INTRODUCTIONTOGEARS

Preface of Introduction to Gears

The history of gears is probably as old as civilization itself. Still today, the
importance of gears in the manufacturing industry is undiminished and even
continues to grow.
The purpose of this handbook is to provide an outline of gear fundamentals for
those who want to acquire knowledge about the mechanics of gears. In reading
through this handbook, if you have any questions please refer them to us and
we would be happy to respond.
We hope this handbook will act as a starting point for you in understanding
gears.

Contents
Part 1 :
1-1 Types of Gears
1-2 Characteristics of Gears
1-3 Gear Terminology
1-4 Involute Tooth Profile
1-5 Pressure Angle
1-6 Profile Shifted Gears
1-7 Accuracy of Gears Testing and Inspecting
1-8 Materials for Gears and Heat Treatment
1-9 Gear Noise
1-10 Gears Q&A
Part 2 :
2-1 Production Processes of Spur Gear
2-2 Production Processes of Gear Rack
2-3 Production Processes of Bevel Gear
2-4 Gear Production Facilities
Related links :
Gear Technical Reference
The ABCs of Gears / Basic Guide B
Spur Gears

1. TYPESOFGEARS

1-1 Types of Gears

There are many types of gears such as spur gears, helical gears, bevel gears,
worm gears, gear rack, etc. These can be broadly classified by looking at the
positions of axes such as parallel shafts, intersecting shafts and nonintersecting shafts.
It is necessary to accurately understand the differences among gear types to
accomplish necessary force transmission in mechanical designs. Even after
choosing the general type, it is important to consider factors such as:
dimensions (module, number of teeth, helix angle, face width, etc.), standard of
precision grade (ISO, AGMA, DIN), need for teeth grinding and/or heat treating,
allowable torque and efficiency, etc.
Besides this page, we present more thorough gear technical information under
Gear Knowledge (separate PDF page). In addition to the list below, each
section such as worm gear, rack and pinion, bevel gear, etc. has its own
additional explanation regarding the respective gear type. If it is difficult to view
PDF, please consult these sections.
It is best to start with the general knowledge of the types of gears as shown
below. But in addition to these, there are other types such as face gear,
herringbone gear (double helical gear), crown gear, hypoid gear, etc.
Spur Gear
The most common and easy to produce parallel shaft cylindrical gears. Of a pair
of gears, the larger one is called a gear and the smaller one a pinion.

Helical Gear
Quiet and able to transmit larger torque than spur gears. Cylindrical gears with

spiral shaped tooth trace.

Gear Rack
Changes rotary motion to linear motion. A set consisting of rectangular or
circular rod shaped gear with mating small gear.

Bevel Gear
Cone shaped gears used in intersecting shaft applications. There are also bevel
gears with spiral shaped tooth trace called spiral bevel gears.

Spiral Bevel Gear

Cone shaped gears used in intersecting shaft applications. There are also bevel

gears with straight shaped tooth trace called straight bevel gears.

Screw Gear
Used in offset shaft application. Shape wise, they are the same as helical gears.

Miter Gear
Type of bevel gears in which the pair is made of same number of teeth and
used where speed reduction or increase is not needed.

Worm Gear
Used when a large speed reduction is needed. Worm and worm gear set.

Normally, different materials are used for worm and worm gear.

Internal gear
Gear teeth are cut on the inside surface of hollow cylindrical forms and used in
planetary gear systems. The gear teeth are cut using gear shaper machines.

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in this picture)

Worm
Worm wheel
Internal gear
Gear coupling
Screw gear
Involute spline shafts and bushings
Miter gear
Spur gear
Helical gear
Ratchet
Pawl
Rack
Pinion
Straight bevel gear
Spiral bevel gear

There are three major categories of gears in accordance with the

orientation of their axes
Configuration :
1. Parallel Axes / Spur Gear, Helical Gear, Gear Rack, Internal Gear
2. Intersecting Axes / Miter Gear, Straight Bevel Gear, Spiral Bevel Gear
3. Nonparallel, Nonintersecting Axes / Screw Gear, Worm, Worm Gear
(Worm Wheel)
4. Others / Involute Spline Shaft and Bushing, Gear Coupling, Pawl and
Ratchet

The difference between a gear and a sprocket

Simply said, a gear meshes with another gear while a sprocket meshes with a
chain and is not a gear. Aside from a sprocket, an item that looks somewhat like
a gear is a ratchet, but its motiion is limited to one direction.

Classification of types of gears from the point of positional relations of

the attached shafts
1. When the gears two shafts are parallel (parallel shafts)
Spur gear, rack, internal gear and helical gear, etc.
Generally they have a high transmission efficiency.
2. When the gears two shafts intersect each other (intersecting shafts)
Bevel gear is in this category.
Generally they have a high transmission efficiency.
3. When the gears two shafts are not parallel or intersect (offset shafts)
Worm gear and screw gear belong in this group.
Because of the sliding contact, the transmission efficiency is relatively
low.

Precision class of gears

When a type of gears is grouped by accuracy, precision class is used. The
precision class is specified by the standards set by ISO, DIN, JIS, AGMA, etc.
For example, JIS specifies each precision class pitch error, tooth profile error,
helix deviation, runout error, etc.

Existence of teeth grinding

Existence of teeth grinding greatly affects the performance of gears. Therefore,
in considering types of gears, teeth grinding is an important elememt to
consider. Grinding the teeth surface makes gears quieter, increases force
transmission capacity and affects the precision class. On the other hand, the
addition of teeth grinding process increases cost and is not suitable for all
gears. To obtain high precision other than by grinding, there is a process called
shaving using shaving cutters.

Kinds of tooth shape

To broadly classify types of gears by their tooth shape, there are involute tooth
shape, cycloid tooth shape and trochoid tooth shape. Among these, involute
tooth shape is most commonly used. They are easy to produce and has the
characteristic of being able to correctly mesh even when the center distance is
slightly off. Cycloid tooth shape is mostly used in clocks and trochoid tooth
shape is mainly in pumps.
Related Links :
Gear Types and Characteristics A page of The ABCS of Gears B
Gear Types and Terminology A page of Gear Technical Reference

2. BASICGEARTERMINOLOGYAND
CALCULATION

2. Basic Gear Terminology and Calculation / Lets learn the basics of

Basic Gear Technology !
Gear size, pressure angle, number of teethwe introduce the basic
terminology, measurement, and relational expressions necessary to understand
basic gear technology.
Comparative Size of Gear-Teeth
Using ISO (International Organization for Standardization) guidelines, Module
Size is designated as the unit representing gear tooth-sizes. However, other
methods are used too.
Module (m)
m = 1 (p = 3.1416)
m = 2 (p = 6.2832)
m = 4 (p = 12.566)
If you multiply Module by Pi, you can obtain Pitch (p). Pitch is the distance
between corresponding points on adjacent teeth.
p = Pi x Module = m
(2.1)

Fig.2.1 Tooth Profiles of Racks

Calculation Example :
What is the pitch size (p) of the Gear with module m = 3 ?
p = m = 9.4248
CP (Circular Pitch)
Circular Pitch (CP) denotes the reference pitch (p).
For instance, you can produce gears at an exact integral value, such as
CP5/CP10/CP15/CP20.
Transformation from CP to Module
m = CP /
(2.2)
Calculation Example :
CP10 is transformed to module as follows ;
m = 10 / 3.1416 = 3.1831

DP (Diametral Pitch)
DP stands for Diametral Pitch.
By ISO standards, the unit Millimeter (mm) is designated to express length,
however, the unit inch is used in the USA, the UK and other countries;
Diametral Pitch is also used in these countries.
Transformation from DP to Module
m = 25.4 / DP
(2.3)
Calculation Example :
DP 8 is transformed to module as follows ;
m = 25.4 / 8 = 3.175
Pressure Angle ( )
Pressure angle is the leaning angle of a gear tooth, an element determining the
tooth profile.
Recently, the pressure angle () is usually set to 20, however, 14.5 gears
were prevalent.

Fig.2.2 Normalized Tooth Profile of Reference

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 2.2)

Reference line
Pressure angle
Normal reference line
Pitch
Tooth surface
Root surface
Top land

Number of teeth
Number of teeth denotes the number of gear teeth.
They are counted as shown in the Figure 2.3. The number of teeth of this gear
is 10.

Fig. 2.3 Number of teeth

Module (m) , Pressure Angle () , and the Number of Teeth, introduced here,
are the three basic elements in the composition of a gear. Dimensions of gears
are calculated based on these elements.
Tooth Depth and Thickness
Tooth depth is determined from the size of the module (m). Introduced here are
Tooth Profiles (Full depth) specified by ISO and JIS (Japan Industrial
Standards) standards.
Please see Figure 2.4 below for explanations for Tooth depth (h) / Addendum
(ha) / Dedendum (hf). Tooth depth (h) is the distance between tooth tip and the
tooth root.
h = 2.25 m
(= Addendum + Dedendum)
(2.4)

Fig. 2.4 Tooth Depth and Thickness

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 2.4)

Reference line
Pitch
Tooth thickness
Addendum
Dedendum
Tooth Depth
Tooth tip
Tooth root

Addendum (ha) is the distance between the reference line and the tooth tip.
ha = 1.00 m
(2.5)
Dedendum (hf) is the distance between the reference line and the tooth root.
hf = 1.25 m
(2.6)
Tooth thickness (s) is basically half the value of pitch (p). * Pitch (p) = m
s = m / 2
(2.7)
Calculation Examples :
The following are calculations of Tooth depth (h) / Addendum (ha) / Dedendum
(hf) for a gear with module 2.
h = 2.25 m = 2.25 2 = 4.50
ha = 1.00 m = 1.00 2 = 2.00
hf = 1.25 m = 1.25 2 = 2.50
In the previous pages, we introduced the basics of gears, including Module,
Pressure Angle, Number of Teeth and Tooth Depth and Thickness. In this
section we introduce the basic parts of Spur Gears (Cylindrical gears) and
dimensional calculations.
Diameter of Gears (Size)
The size of gears is determined in accordance with the reference diameter (d)
and determined by these other factors; the base circle, Pitch, Tooth Thickness,
Tooth Depth, Addendum and Dedendum.
Reference diameter (d)
d = zm
(2.8)
Tip diameter (da)
da = d + 2 m
(2.9)

Root diameter (df)

df d 2.5 m
(2.10)

Fig.2.5 Diameter of Gears

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 2.5)

Addendum
Dedendum
Root diameter
Reference diameter
Tip diameter

The Addendum and dedendum circle introduced here are a reference circle that
cannot be seen on a gear, as it is a virtual circle, determined by gear size.
Calculation Examples :
The following are calculations of Reference diameter / Tip diameter / Root
diameter for a spur gear with module (m) 2, and 20 teeth (z).
d = z m = 20 x 2 = 40
da = d + 2 m = 40 + 4 = 44
df = d 2.5 m = 40 5 = 35
Practice Test :
Spur Gear Specifications
Module (m) = 4 / Number of teeth (z) = 40 (Pressure angle = 20)

Reference diameter d = ??
Tip diameter da = ??
Root diameter df = ??

Fig. 2.6 Working Gear Nomenclature

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 2.6)

Tip diameter
Reference diameter
Base diameter
Root diameter
Face width
Tooth thickness
Reference pitch
Center line
Pressure Angle

Backlash
Tooth depth
Addendum
Dedendum
Center distance
Tip and Root Clearance

Table 2.1 Gear Symbols and Nomenclature

Terms

Symbols

Terms

Symbols

Module

Tooth Thickness

Pressure Angle

Reference Diameter

Number of Tooth

Tip Diameter

da

Pitch

Root Diameter

df

Tooth Depth

Center Distance

Addendum

ha

Backlash

Dedendum

hf

Tip and Root Clearance

Center Distance and Backlash

When a pair of gears are meshed so that their reference circles are in contact,
the center distance (a) is half the sum total of their reference diameters.
Center distance (a)
a = (d1+d2) / 2
(2.11)

Fig. 2.7 Center distance

Gears can mesh as shown in the Figure 2.6, however, it is important to consider
a proper backlash (play) so that the gears can work smoothly. Backlash is a
play between tooth surfaces of paired gears in mesh.
Mating gears also have a clearance (play) vertical to tooth depth. This is called
Tip and Root Clearance (c), the distance between tooth root and the tooth tip of
mating gears.

Tip and Root Clearance (c)

c
= 1.25 m 1.00 m
= 0.25 m
(2.12)

Fig. 2.8 Tip and Root Clearance

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 2.8)

Addendum circle
Dedendum circle
Tip and Root Clearance

Calculation Examples :
The following are calculations for Center distance (a) and Tip and root
clearance (c), when Module m = 2, Pinion z1 = 20, Gear z2 = 40
Reference diameter of Pinion d 1 = 20 2 = 40
Reference diameter of Gear d 2 = 40 2 = 80
Center distance a = (40+80) / 2 = 60
c = 0.25 2 = 0.5
Calculation Examples :
Practice calculating the dimensions of gears.
Terms
Module
Pressure Angle
No. of Teeth
Reference diameter
Addendum
Dedendum
Tooth Depth
Tip diameter

Symbols
m

z
d
ha
hf
h
da

Formula

Pinion
2.5
20

zm
1.00 m
1.25 m
2.25 m
d+2m

Gear

15
37.5
2.5
3.125
5.625
42.5

30
75
2.5
3.125
5.625
80

Root diameter
df
d 2.5 m
Center distance
a
d1 + d2 / 2
Practice Test :
Calculations for the dimensions of gears.
Terms
Module
Pressure Angle
No. of Teeth
Reference diameter
Addendum
Dedendum
Tooth Depth
Tip diameter
Root diameter
Center distance

Symbols
m

z
d
ha
hf
h
da
df
a

Formula

31.25

68.75
56.25

Pinion

Gear
4
20

12

60

zm
1.00 m
1.25 m
2.25 m
d+2m
d 2.5 m
d1 + d2 / 2

Helical Gear
Spur gears with helicoid teeth are called Helical Gears.
The majority of calculations for spur gears can be applied to helical gears too.
This type of gear comes with two kinds of tooth profiles in accordance with the
datum surface. (Figure 2.9)

Fig. 2.9 Right-handed Helical Gear

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 2.9)

Normal module

Transverse module
Helix angle

(a) Transverse System (Transverse module / Pressure angle) * NOTE 1

(b) Normal System (Normal module / Pressure angle)
* NOTE 1. Transverse axis denotes the centerline of the gear.
Relational Expression: Transverse module ( mt ) and Normal module ( mn )
mt = mn / cos
(2.13)
Both systems are used in KHK Stock Gears.
Transverse SystemKHG Grounding helical gears
Normal SystemSH Helical gears
Reference diameter (d) of the helical gear with transverse system can be
calculated from Equation (2.8).
Reference diameter (d) of the helical gear with normal system can be calculated
from Equation (2.14).
d = z mn / cos
(2.14)
Calculation Examples :
The following is a calculation for the Reference Diameter of a helical gear with
transverse module mt = 2, Number of teeth z = 30, Helix angle = 15 (R)
Reference Diameter d = z mt = 30 2 = 60
The following is a calculation for the Reference Diameter of a helical gear with
normal module mn = 2, Number of teeth z = 30, Helix angle = 15 (R)
Reference Diameter d = z mn / cos = 30 2 / cos 15 = 62.117
Practice Test :
Specifications for a helical gear
Normal module ( mn ) = 4 Helix angle ( ) = 15
Transverse module mt =
Related links :
Gear Terminology A page of Introduction to Gears
Gear Types and Terminology A page of Gear Technical Reference
Calculation of Gear Dimensions A page of Gear Technical Reference

3. GEARTOOTHPROFILE
3. Gear Tooth Profile / One of the most popular tooth profiles is the
Involute Tooth Profile
The majority of gears used in industrial machinery are gears with an involute
tooth profile. The popularity of the involute tooth profile is derived from many of
its advantages, such as simplicity in design and ease of use.
Characteristics of Involute Tooth Profiles
1. Easy machining for production (Straight rack tooth profile)
2. Rotation is smooth despite changes occurring in the center distance.
3. Gears with different number of teeth can be modified by machining if
they have the same module and the pressure angle.
What is an involute Tooth Profile ?
Involute tooth profile (Involute curve) is a curve made by a base circle (db). The
definition of an involute is the spiraling curve traced by the end of an imaginary
taut string unwinding itself from that stationary circle called the base circle. The
resultant is the Involute curve A b c d e, and so on.
Figure 3.1 shows the state of the curve when the straight line is rolled down by
90 degrees (1/4 of the circle).

Fig. 3.1 Involute Curve

What is Base Circle ?
The base circle is the base circle of the involute, and its value is determined
depending on the sizes of the
pressure angle () and the reference circle (d).
db = d cos
(3.1)
The Base circle is also the base circle of the involutes.
The Reference circle is the actual reference that determines the size of the
gear.
Dimensions of both the base circle / reference circle are crucial for gearing.
An Involute tooth profile is the curving line created external to the side of the
base circle.
The value of the pressure angle becomes O (zero) on the base circle.
Meshing of Involute Gear
A pair of standard involute gears mesh together between the reference Center
Distance, making contact at a point on the reference circle of each other.
This state resembles friction wheels with reference diameters, d1 and d2.
However, involute gears actually mesh based on the base circle, instead of the
reference circle, resembling a rotation/power transmission by using a crosscoupled belt placed around the 2 base circles.
In case of a belt drive, slippage tends to occur when frictional force gets smaller
than power transmission. However, in case of gears, they can transmit
rotation/power without slippage as they have teeth. The common tangent of the
two base circles (A and B) is called the line of contact, or line of action.

Fig. 3.2 Power Transmission

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 3.2)

Reference circle
Center Distance

The contact point P1 -> P2 -> P3 of the two involutes slide along the common
tangent of these two base circles. Look at the yellow teeth of the drive gear in
the figure on the right, after the tooth begins to mesh, two of the teeth are kept
in mesh (P1/P3). Then, when the contact point on the two base circles moves to
point P2, it meshes with one more tooth. With further movement of the drive
gear, the contact point moves to P3 and the next tooth P1 starts meshing, so
two teeth mesh again. Therefore, the gear transmits rotation by meshing two
teeth and one tooth, alternately and repeatedly.

Fig. 3.3 Meshing of Involute Gear

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 3.3)

Reference Circle
Base Circle
Root Circle
Tangent Line
Drive Gear
Driven Gear

Related links :
Spur Gears Main page of spur gears
Involute Tooth Profile A page of Introduction to Gears
Pressure Angle A page of Introduction to Gears
Involute Gear Profile A page of Gear Technical Reference

4. GEARPROFILESHIFT
4. Gear Profile Shift / Usage of profile-shifted gears enables more
strength, by adjusting the center distance.
When you use gears, you might find a situation that you need to adjust the
center distance to create more strength. In this section, we introduce profile
shifting by changing tooth profile, or tooth thickness.
Gears are divided into two types, one is a standard gear, and the other is a
profile-shifted gear. Standard gears have a basic tooth profile as shown in
Figure 4.1. Profile shifting is applied to create gears with tooth thickness that is
different from standard gears. By making the tooth thickness of involute gears
thicker or thinner, you can change gear strength and the center distance of
paired gears.

Fig. 4.1 Tooth profile of a rack with Module 1

Addendum : 1.0
Dedendum : 1.25
Number of Teeth and Tooth Profiles
Although the tooth profile of racks is straight, the tooth profile of involute gears
differs depending on the number of teeth. Involute tooth profile is curvilinear, but
becomes straighter like the tooth profile of a rack, if the number of teeth is
increased.

Fig. 4.2 Tooth profiles varied by number of teeth

When the number of teeth is increased, the tooth profile gets thicker at the
tooth-root and can generate more strength. As for the tooth profile of a 10-teeth
gear, it is gouged at the tooth-root and under-cutting occurs.

Small < Number of Teeth > Large

Small < Tooth Thickness at Root > Large
Small < Strength > Large

Fig. 4.3 Comparison of Tooth Profiles : z10 z200

By applying a positive correction and increasing the tip diameter and thickness,
10-teeth gears can also obtain the strength of a 200-teeth gear (z=200).
Profile Shifted Gear
Figure 4.4 shows gear cutting for a positive correction of 10-teeth gear (z =10).
The amount of shift or correction made when applying gear cutting is called the
extra feed of gear cutter xm (mm).
xm = Extra feed of gear cutter (mm)
x = Profile Shift Coefficient
m = Module (mm)

Fig. 4.4 Generation of Positive Shifted Spur Gear

( = 20 , z = 10 , x = + 0.5 )
(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 4.4)

Rack Form Tool

As in Figure 4.5, if profile shifting (Profile Shift coefficient x = +0.5) is applied,

the tooth profile is changed and the tooth thickness increases.
Outside diameter (Tip diameter) also becomes larger. It is also notable that
positive correction is effective to prevent undercut. There are also other reasons
for applying profile shifting, stated below.

Fig. 4.5 Comparison with Positive Shifted Tooth Profile

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 4.5)

Under cut

Changing the Center Distance

Reference center distance of the standard gear (without shifting) is the half
value of the sum of reference diameters. Profile shifted gears allow you to
enlarge or reduce the center distance.
Positive correction -> Enlarge the center distance
Negative correction -> Reduce the center distance

Fig. 4.6 Center Distance of Positive Shifted Gear

Characteristics and technical hints for Profile Shifted Gears
There are limits in profile shifting, for both positive correction and negative
correction.
Positive Correction
Forms a tooth profile that has more bending strength, as the tooth thickness

becomes thicker at the root.

Contact ratio becomes smaller, as the working pressure angle becomes larger
by the increase of the center distance.
Tooth tip might be sharpen, more shifting is applied, the tooth width at the tip
gets smaller, and the tooth tip becomes sharpen if it exceeds the limit in shifting.

Fig. 4.7 Pointed Tooth-tips

Negative Correction
Forms a tooth profile that has less bending strength, as the tooth thickness
becomes thinner at the root.
Contact ratio becomes larger, as the working pressure angle becomes smaller
by the decrease of the center distance.
Undercut may occur, more shifting is applied, the tooth width at root gets
smaller, undercut occurs if it exceeds the limit in shifting.
Related links :
Profile Shifted Gears A page of Introduction to Gears

5. GEARACCURACY
5. Gear Accuracy / High accuracy in a gear denotes a gear that will
produce less errors.
A gear must work in transmitting rotation/power from one gear axis to another,
efficiently and quietly. To improve gear accuracy is to improve the performance
of a gear.

Gear accuracy can be loosely classified into 3 types

The datum of gear accuracy is the centerline (gear axis) of a gear
Higher accuracy gears have less errors

1. Precision in involute tooth profile -> Profile Deviation

2. Precision in tooth face / tooth trace -> Helix Deviation
3. Precision in positioning of teeth / tooth-spaces

Precision in tooth positioning -> Single Pitch Deviation

Precision in pitch -> Total Cumulative Pitch Deviation
Variation of the position of a ball inserted in each tooth space, around the
gear -> Runout Error of Gear Teeth

Fig. 5.1 Gear Accuracy

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 5.1)

Tooth trace
Tooth profile
Pitch

Profile Deviation (F)

Fig. 5.2 Total Profile Deviation F

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 5.2)

Addendum
Dedendum
Evaluation range
Active length
Usable length
Designed profile
Actual profile

Helix Deviation (F)

Fig. 5.3 Total helix deviation F

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 5.3)

Evaluation range
Face width
Design helix
Actual helix

Pitch Deviation
The pitch value is measured on a measurement-circle where the center is the
gear axis.
(a) Single Pitch Deviation (fpt)
The deviation between actual measurement pitch value and theoretical circular
pitch.
(b) Total Cumulative Pitch Deviation (Fp)
Evaluated by measuring the accumulative pitch deviation of the total amount of
gear teeth, where the overall amplitude of accumulative pitch error curve is the
total cumulative pitch deviation.

Fig. 5.4 Pitch Deviation

Runout Error of Gear Teeth (Fr)
Runout error is measured by indicating the position of a pin or ball inserted in
each tooth space around the gear and taking the largest difference. The values
of runout include eccentricity.

Fig. 5.5 Runout error of a 16-tooth gear

Total Radial Composite Deviation (Fi)
Tooth profile / Pitch / Tooth space are factors to evaluate gear accuracy by
measuring a single gear. There is also another method to evaluate gear
accuracy, which is the double flank meshing test method; a measurement of a
gear meshed with the master gear. This method measures the variation in the
center distance when the gear is rotated one revolution, in a tight mesh with a
master gear.
Figure 5.6 is the test result for the 30-tooth gear. It shows 30 small mountainlike waves, representing the tooth-to-tooth radial composite deviation. The value
of total radial composite deviation would be similar to the sum of runout error
and tooth-to-tooth radial composite deviation.

Fig 5.6 Test result of Total Radial Composite Deviation

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in Fig 5.6)

Total radial composite deviation

Tooth-to-tooth radial composite deviation

Related links :
Spur Gears Main page of spur gears
Accuracy of Gears Testing and Inspecting A page of Introduction to Gears
Accuracy of Gears A page of Gear Technical Reference

6. GEARMATERIALSANDHEAT
TREATMENTS
6. Gear Materials and Heat Treatments / It is essential to select proper
materials and heat treatments in accordance with the intended
application of the gear.
Since gears are applied for various usages, such as industrial machinery,
electric/ electronic devices, household goods and toys, and composed of many
kinds of materials, we like to introduce typical materials and their heat treatment
methods.

6-1 Types of Gear Materials

S45C (Carbon Steel for Structural Machine Usage)
S45C is one of the most commonly used steel, containing moderate amounts of
carbon (0.45% ). S45C is easily obtainable and is used in the production of spur
gears, helical gears, racks, bevel gears and worms.
Heat Treatment and Hardness
Heat Treatment
None
Thermal Refining
Induction Hardening

Hardness
less than 194HB
225 260HB
45 55HRC

SCM440 (Chrome-molybdenum Alloy Steel)

An alloy steel containing moderate amounts of carbon (0.40% ). It also contains
chrome / molybdenum. SCM440 has more strength than S45C and is used with
thermal-refining or induction-hardening treatment for producing gears.
Heat Treatment and Hardness
Heat Treatment
Thermal Refining
Induction Hardening

Hardness
225 260HB
45 60HRC

SCM415 (Chrome-molybdenum Alloy Steel)

SCM415 is one of the most commonly used low-carbon alloy steel (C = 0.15%).
Generally, it is carburized for use. It has more strength than S45C or SCM440.
Surface hardness should be between 55 and 60HRC for use.

SUS303 (Stainless Steel18Cr-8Ni Stainless Steel)

Since it is called stainless steel, it is a rust-resistant steel. This authentic
stainless steel is basically non-magnetic. Most commonly used for gears in
applications where rust contamination is undesirable, such as in foodprocessing machinery. There is a similar stainless steel called SUS304 which
has more corrosion resistance than SUS303.
Copper Alloy Casting
Frequently used as a material for worm wheels. Phosphor bronze casting
(CAC502) or aluminum-bronze casting
(CAC702) are commonly used. For mating worms, iron metals such as
S45C/SCM44/SCM415 are used. To prevent galling / seizure by slippage,
different materials are used for each of the paired worm and worm wheel.

6-2 Heat Treatments

What is Quenching ?
Quenching is a treatment performed on steel, applying rapid cooling after
heating at high temperature (Approximate 800C). Quenching is applied to adjust
the hardness of steel. There are several types of quenching in accordance with
cooling conditions; oil quenching, water quenching, and spray quenching. After
quenching, tempering must be applied to give toughness back to the steel, that
might become brittle. Quenching cannot harden genuine steel, however,
quenching can work for steel containing more than 0.35% carbon.
What is Thermal Refining ?
Thermal Refining is a heat treatment applied to adjust hardness / strength /
toughness of steel. This treatment involves quenching and tempering. Since
machining is applied to products after thermal refining, the hardness should not
be raised too high in quenching.
What is Induction Hardening ?
Induction Hardening is a heat treatment performed to harden the surface of the
steel containing carbon more than 0.35%, such as S45C or SCM440. For gear
products, induction hardening is effective to harden tooth areas including tooth
surface and the tip, however, the root may not be hardened in some cases. The
precision of gears declines by induction hardening. To encourage the gear
accuracy, grinding must be applied.

Fig. 6.1 Quenching Machine

Fig. 6.2 Heating Coil

(Gear and High frequency inductor (coil))
What is Carburizing ?
Carburizing is a heat treatment performed to harden only the surface of lowcarbon steel. The surface, in which carbon is present and penetrated the
surface, gets especially hardened. Inner material structure (with low-carbon
C=0.15%) is also hardened by some level of carburizing, however, it is not as
hard as the surface. The precision of carburized gears declines by 1 grade or
so, due to deformation (dimensional change) or distortion. To encourage the
gear accuracy, grinding is essential.

Fig. 6.3 Carburizing Furnace

Fig. 6.4 Carbon layer by carburizing

What is Nitriding ?
Nitriding is a heat treatment performed to harden the surface by introducing
nitrogen into the surface of steel. If the steel alloy includes aluminum, chrome,
and molybdenum, it enhances nitriding and hardness can be obtained. A
representative nitride steel is SACM645 (Aluminum chromium molybdenum
steel).
Related links :
Materials for Gears and Heat Treatment A page of Introduction to Gears
Gear Materials A page of Gear Technical Reference

7. STRENGTHANDDURABILITYOF
GEARS

7. Strength and Durability of Gears / The tooth is the most crucial

element of gears. Strength of gears depends on the breakage
durability or friction durability.
Gear designers decide specifications in accordance with factors like torque,
rotation and expected lifetime. In this section, we briefly introduce the bending
strength and the surface durability.
Bending Strength of Spur Gears and Helical Gears JGMA401-01
As shown in the Figure.7.1, the tooth fillet breakage occurs at the root when
applied force exceeds the limit. The following is the equation for bending stress
:

Allowable Tangential Force (7.1)

Fig. 7.1 Lack of bending stress at root

Symbol

mn
b

Name
Allowable bending stress at
root
Normal Module
Face Width

YF

Tooth Profile Factor

Y
Symbol
Y
KL
KFX
KV
KO

Load Sharing Factor

Name
Helix Angle Factor
Life Factor
Size Factor of Root Stress
Dynamic Load Factor
Overload Factor

Flim

Affected Factors and other Specifications

Material / Heat treatment
Tooth size
Gear size
Pressure angle/ Profile shift coefficient / Tooth
width
Contact ratio
Affected Factors and other Specifications
Helix angle of helical gear
Expected lifetime
1.00 at the moment (unknown)
Circumferential speed / Gear accuracy
Motor / Impact from load

SF

Safety Factor

It should be set to more than 1.2 for safety

considerations

How to encourage bending strength

To encourage bending strength, values in the equation for allowable tangential
force (7.1) should be set to; The value of denominator should be small & The
numerator should be large

Use durable materials (Increase allowable bending stress at root)

Enlarge the gear size (For large module / wide tooth width)
Strengthen tooth profile (Decrease tooth profile factor)
Large pressure angle
Positive correction
Increase contact ratio (Decrease load distribution factor)
Small pressure angle
Large tooth depth
Improve accuracy

Surface Durability of Spur and Helical Gears JGMA402-01

Tooth surface durability is calculated in accordance with the contact stress, to
figure out the strength against the tooth surface damage (Pitting).
The allowable tangential force Ftlim for surface durability is;

Allowable Tangential Force (Ftlim)

Fig. 7.2 Contact Stress

Symbol
Hlim
d01

Name
Allowable Hertz Stress
Pitch Diameter of Pinion

Affected Factors and other Specifications

Material / Heat treatment
Pinion size (Diameter)

bH
i
ZH
ZM
Z
Z
ZHL
ZL
ZR
ZV
ZW
KHX

KV
K0

Effective Facewidth
Gear Ratio (z2 / z1)
Zone Factor
Material Factor
Contact Ratio Factor
Helix Angle Factor
Life Factor
Lubricant Factor
Surface Roughness Factor
Lubrication Speed Factor
Hardness Ratio Factor
Size Factor
Longitudinal Load Distribution
Factor
Dynamic Load Factor
Overload Factor

SH

Safety Factor

KH

Gear size
Ratio of the number of teeth
Helix angle / Profile shift coefficient
Material combination
Transverse / Overlap contact ratio
1.00 (Assumed)
Expected lifetime
Lubricants and Viscosity
Surface roughness
Circumferential speed / Surface hardness
Hardness of wheels
1.00 assumed
Gear Support / Stiffness etc.
Circumferential speed / Gear accuracy
Motor / Impact from load
Set to more than 1.15 for safety
considerations

How to increase surface durability

Use hard material treated by quenching ( Increase allowable hertz stress

)
Enlarge gear size (Large pitch diameter / Wide effective tooth width )
Increase contact ratio (Decrease contact ratio factor )
Improve accuracy

The strength calculator on KHK web site

The calculation of gear strength tends to be rather complicated. On our web
site, we offer a strength calculator for KHK stock gears, which enables you to
calculate gear strength automatically, by inputting values in accordance with
your usage condition. For gear strength calculation, there are several formulas.
The gear strength formula used in our calculator is based on JGMA (Japanese
Gear Manufacturers Association) specifications.
Related links:
Gear Strength and Gear Durability A page of Gear Technical Reference
Bending Strength of Spur and Helical Gears A page of Gear Technical
Reference
Surface Durability of Spur and Helical Gears A page of Gear Technical
Reference
Bending Strength of Bevel Gears A page of Gear Technical Reference
Surface Durability of Bevel Gear A page of Gear Technical Reference
Surface Durability of Worm Gear A page of Gear Technical Reference

8. GEARSURFACETREATMENT
8. Gear Surface Treatment / Surface treatment when properly
applied in accordance with usage conditions will improve the
capabilities of gears.
Surface treatments are performed to make surface condition improvements on
materials. The following are typical reasons for surface treatments, providing
rust prevention and inhibiting abrasion by friction, to improve overall quality
control.

For corrosion resistance / For rust prevention

For wear resistance
For improvement in surface roughness
(Smooth surface)
For improvement in appearance
Others
(Improvement in fatigue strength, etc.)

Electro-galvanizing
A typical plating method applied to prevent the rusting of steel. By applying a
chromating process, the quality of the appearance also improves. Thickness of
plating film is generally between 2 to 25 m.

Uni-chromate
Silver white in color with slight bluish tint. The rust preventative
properties are less than electro-galvanizing but the price is lower.

Chromate
It has a multi-color appearance consisting of red, yellow and green. It has
more corrosion resistance than Uni-chromate.

Black-chromate
The color is basically black, but it looks slightly red depending on product
shapes. It has the most corrosion resistance of all 3 types of electro
galvanizing.

Electroless Nickel Plating

A plating method produced without the use of electricity. It inhibits corrosion /
wear resistance. This plating is suitable for products that have; uniform
thickness of plating film (3-10 m), complicated shapes, or high-precision is
required.

Black Oxide Treatment

A treatment from alkaline black oxidizing.
Applying a 140C heated, strong alkaline processing liquid, the material is
blacken by a chemical reaction within the steel. It is effective for rust proofing.
On the surface it makes a ferrosoferric oxide film, a thickness that is less than 3
m.

Raydent Treatment
Raydent is a registered brand of Raydent Industrial Co., Ltd. Expect excellent
rust prevention performance from this treatment. The color is black and the
processing is similar to plating, as it makes a Raydent film (1 to 2 m) on the
surface, which is extremely strong and will not separate.

Phoshate Treatment
A treatment from an Iron phosphate type coating. An Iron phosphate type film is
a thin amorphous film used as a base coating for painted interior products.

PALFOS M
A treatment with manganese phosphate that produces a plating
thickness approximately 3 to 15 m. Used as a rust prevention film and
also applied to sliding components, as it is wear-resistant.

Solid Lubrication Treatment

A dry-coating spray, very useful as a solid lubrication treatment, where direct
application of lubrication is not possible. Achieved by spraying on tooth areas, it
allows the lubricant agent to adhere and dry. It also allows compounded
molybdenum to form a disulfide metal texture, to discourage corrosion.

WPC Treatment
WPC is a treatment, effective in encouraging fatigue strength and reducing
metal friction. This treatment helps improve fatigue strength, but does not
improve bending strength. Applied by spraying the gears in very small amounts,
40 to 200 m, at the speed of 100 m/sec or more. By using this application, the
process instantaneously generates heat and melts the metallic crystal, creating
a fine coating from rapid cooling, Usually involves very little dimensional
change; expected change would be within 1 to 2 m.

Related links :
Spur Gears Main page of spur gears

9. MANUFACTURINGOFGEARS
9. Manufacturing of Gears / KHK stock gears are produced by the
following manufacturing processes.
For gear manufacturing, there are several fabrication approaches. However, we
will show you how KHK Stock Gears are produced by introducing our typical
cutting processes, selection of materials and the packaging of our gears.
9-1 Manufacturing Process of Spur Gears
Shown is a typical manufacturing process for the production of SS-type of KHK
Spur Gears.
(Some photographs may not be of the SS-type of gears, and shown as
examples)

Material Procurement
Source the material: S45C Round Bars, KHK always have plenty in
stock.

Rough Cutting
Selection of material (round bars). Diameter and length are cut larger
than the outer diameter and length of the finished product.

Lathe Operations
Perform rough machining to create the basic form (gear blank) by a
lathe.

Gear Cutting
Generate gear teeth by our gear-cutting machines. After cutting, gear
teeth will have imperfections.

Burr Removal
Remove all imperfections (burrs), chamfer the sharp corners for safety in
use and to prevent fracturing.

Black Oxide Coating

Apply black oxide coating, as a surface treatment, to prevent rusting
residue and texturing.

Packing
Package each product and place a printed label stating the products
name.

9-2 Manufacturing Process of Racks

Shown is a typical manufacturing process for the production of SRFD-type of
KHK Racks.
(Some photographs may not be of the SRFD-type of gears, and shown as
examples)

Material Procurement
Source the material: S45C Square Bars. KHK always have plenty in
stock.

Gear Cutting
Generate gear teeth by our gear-cutting machines. After cutting, gear
teeth will have imperfections.

Removal of Burrs
Remove all imperfections (burrs), chamfer the sharp corners for safety in
use and to prevent fracturing.

Press Operations
Apply press operations to correct warpage that occurred in the gearcutting processes.

End Machining
For use of racks in contact, end machining is applied to align the ends,
based on tooth space.

Boring
For mounting , boring of counterbores is applied by center machining.

Black Oxide Coating

Apply black oxide coating, as a surface treatment, to prevent rusting
residue and texturing.

Packing
Package each product and place a printed label stating the products
name.

9-3 Manufacturing Process of Bevel Gears

This is a typical manufacturing process for SM-type of KHK Bevel Gears.
(Some photographs may not be of the SM-type of gears, and shown as
examples)

Material Procurement
Source the material: S45C Round bars, KHK always have plenty in
stock.

Rough Cutting
Selection of material (round bars). Diameter and length are cut larger
than the outer diameter and length of the finished product.

Lathe Operations
Machine to create basic form (gear blank) by turning.

Gear Cutting
Generate gear teeth by our gear-cutting machines. After cutting, gear
teeth will have imperfections.

Burr Removal
Remove all imperfections (burrs), chamfer the sharp corners for safety in
use and to prevent fracturing.

Black Oxide Coating

Apply black oxide coating, as a surface treatment, to prevent rusting
residue and texturing.

Packing
Package each product and place a printed label stating the products
name

9-4 Manufacturing Process of Worm Gears

This is a typical manufacturing process for SW-type of KHK Worm Gears.
(Some photographs may not be of the SW-type of gears, and shown as
examples)

Material Procurement
Source the material: S45C Round bars, KHK always have plenty in
stock.

Rough Cutting
Selection of material (round bars). Diameter and length are cut larger
than the outer diameter and length of the finished product.

Lathe Operations
Perform rough machining to create the basic form (gear blank) by
turning.

Gear Cutting
Generate gear teeth by our gear-cutting machines. After cutting, gear
teeth will have imperfections.

Burr Removal
Remove all imperfections (burrs), chamfer the sharp corners for safety in
use and to prevent fracturing.

Black Oxide Coating

Apply black oxide coating, as a surface treatment, to prevent rusting
residue and texturing.

Packing
Package each product and place a printed label stating the products
name.

Related links :
Gear manufacturing Main page of gear manufacturing
Production Processes of Spur Gear A part of Introduction to Gears
Production Processes of Gear Rack A part of Introduction to Gears
Production Processes of Bevel Gear A part of Introduction to Gears
Gear Production Facilities A part of Introduction to Gears