Stability and Trim for the Ship’s Officer Based on the original edition by John La Dage and Lee Van Gemert Third Edition EDITED BY William E. George CORNELL MARITIME PRESS Centreville MarylandContents Preface to the Third Edition Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgments PART I, TRANSVERSE STABILITY Chapter 1. What Is Stability? Six Motions of a Vessel Centers of Gravity and Buoyancy The Couple Initial Stability Transverse Metacenter Stable, Neutral, and Unstable Equilibrium Metacentric Height Metacentric Radius Summary Questions Chapter 2, Calculation of the Ship's Center of Gravity KG What Is the Center of Gravity? The Light Ship KG Using Moments To Find KG Calculating GG! (Shift of G) Calculating GG' with Suspended Weight Finding KG When Loading or Discharging Required Accuracy of KG Questions Problems Chapter 3. Determining Height of KAM What Is KM? Calculating KB Calculating BM Approximating 8M for Curved Water Planes Analysis of Vertical Movement of KM Effect of Vertical Movement of M, on Beam to Draft Ratio Summation of KM Vertical Movement Movement of M with Transverse Inclination Questions Chapter 4. Galculating GM Stability Versus Stowage 18 30 45vili Stability and ‘Trim Relation of GM to Rolling Period Proportionate Loss of Stability ‘ Rolling Period for Different Types of Vessels Effect of Negative GM on Vessels Practical Methods of Calculating GM Example of Short Form Stability Calculation Instructions for Use of Short Form Stability Calculation Table 1 — Basic Ship Data Sheet Table 2— Tank Capacities and Free Surface Data Sheet Table 3 — Stability Factor Nomographs: Zone 1, Zone 2, Zone 3, Zone Tanks, Zone Base Ship, and Zone Free Surface ‘Table 4 — Short Form Stability Worksheet Questions Problems Chapter 5. The Inclining Experiment 63 Why Needed on Ships of Similar Design What It Is Required Gear and Data Performing the Experiment Derivation of Inclining Experiment Formula Precautions to Take During Experiment An Example of the Experiment Legal Requirements Practical Applications Questions Problems Chapter 6. Stability At Large Angles of Inclination 76 Effect of GM Stability Curves Constructing Gross Curves of Stability Drawing the Statical Stability Curve Using GM to Obtain an Accurate Start Correcting for a Vertical Shift of G Correcting for a Change in Displacement Correcting for a Transverse Shift of G Analyzing a Statical Stability Curve Summary Analysis List in Relation to Statical Stability Curves ‘Questions Problems Chapter 7. Free Surface 104 Effect of Surface Dimensions Effect of Specific Gravity Effect of Amount of Liquid in Tank Effect of Weight and Vertical Position of Liquids Free Surface Corrections Free Surface Constants Cross-Connection Valve for Deep Tanks Effect on Overall Stability SummaryContents ix Questions Problems PART [l. LONGITUDINAL STABILITY Chapter 8. Trim 119 Definitions Trimming Moments and MT1 Calculating Exact Distribution of Trim Change Calculating MT1 Change of Draft at One End Only Effect of Trim on Draft Readings Trim and Its Effect on Displacement Effects of Trim on Transverse Stability Trim Effects Passing from Salt to Fresh Water Change of Trim Due to Large Weights LCG Method of Trim Calculation Mlustrative Trim Problems Summary Questions Thought Problems Problems Using Deadweight Scale PART IIL, HULL STRENGTH Chapter 9. Longitudinal Hull Strength 146 The Ship as a Structure Strength of the Structure Strength of Materials Properties of Metals Stresses on a Loaded Beam Longitudinal Strength of Ships Beam Theory of Ship's Strength Summary of Longitudinal Strength Calculations Applied Longitudinal Hull Strength Aboard Ship ‘Questions PART IV. APPLICATIONS Chapter 10, Shipboard Computers and the Approved Stability Booklet 178 Evolution of the Loading Computer Need for New Loading Computers The Approved Trim and Stability Booklet Summary Chapter 11. The Ship in the Damaged Condition 197 ‘The Damaged Condition Damaged Condition due to Collision Effect of Flooding on Transverse Stability Remedial Measures to Improve Transverse Stability Dangerous Effect of Flooded Wing Compartments Added Weight Method Using the Statical Stability Curve Summary: Damage on Transverse Stability Effect of Grounding on Stabilityx Stability and Trim Effect of Flooding on Reserve Buoyancy How the Ship's Officer Uses Floodable Length Curves Effect of Permeability on Floodable Length Longitudinal Hull Strength and the Damaged Condition How Fast Willa Ship Sink? Questions Chapter !2. Practical Stability and Trim Considerations 219 Factors Affecting the Rolling of Ships Antirolling Devices and Their Effect What Isa Good GM? Purpose of Ballasting Safety with a Small GM How to Load a Ship to Obtain GM and Trim Chapter 13, Stability Requirements for Vessels Loading Bulk Grain 238 What Is the National Cargo Bureau? Educational Services of NCB Background Information Concerning Bulk Grair Calculations of Volumetric Heeling Moments Allowance for a Vertical Shift of Grain Stability Regulations for Loading Bulk Grain Determining Maximum Allowable Heeling Moment Specially Suitable Ships Comparison of Regulations Document of Authorization Exemptions for Certain Voyages NCB Grain Stability Calculation Form Preloading Planning Calculations Summary of Bulk Grain Stability Requirements Bulk Carriers and Panama Canal Draft Calculations Chapter 14. Marine Disasters 27 ‘The Fire and Capsizing of the Normandie ‘The Grounding and Capsizing of Patti-B 55 Silver Dove—Cargo Shift and Sinking 58 Sea Witch and SS Esso Brussels—a Moderate Energy Collision Loss of the 85 Edmund Fitzgerald Loss of the SS Fellowstone—Insufficient Reserve Buoyancy APPENDICES Appendix A; Questions arid Problems on Stability, Trim, and Longitudinal Hull Strength from CG [01-2 wn Specimen Examinations for Merchant Marine Deck Officer 303 Appendix B: Useful Stability and Trim Formulas 308 Appendix C: Conversion Tables and Related Information 311 Appendix D: The Trim and Stability Booklet 317 Appendix E: The Hydrostatic Curves 328 Answer Key 330 Glossary 339 References 346 Index 849Preface to the Third Edition In the twenty-six years since the last revision of this text the world maritime industry has undergone radical changes in marine cargo opera- tions, vessel design, and regulations pertaining to the carriage of movable bulk cargoes. Aboard today's modern high-technology ships longitudinal hull strength calculations are done routinely along with stability and trim calculations. Every chapter has been revised and rewritten, Two new chapters on longitudinal hull strength and movable bulk cargoes have been added, ‘The chapter on stability and trim computers has been revised to show how these devices have evolved over the years into today's modern electronic stability, trim, and longitudinal hull strength computers. Chapter 4, on calculation of metacentric height, includes an explanation of the short form stability method that is used aboard many container and barge- carrying vessels. Case histories have been added to the chapter on marine disasters to illustrate such topics as loss of ship due to movable bulk cargo, insufficient reserve buoyancy, longitudinal hull strength, and transverse stability. Questions at the end of the chapters have been changed where possible to the multiple-choice format uséd in the United States Coast Guard merchant marine deck officer license examinations. The appendices as well as the glossary and references have been enlarged and updated to contain useful information for the ship's officer, In the spirit of the first edition, great efforts were taken to consider the subject wholly from the point of view of the merchant officer, and not that of the naval architect. [tis after all the ship's officers who are the operators and not the ship designers. This edition, no less than its predecessors, has ts theme the intelligent, efficient use of the ship's design to ensure profitable and safe operation, William E. GeorgePreface to the First Edition Most texts available to the ship's officer today on the subject of stability and trim are written from the point of view of the naval architect or ship builder. These persons, while possessing a thorough knowledge of the subjects, have not devoted much of their time to the problems facing a ship's officer, The excellent designs of modern vessels, therefore, are not utilized to the fullest extent by the operating officers. It will be the purpose of the authors to consider the subject wholly from the merchant officers’ point of view, keeping in mind the fact that officers do not wish to wade through a morass of unnecessary technical terms. An attempt will be made to impress the student with the fact that stability is an intensely practical subject and can be used by the trained officer to further the interests of his employer and increase the safety and comfort of his vessel and crew. Vessels are not usually lost through lack of knowledge of stability since modern vessels are well designed and can be loaded by almost anyone without causing the vessel to capsize. In a damaged condition, however, it ig quite possible for a vessel to capsize, and vessels have been lost due to this cause. Granting, however, that loss of vessels is infrequent, the au- thors place the importance of a knowledge of stability in the savings in repair bills which can be effected by the proper loading of cargo, fuel, stores, and water, as well as the comfort afforded the crew by a vessel which has a good rolling period. True, the application of common sense such as the rule “two thirds in the holds; one third in the ‘tween decks” may produce a vessel with fairly good stability; but the officer who under- stands stability can produce a vessel with as nearly satisfactory stability as it is possible to obtain. An employer demands the man who knows, and not the man who guesses. The requirements of the Merchant Marine Inspectors, as regards sta- bility and trim, will be kept in mind throughout the text, and some sample license examination questions are included in the Appendix. The fact that questions on these subjects do not occur until chief officer and master’s licenses should not deter the subordinate officers from acquiring a thor- ough knowledge. And it certainly would not hurt a young officer's popu-Preface to the First Edition xiii larity with the mate if he could assist the latter in stability calculations at a time when the mate is already overloaded with responsibilities and work. It will be assumed that the student possesses a knowledge of the basic principles and terms in common usage aboard ship. Lastly, the authors make no claim to have made the study of stability easy. Stability is not an easy subject, but it is felt that a more thorough knowledge and understanding of the subject by the ship's officer will result ina much more efficient and valuable officer who will be a credit, not only to his company, but to the American Merchant Marine, which should be, and will be, the authors believe, second to none. John La Dage and Lee Van GemertPART 1. TRANSVERSE STABILITY ] What Is Stability? Stability is the ability of a vessel to return to its original condition or position after it has been disturbed by an outside force. Anyone who has been at sea and felt his ship roll, for example, and then right itself (only to roll in the opposite direction and right itself again), has seen stability in action. Six Motions of a Vessel The action of a ship in waves is a fascinating, but extremely complex study. No one can predict with exactitude the behavior of a vessel sub- jected to the forces of wind and weather. Nevertheless, it is possible to study the various motions of a vessel in waves and how these motions are effected by the hull design, the condition of loading, and the characteris- tics of the ocean waves themselves. The principal motions of a vessel in waves are (in addition to the vessel's velocity vector): 1. Rolling or motion about the vessel's longitudinal axis. 2, Pitching or motion about the vessel's transverse axis. 3, Yawing or motion about the vessel's vertical axis. 4. Heaving or the vertical bodily motion of the vessel. 5, Sway or lateral, side to side, bodily motion. 6. Surge or longitudinal bedily motion. Some of these motions are related to each other; others are entirely independent motions. All or most of the motions, however, occur simul- taneously and have their effect on the efficient operation of a ship. Although the mariner does not possess complete control over these mo- s, there is much that he can do to diminish or alleviate their effects. ure | indicates the types of motion defined above. Stability in chese motions is necessary to control and navigate a vessel. For example, it is desirable for a vessel to maintain a constant speed. This would require that the vessel have stability along the surge axis of motion. It is also desirable for a vessel to be able to stay on course and not swing wildly from it. This can be construed to mean that the vessel is stable in yaw motion or4 Stability & Trim Heawe Figure 1. The six motions of a vessel. heading. We would also like to have a constant trim (trim being the difference of the forward and after drafts), For this we need stability in the motion of pitch, It is important to minimize a vessel's sideways or lateral motion. This requires a high degree of stability in sway. We wish to keep the vessel on the surface at a relatively constant me: Fatt ko achieve this, stability in heave is necessary. Finally, and most sig nly, a ship’s officer is concerned to keep his vessel from capsizing. Without sufficient stability in ralling motion, this goal would be in jeopardy.” In the following table the motions are listed in order of priority along with the type of stability which governs each. oR ihe Motions of the Ship and Governing Stahilities Motion™ ‘Governing Stability 1. Roll Transverse Stability 2. Pitch Longitudinal Stability 3. Yaw Directional Stability 4. Heave Positional Motion Stability 5, Surge Stability in Motion Ahead or Astern 6. Sway Lateral Motion Stability Mauteret 6 | It should be noted that the least stable of the six motions are rolling and yawing while the other motions haye a relatively high degree of stability1 / WhatIs Stability? = 5 Rolling side force = mass ® anceleration duc to ralling motion Assume the mass of all conuincrs areequal Component gravity forces on all containers are equal fora given angle of roll Direction of voll Rolling axis wi Acceleration clase to rolling with distance from rolling axis Figure 2. Side force on a container caused by rolling. when considering the typical merchant-type hull. Yawing can be con- trolled with a rudder, while rolling must be controlled by the proper distribution of weights aboard the vessel. Although various roll dampen- ing devices do exist and will be discussed later, it must be noted that the motion of rolling and the transverse stability* associated with it are our chief concerns. ,, Lhe way the vessel rolls is a direct indication of her stability. Let us assume’ that a vessel has been loaded in-such a way as to make her top-heavy he is then in a tender or cranky condition. Her roll is slow, and sf tends t ehind the inclinations of the surface of the ocean waves, She has a we: tendency to return to her original upright position, and her stability is poor. Another vessel has a concentration of weight toward the bottom, She is stiff: she rolls quickly with large amplitudes; and she has a marked tendency to return to her original ‘erect position which is perpendicular to the surface of the ocean waves, Her stability in the stiff condition is excessive. 52 “2 ‘To attain stability a merchant vessel should be loaded in such a way as to give her an easy rolling period, neither too fast or too slow. A vessel which rolls too fast stresses the upper parts of her structure, the crew, and, “When aboard ship, a ship's officer refers to transverse stability, or stability of rolling motion, as simply stability because it is this motion of the ship which causes the most concern, When stability is mentioned hereafter in this text, it will refer to transverse stability unless otherwise indicated.6 Stability & Trim considering container ships, the upper tiers of containers. The side forces that are created due to this fast rolling period are explained by the relationship indicated in Figure 2. Containers are cross lashed instead of vertically lashed, because cross lashing provides a horizontal’ réstraint which counters the actual side force caused by accelerations due to rolling and the mass of the container. In addition, this is also why empty containers are carried on the top tiers. ‘They have less mass, and therefore, less side forces are generated. The personnel on a fast rolling ship are uncomfortable and in risk of bodily injury due to the same kind of side forces acting on their bodies. A vessel which rolls too slowly has poor stabiliry and might capsize under certain conditions, such as heavy weather or damage. ‘Thus it should be remembered that an overstable or stiff vessel can be just as dangerous to her crew and cargo as an understable vessel. Figure 3. G ts the resultant of all vertically downward forces of gravity. Centers of Gravity and Buoyancy The condition of the vessel as regards stability is determined almost wholly by the location of two points in a vessel: the center of gravity and the center of buoyancy. Before discussing the relationship between these points itis necessary to define them, The center of gravity, G,: that point at which all the vertically downward forces of weight of the vessel can be considered to act; or itis the center of the mass of the vessel. A ship will béhave as if all of its weight (dis- placement in long tons) is acting down through the center of gravity. See Figure 3. The center of buoyancy, B,: that point at which all the vertically upward forces of support (buoyancy)can be considered to act; or, itis the center of volume of the immersed portion of the vessel. A ship will behave as if all of its support is acting up through the center of buoyancy. See Figure 4,1 / WhatIs Stability? = 7 Figure 4. 8 is the resultant of all vertically upward forces of buoyancy. qRAtiSFER Of Wen 8, Figure 5. Since B is the center of buoyancy of the immersed portion of the vessel... When a vessel is inclined due to some external force, that is, by the action of seas, the center of gravity will remain fixed in its location in the vessel. Of course, if weights are free to move on the vessel, G will move too but, for the time being, it is assumed that G does remain in its original position. If the vessel does not have a list, this original position is, of course, on the centerline. When a vessel is inclined, the center of buoyancy will move since it is the center of volume of the immersed portion of the vessel, and a wedge of buoyancy has been transferred from one side of the vessel to the other side. See Figure 5. It is this movement of B which results in a tendency of the vessel to return Co its original position, The intensity of this tendency is a measure8 Stability & Trim of the stability of the vessel. Why does the movement of B away from its position directly under G cause a righting tendency? The answer lies in the couple. ¢ oo. th) Figure 6. A couple is created. The Couple A couple is formed whenever two equal forces are acting on a body in opposite directions and along parallel lines. Lay a book down on a flat surface. Now push the lower right corner to the left and the upper left corner to the night. Be sure that you are pushing with the same force on each finger and that you are pushing in parallel lines, Your fingers’ pressure have created a couple. What happens? The book will revolve, Now place your fingers nearer the center of the book and push as before. ‘The book will revolve but not as quickly as before. Next, place your fingers at the center of the book and push. You no longer have a couple and the book will not revolve. See Figure 6. Returning to the discussion of a vessel, we see by referring to Figure 7 that, when B& moves, the lines of force through G and B separate. We now have a couple* exerting a force which tends to rotate the ship back to an erect position. The couple has been formed by the two equal forces of weight and buoyancy which are acting in opposite directions along parallel lines, The farther these lines move apart, the greater the force of the couple. How- ever, whena vessel is in still water and no external force is inclining her, G *Since the forces through G and 8 act vertically upward and downward, when they do not coincide, they must be parallel. Also the forces through G and B are equal, Archimedes’ principle (the law of floating bodies) states that a floating body displaces a weight of water equal to its own weight; thatis, weight equals buoyancy, Therefore, since we have two equal forces operating in opposite directior along parallel lines in the same body, a couple exists,1 / What Is Stability? 9 BAQTING py Cry Pon extemon Figure 7. The lines of force through G and 8 separate and .... and B are in the same vertical line and no couple is formed. But, as soon as the vessel inclines, 8 moves toward the low side of the vessel, and a righting tendency is created. All couples are expressed as a certain force (weight unit) times a length, or a moment, Suppose you pushed on the book with a force of one pound with each finger and the distance between the lines of force through your fingers is six inches. Then there is a moment of one-half foot-pound tending to rotate the book. The length, then, is the distance between the lines of force; the force is that of one of the equal forces. In the case of a vessel, the value of the couple is found by multiplying the weight of the vessel (displacement) by the perpendicular distance from G to the line of action of B. This is expressed as a moment in foot-tons. The couple is known as the righting moment. Th We should now begin to realize what stability is, i.c., where the tendency to return to an erect position is derived, and upon what two things that tendency, or righting moment, depends. The greater the weight of the vessel, the greater the righting moment; the greater the distance from G to the line of force through B, the greater the righting moment. _ Referring to Figure 7, we see that it is customary to label as Z the point of intersection of the line of action of B and the line through G to it. The distance GZ is known as the righting arm. Thus, if we label the displace- ment of a vessel A, the righting moment may be expressed by the symbols: Ax Gz. ‘The righting arm alone can usually be used as an indication of stability. The reasons for this are very simple. A vessel at any one time weighs or displaces a certain number of tons. Inclining the vessel does not change its displacement. Therefore, the only factor of the righting moment (A x GZ) which changes is GZ, or the righting arm. If GZ doubles, the righting moment doubles; if GZ trebles, the righting moment trebles, etc. It is possible then, merely by the knowledge of the length of GZ, to make hpret10 Stability & Trim mart accurate observations on the stability of a vessel.” igure 8. But the student should never forget that the righting moment he stability tendency of a vessel. The righting arm is only a relative indication of stability that is convenient to use at certain times, GZ=1 it. Righting moment is 10,000 x 1, Righting moment is 10,000 » 2, or 10,000 foot-tons. ‘or 20,000 foot-tons, Figure 8. A 1),000-ton vessel rolls... and rights. Initial Stability Up to this point, we have discussed stability at all angles of inclination and have discovered that the true measure of a vessel's stability is her righting moment and, to a limited extent, her righting arm. If ship's officers were to look up the value of the tighting arm in the statical stability curves and multiply it by the vessel's weight he would have the righting moment in foat-tons. This would mean very little to him other than to indicate that the vessel would return to an erect position. He wants a value which will indicate to him directly what the relative tende ney of his vessel will be to return to an erect position for small angles of inclination; in other words, he wishes to know how his vessel will roll. Whether or not his vessel is stable at large angles of inclination is nota problem which will _ confront him frequently. In order to satisfy this need for a simple, con figure, the ship’s officer must know the position of the vessel's transverse metacenter. Transverse Metacenter ‘This section should be read in conjunction with careful study of Figure 9. The transverse metacenter is a point through which the center of *[nformation on the lengths of righting arms for v, and angles of inclination are found in the statical stabi curves will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6. rious conditions of loading 'y curves fora vessel, These1 | WhatIs Stability? 11 buoyancy, B, acts vertically upward as the vessel is inclined and B shifts toward the low side. In all cases shown in Figure 9, the vessel is inclined to the same angle; in each case the displacement is the same. The only difference is that the vessel is loaded differently, so that the position of the center of gravity is Case 1 Case 2 G below M Stable Equilibrium Case 3 G coincides with Af Neutral Equilibrium G above M Unstable Equilibrium Figure 9. The same displacement; the same angle of inclination, but G moves up... the student discovers transverse metacenter (M), and the equilibriums,12 Stability & Trim different, The center of buoyancy remains at the same point in each case, because the immersed portion of the vessel is the same. We are already acquainted with three of the four points lettered; G, B, and Z. M denotes transverse metacenter, Stable, Neutral, and Unstable Equilibrium In Case 1, the vessel is so loaded as to have a low G. This produces a couple or righting moment which is largely due to the distance between the lines of force, that is GZ, or the righting arm. In Case 2, nothing has changed except the position of G. The vessel is now loaded in such a way as to have its center of gravity higher than in the first case. GZ has been shortened. This is another way of stating that the distance between the lines of force has been shortened. In both cases, the couple tends to right the vessel. The vessel is said to be in a state of stable equilibrium, or she possesses positive stability at small angles of inclination, In Case 3, G has been raised to a point where the lines of force coincide. G now coincides with M. There is no couple; therefore, no tendency to right exists. On the other hand, there is no tendency for the vessel to continue to incline, ‘There is no upsetting moment for small angles of inclination. The vessel is said to be in a state of neutral equilibrium. In Cases 4 and 5, G has risen above M; the lines of forces have separat- ed. There is a negative value of GZ; an upsetting arm and moment exist. ‘There is a tendency for the vessel to incline for small angles of inclination. The vessel is said to be in astate of unstable equilibrium. In all cases, remember that stable, neutral, and unstable equilibriums refer only to initial stability, that is, the tendency of a vessel at small angles of inclination. The reason why initial stability is stressed is because the transverse metacenter does move as the angle of inclination increases due to the geometry of the hull form. Naturally, at large angles of inclination, the vessel will finally become unstable and capsize. We may now observe that the transverse metacenter, when considering initial stability, is no more than one particular position of the center of gravity. f¢is that point to which G may rise and still permit the vessel to’possess positive stability. As long as G remains below point M, the vessel possesses a tendency to right itself. The closer G comes to M, the less that tendency is, as clearly shown by the length of the righting arm. As soon as G rises above M, the couple tends to upset the vessel. Metacentric Height ‘The distance between points G and M, therefore, is related directly to the length of the righting or upsetting arms. The mathematical expres-