primary, and to a great extent influence the
operational performance of the entire system. When calculating the heat
transfer it is important to take into account the occurrence of chemical
reactions in the flow of the fuel gas suspension, and the variability of the
flow properties, including the other distinguishing features of thermodestructive transformations of the original fuel in the flow reactor.
Moreover, you need to have relationships which characterize the kinetic and
technological parameters of the pyrolysis process.

2. Thermokinetic and technological parameters of pyrolysis

According to experimental data [2], thermo-oxidative pyrolysis of the shale
dust occurs in the kinetic response region; therefore, the decomposition rate
of the oil shale kerogen under a given level of air consumption is completely
determined by the temperature of the process tp. Kashirskij [2] describes oil
shales of the Volga basin (dry weight 58.47% ash, 13.29% carbonate,
28.47% kerogen), which underwent oxidative pyrolysis using an externally
heated tube with the diameter D = 16 mm and the length L = 3.8 m. The
shale particle size dp was 00.250 mm with the initial, as-fired moisture
content Wr 6%, and air was the carrier gas. It was found that for the shale
particle sizes dp < 0.300 mm, active kerogen decomposition at a heating rate
dtp/d of about 103 /s starts at a temperature of 200250 . The increase
in the amount of the gas phase flowing along the reactor during the pyrolysis
of oil shale is close to linear. The curve describing the increase in gas
consumption is similar to that depicting the temperature increase of the gas
suspension flowing along the reactor.
Due to using carbon steel as material of reactor, which can significantly
reduce its manufacturing costs, the selection process temperature tp = 600
750 .

Application of a Tubular Flow Reactor for Oil Shale Pyro-Gasification

241

Analysis of the gathered data [2] showed the following dependences for
the thermo-kinetic and technological pyrolysis characteristics of Kashpirsky
oil shale (one of the oil shale fields of the Volga basin) within the
temperature range of 600750 :
1) specific yield of pyrolysis gas:

g g = gv (9.4 105 t p 0.04) t 0.613

(1.66 + 0.046 / g1.77
),
p
v

(1)

where gg is the specific yield of pyrolysis gas, kg/kg of dry oil shale; gv is the
specific consumption of feed air, kg/kg of dry oil shale; tp is the process
temperature, ;
2) specific yield of coke from the reactor:
g c = 0.95 + 0.6 g v (1 g g ),

(2)

where gc is the specific yield of coke from the reactor, kg/kg of dry oil shale.
The thermal effect of pyrolysis reactions was calculated in accordance
with the Hess law as the difference in the amount of heat between the final
and initial reaction products, using data from [2] on the component composition of the gas suspension flowing at the inlet and outlet of the reactor. The
results of calculating the heat effect in the temperature range 670680 are
approximated by:
qr = 1634 gv ,

(3)

where qr is the thermal effect of pyrolysis reactions, kJ/kg of dry oil shale.
This defines the specific value of the exothermic heat effect at gv 0.04
kg/per kg of dry oil shale. The dependence of qr on gv in Equation (3) is
shown in Figure 2. It can be seen that the value of qr is positive, i.e. the
reaction is exothermic, and only in case when Vv < 30 l/kg of dry oil shale
does qr change negative and the reaction becomes endothermic.

Fig. 2. Dependence of the thermal effect (qr) of the thermooxidative Kashpirsky oil
shale pyrolysis on the air (Vv) introduced into the reactor; tp = 640680 ; (circles
calculated experimental data [2]).

Yury Y. Pechenegov et al.

242

According to [3], the amount of heat released in the combustion reactions

of fuel required for its complete combustion air gv is:
qcom = 4913 g v ,

(4)

where qcom is the amount of heat released during combustion reactions, kJ/kg
of fuel.
It is found that qr < qcom.
Based on the heat balance of the pyrolysis process the formula for heat to
be delivered through the wall of the reactor is as follows:
q% = 1.65 g v t p + 1.3 g c t p 1.1 t ,0 g v tv ,0 qr ,

(5)

where q% is the amount of heat which must go through the wall of the reactor,
kJ/kg of dry oil shale; t,0 and tv,0 are the initial temperatures of shale and air,
respectively, .

3. External and internal heat transfer

The heat transfer coefficient of the fluidized bed reactor with horizontal
pipes, for fluidization velocity values wwor wopt, where wopt is the optimum
speed (corresponding to the maximum rate of heat transfer), can be
calculated according to the Zabrodsky formula [4], as shown by Equation (6):
0.36
k . sl . = 35.8 p0.6.c. 0.2
p d p , k . sl . ,

(6)

where k.sl. is the heat transfer coefficient of the fluidized bed reactor with
horizontal pipes, W/(m2); p.c. is the thermal conductivity of coke combustion products, W/(m); p is the density of solids, kg/m3; d p ,k . sl . is the
size of particles in a fluidized bed, m.
If substituting the numerical values of the fluidizing gas properties and
particles, the result is as follows:

k . sl . = 43 d

0.36
p , k . sl ..

(7)

When placing the tube bundle with a relative pitch of S/D 2.5
within 0.2 m above the gas distribution grid to H (height of the original
dense layer), heat transfer patterns are the same as for single tubes [4].
A relatively dense arrangement of pipes is possible without reducing the heat
transfer.
The specific area of the fluidized bed section per kg/s of dry processed
shale is:

Application of a Tubular Flow Reactor for Oil Shale Pyro-Gasification

f k . sl . =

243

g p.c.
Fk . sl .
=
Gs
p.c. wwor

2
= 5.18 109 q% (1050 tk . sl . ) 1 (18 + 5.5 106 d 1.5
p , k . sl . ) d p , k . sl . ,

(8)

where f k . sl . is the specific cross-sectional area of the fluidized bed, m2s/kg

of dry oil shale; Fk . sl . is the surface area of the fluidized bed, m2; Gs is
the mass flow of the solid phase, kg/s; g p.c. is the specific consumption
of coke combustion, kg/kg of dry oil shale; p .c. is the density of the
products of combustion of coke, kg/m3; wwor is the working fluidization
velocity, m/s; tk . sl . is the temperature of the fluidized bed, .
The specific surface area of heat transfer reactor tubes in a fluidized bed,
per 1 kg/s of dry processed shale:

f =

F 103 q%
=
= 103 q% / [ k . sl . (tk . sl . tw )] ,
Gs
qw

(9)

where f is the heat transfer surface area of the reactor tubes in a fluidized
bed, m2s/kg of dry oil shale; F is the integral (total) heat exchange surface
of the reactor tubes, m2; tw is the pipe wall temperature, ; qw is the heat
flux at the wall, W/m2.
Using (7), Equation (9) will acquire the form:
1
f = 23.26 q% d 0.36
p , k . sl . ( tk . sl . t w ) .

(10)

Dividing (10) by (8) term by term, we have:

F / Fk . sl . = f / f k . sl . = 4.485 109 d p2.36

,k . sl . (1050 tk . sl . )
1

(tk . sl . tw ) (18 + 5.5 106 d 1.5

p , k . sl . ) .

(11)

The ratio F / Fk .sl. can be determined by the structural characteristics. The

height of the particle bed prior to its fluidization should be no less than 0.6 m
to ensure the necessary degree of fluidized bed uniformity. The heating
surface is at the height corresponding to the dense layer. In this case
maximum heat transfer coefficients are provided which are the same for all
rows of posted reactor tubes.
Calculation of the internal heat transfer in the reactor tube is performed
using similarity equations for the average heat flow of gas suspension to the
decomposition of solid particles [5], and a numerical method to estimate the
heat transfer of the chemically reacting gas suspension flow [6].

Yury Y. Pechenegov et al.

244

4. Calculation results
An algorithm has been developed for various pyrolysis calculations. Some of
the results of calculations related to reactor diameters of 0.02 and 0.04 m are
shown in Table 1.
The data in Table 1 show that feeding the reactor with wet slate requires
an increase in the length of the reactor. The amount of coke, gc, produced
from oil shale pyrolysis under the conditions given in Table 1 equals
0.750.85 kg/per kg of dry oil shale. The need for coke combustion in the
furnace process is significantly lower at 0.184 kg/per kg of dry oil shale at
tp = 600 and 0.208 kg/per kg of dry oil shale at 700 . Thus the process
of oxidative pyrolysis of oil shale described in [1] is enclosed in terms of
heat energy.

D, m

L, m

gv, kg/kg of dry oil shale

Wr , %

tp,

t0,

tk.sl,

Gs,0, kg/s

0, kg/kg

gg, kg/kg of dry oil shale

w0, m/s

Q, kW

Qr, kW

Table 1. Reactor parameters and process conditions of the oxidative pyrolysis

of Volga basin oil shales

0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04

12.00
5.30
4.70
3.00
3.20
9.40
7.70
6.10
8.24
9.30

0.065
0.130
0.130
0.195
0.195
0.162
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
12

600
600
600
600
700
600
600
600
600
600

214
232
274
192
367
242
192
253
171
128

722
692
683
704
773
682
693
679
698
709

0.047
0.020
0.018
0.013
0.009
0.070
0.061
0.053
0.064
0.071

15.4
7.7
7.7
5.1
5.1
6.4
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1

0.40
0.36
0.36
0.40
0.50
0.38
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40

13.4
11.8
11.7
11.0
10.8
12.9
12.4
12.4
12.5
12.5

23.72
7.92
6.33
5.1
3.75
26.1
23.7
18.6
26.0
32.9

5.62
4.66
4.3
4.65
3.34
19.91
21.1
16.2
22.1
24.6

Indicated: D and L diameter and length of the reactor; Wr moisture of the source shale; t0
temperature of the flow at the intake; tk.sl. temperature of the fluidized bed; Gs,0
consumption of oil shale; Q total heat of the process; Qr reaction heat.

Heat exchange between the shale gas suspension flow and the wall is
of high intensity. For example, at the initial concentration of particles
0 = 5.1 (kg/h)/(kg/h), the air velocity w0 = 11 m/s, the reactor diameter D =
0.02 m, and the average particle diameter dp = 0.150 mm, the average heat
transfer coefficient, , of the reacting flow of gas suspension equals
180 W/(m2). Under the same conditions, the average heat transfer
coefficient, , of the flow of clean air without particles equals 83 W/(m2).

Application of a Tubular Flow Reactor for Oil Shale Pyro-Gasification

245

The curves depicting the change in the values of parameters along the
reactor under the above process conditions are shown in Figure 3.
The data in Figure 3 are typical and show that the temperature of the
reactor wall increases with the length of the stream reactor, . The difference
between temperatures of the wall at the output and input of the reactor under
the considered conditions may amount to 100 or more.
Almost over the entire length of the reactor during the heating the flow
temperature tp,aw. is below the temperature tg,aw. As seen from Figure 3, at the
end of the reactor the temperature tp,aw. becomes higher than tg,aw. The
temperature rises with an increase in Vv. This is the result of exothermic
oxidation reactions of shale particles during the heating process.
A significant decrease in the concentration of particles along the length
of the stream reactor x (Fig. 3) is due to gasification. The sliding speed factor
of the particles, , increases at the initial part of the reactor where rapid
warming of the flow occurs, and slowly decreases along the length of the
reactor, x.
In Figure 3 parameters (dashed lines) for the chemically inert flow at
Qr = 0 and those of the reacting flow are provided, so they can be compared.
Data on external heat exchange are shown in Figure 4, which depicts the
change of the working fluidization velocity and temperature of the fluidized
bed (Fig. 4), as well as parameters F/Fk.sl. and fk.sl. (Fig. 4b) with the particle
diameter dp,k.sl. On the computational model adopted the change of the
particle diameter dp,k.sl does not affect the length of the reactor and its heat

Fig. 3. The change of values of qp,w. along the flow reactor: D = 0.02 m; dp =
0.150 mm; Vv = 100 l/kg of oil shale; t0 = 232 ; Q = 7916 W; Qr = 4661 W; (solid
lines reacting flows, dashed lines chemically inert flow).

Yury Y. Pechenegov et al.

246
(a)

(b)

Fig. 4. Effect of the particle diameter dp, k.sl on the regime for fluidized bed () and
design (b) with D = 0.04 m; d = 150 mkm; t0 = 253 ; Wr = 0%; Vv = 150 l/kg of
oil shale.

output. This effect is mediated via the temperature of the fluidized bed, tk.sl.,
which increases with dp,k.sl. (Fig. 4). The correlation of F/Fk.sl. and fk.sl. with
the particle diameter dp,k.sl. (Fig. 4b) allows management of the design
dimensions and layout of the fluidized bed reactor in the layer by varying
dp,k.sl..
For the particle size dp,k.sl. = 6 mm, as an example, the following space
arrangement can be considered. With a fluidized bed height of 1.8 m and an
area of the gas distribution grid of 5.3 1 m calculations yielded S1 = 3D
and S2 = 0.866S1 for the reactor diameter D = 0.02 m and number of reactors
N = 630, and the surface area of heat transfer F = 212 m2.
At the oil shale flow rate Gs,0 = 0.02 kg/s in one reactor, the capacity of
the unit based on processed fuel is 46 t/h or 1104 t/day. At tp = 600 the
amount of pyrolysis gas produced Gg is 400 t/day (Vv = 100 l/kg of dry oil
shale) and coke (net supply to the furnace) Gc is 618 t/day. The thermal
output from the fluidized bed will be close to 5 MW and the total heat
output, including the heat of pyrolysis reactions, is 8 MW.
Table 2 compares the characteristics of contemporary processes of
gasification of solid fuels [79] and thermooxidative Volga shale pyrolysis
in tubular reactors. It can be seen that the consumption of processed oil
shale per unit reactor volume and pyrolysis gas yield per unit cross-sectional
area of the reactor for tubular reactors is onetwo orders of magnitude
higher than that for the other known reactor devices with dense or fluid
layers.

247

Lurgi (dense layer of

steam-oxygen blowing, = 2025 am)
Winkler (fluidized
bed, steam-oxygen or
air blast, = 1 am)
Koppers-Tottsek
(dust-coal flame,
steam-oxygen blast,
= 1 m)
UTT-3000
( = 1 am)
Tubular reactors
(air blast,
= 1 am):
D = 0.02 m;
N = 630 pcs;
D = 0.04 m;
N = 315 pcs

Process

0.3

600

0.15
0.15

46

69.2

600

ca 2000

500

20

oil shale
139
oil shale

0.4

ca 1

1500

0.1

coal
to 40

100500

1000

10

coal
2035

Single
tp,
Residence
dp, mm
productivity for

time for
installation on
particles in
fuel, t/h
the reactor, s
coal
530 1100
5000
4075

27.7

16.7

58

50

60

Gas
output,
thousand
m3/h
75

11000

12000

48400

1030011700

75009400

18

27.2

3.625

0.98.4

230000
180121

2563

400

3000

3000

2000

Intensity of
the gas,
kg/(m2h)

4822

463

360

71

Thermal
Specific fuel
stress reaction consumpvolume,
tion,
GJ/(m3h)
kg/(m3h)
1200016300
2.95.4
250
Heat at gas
combustion,
kJ/m3

Data

27

9.5

300

60 (with 4
nozzles)

550

Volume of
the reactor
apparatus,
m3
160

Table 2. Key parameters for the current gasification of solid fuels and thermooxidative pyrolysis of the Volga basin oil shale in tubular
reactors

Application of a Tubular Flow Reactor for Oil Shale Pyro-Gasification

Application of a Tubular Flow Reactor for Oil Shale Pyro-Gasification

247

Yury Y. Pechenegov et al.

248

5. Conclusions
The residence time for the oil shale particles in the reaction zone of tubular
reactors is within the range 0.30.4 s, which distinguishes the gas-suspended
pyrolysis mode from long-residence time processes with a dense layer of
particles or fluid. In contrast to those devices, high-speed pyrolysis in tubular
reactors is manageable. The tubular reactors provide the needed heat input
via the tube walls from an external source, and they produce a quality gas
product which is not diluted with other components.
The specific parameters, such as consumption of processed oil shale per
reactor volume and yield of pyrolysis gas per cross section of reactor, are
much higher for tubular reactors than for existing reactor devices with dense
and fluid layers.
SYMBOLS: D tube diameter, m; dp size of solid particles, equal to
the diameter of the ball, which is equivalent to the particle surface, m;
F surface area, m2; G mass flow, kg/s; g specific consumption, kg/kg
of dry oil shale; Vv air flow, l/kg of dry oil shale; K expenditure mass
concentration of shale particles in the gas stream, (kg/h)/(kg/h); Q capacity
of the heat flow, W; q heat flux, W/m2; t temperature, ; w average
speed of the continuous phase in the section of the channel, m/s; length
of the reactor, m; heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2); thermal
conductivity, W/(m); density, kg/m3; time, s; = u/w particle
velocity slip factor; u average speed solids section of the channel, m/s.
INDICES: v air; g gaseous phase; s solid phase; w parameter on
the wall or at a wall temperature; av. option when the average temperature
of; r chemical reaction; p flow, process; p.c. gaseous products of
combustion of coke; k.sl. fluidized bed.

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2.
3.
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Presented by A. Siirde
Received October 17, 2013