REPORT No. 82 AIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE _ FOR AERONAUTICS Laboratery ‘wasmovarox (COVEENMENT PRINTING OFFICERE Qn SS WS Yors fo REPORT No. 82 AIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS By A. F. ZAHM. By L. H. CROOK Aerodynamical Laboratory, Bureau of Construction and Repair, U.S. NavyREPORT NO. 82. PREFACE. With each delivery of a new type or size of airplane the manufacturer furnishes (1) the data and (2) the computations by which to judge tho performance and safety of the machine. Under “‘data” may be classed the geometrical dimensions of the entire craft und its parts; the physical properties of its materials, both raw and as treated for final use, and a description of the method of treatment of these materials; the measured strengths of the whole structure and of its elements; the weight schedule, giving the mass and position of the structural parts and of the carried loads; the aerodynamic properties of the sustaining und control surfaces, the body, the undercarriage, and the craft as a whole; the reeords of inspee- tion and full-scale test, ete. To this must be added much special information about the ongine, the propeller, the navigating instruments, ete. Under “computations” may be furnished information as to the stresses and performance of (1) the motor; (2) the serow; (8) the craft as a whole. ‘The present work, intended as a handbook, covers primarily the theory of airplane stress analysis, but ignores, 2s foreign to its scope, the forces within the engine and propeller. It presents analytical mothods and formulas with little if any argument, assuming the reader can supply the proofs or will not require them, All the formulas are illustrated by problems given immediately in the text and solved in Chapter IV. ‘Acknowledgment is here made to the Journal of the Franklin Institute for a part of the diagrams and subject matter which the writer previously had published in that periodical; to the Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Corporation for preetical data used in the problems; and to Mr. L, H. Crook, Mr. N.C. Lather, and Mr. R, H. Smith for assistance in revising the text and reading the proofs. The aerodynamic data have been taken partly from reports of the bureau of Construction and Repsir partly from those of other laboratories. A portion of the ‘wing-stress equation, taken from this work, will appear in the bureau's fortheoming book entitled “Aircraft Design Data.” ALF. ZAHM. Saxvany, 1018.CONTENTS, PART I. General Considerations. i Introduetion.. ‘ ‘Torminology. ‘ Units and dimensions... 4 Norel and abuorinl lade. 4 Sudden loads. 5 Simple stresses, 5 Indirect simple sizeaes.. 5 ‘Resultant unit stress 6 ‘Ropotitive and equivalent sives.. 7 Maximum steady loed and stress, 1 Factors of alot. eens ~ ae Scope of treatment... ° ‘Wing fabri loading and stress. ° ib loading and stress. 9 ‘Aleron loading and stressee.---- 10 ‘Running loed on wing planes and spars 10 Spar bending moments, shears, pin reactions, deflections. u Concentrated lift and drag on wing trusing...... v ‘Endwvise streses in member of sonmultiplano wing trum. 2 ‘Endiise stzeses in members of multiplane wing trussing. B Grouping of date and computed values for wing analy M PART IL Airplane Body Stresses. 6 2 u Undercarriage loads and streases. : we ‘Fuselage loads and stresses... : y Grouping of body soslysis data end computed values... uy, PART IV, Problems in Airplane Stress Analysis. 18 a : 8 PART V. ‘ustrations for Parts I, 1, II, TV.REPORT NO. 82. PART I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. : By A. F. anu INTRODUCTION. ‘This report was prepared at the Acrodynamical Laboratory, Navy Yard, Washington, D.C., by ditection of Rear Admiral D. W. Taylor, Chief Constructor, U. 8. Navy, and Mem- ber of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, for publication in the committee's Fifth Annual Report. 1. TERMINOLOGY. ‘The mechanical terms in this text bear the same meaning as in standard works on appli mechanics; the aeronautical torms, where practicable, follow the nomenclature publislied in 1917 by the United States National Advisory Committeo for Aeronautics (Report: No. 26). Some words not so published aro used of necessity, and when of uncertain meaning aro dofined upon their first appearance in the text. For example, “air forco” for the resultant of air pres- sure and friction, As an abbreviation for “‘angle of incidence,” the term “incidouco” is somo- ‘times used in this text, as is commonly done in aerodynamic works. 2. UNITS AND DIMENSIONS. For the most part in this text ordinary British units are employed. ‘Tho unit of mass is somotimes the pound; sometimes the slug, or g pounds, g being the acceloration of gravity. ‘The standard of eir density is taken as 0.07635 pound, or 0.00238 slug, per cubie foot, or that of dry air et 760 m. m. and 15.6° C, Honce tho familiar full impulse p 7%, per unit cross section of a jot, is 0.00288 7" pound per square foot when Vis feet per second, or 0.0061 Véwhon Vis miles on hour. And the air force on a normal surface of A square feet is R= 0.00238 CAT? pounds at Vfeet, per second, C being a dimensionless multiplier, called the “shape coefficient,” or “ebsolute coefficient”—a constant independent of the system of units. 3. NORMAL AND ABNORMAL LOADS. Structurally an airplane is under normal load in two notable cases: (1) On earth whon resting naturally on e lovel surface; (2) in air when in steady straightaway fight at any inci- once? In these cases the external epplied forces, whetber due to air, earth, or motor, aro constant and in algebraic sum equal to the weight of the craft. Some may be positive, others nogativo. In all other conditions the loading is abnormal and mey be either constant or not; either uniformly increased or not; either positive or negative. For example, an airplane in steady ffight around a level circular course boars a constant load determined by thespoed and curvature. For this case the actual load in terms of the normal is tabulated in figure 5. For tho largo path curves there shown the increase of londing is substantially uniform throughout the structure, Again the raft may be diving steeply at steady spood and incidence. Then its Joeding, both lift and drift, is constant; the first smaller than normal, the second larger. Won, the machine is standing on earth some of the loads are reversed from their direction in ai when flying inverted all “lif.” loads are reversed. “i wana cose omni pe toate Ha tc Whee oe eA, sing indo ad eeataton eal Sta ‘he eeing due tote pal seston nlusrate ia, 8, «fora typcalmenoplane alae 4AIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS, 5 4, SUDDEN LOADS. Inconstent sbnormel loads msy ariso from sudden changes of air speed or incidence, as in diving, or riding gusts; from motor jerking; from impact ageinst earth or water, ote.; and thoir chengo may be uniform throughout the structure or localized; uniform or irregular in growth end decey. But froquently.it suffices to assume that all parts of the structure sustain, the samo acceleration and henco the same chenge of load. If this acceleration be j at any part of the airplane, the masses in that part induce stresses j/9 times those due to their weight alone, assuming j and g in the same direction, ‘When practicable in engineering tests, an. accelerometer should be carried in the active machine to record the component accelerations in the air and on the earth. To find j through- out the craft, it is well to use several accelerometers distributed throughout the structure. Sometimes the scceleration is estimated from observed or assumed data. For example, suppose that a craft, regarded as a single rigid mass in pure translation, lands with vertical velocity component o, whose “head” is h=v#/2g, and comes to rest with uniform cushioning, of yield d3 ‘Then the ratio of its average vertical acceleration to gravity is? iigm1+hid. @ It is twice this emount if, as rarely happens, the cushion resistance be directly proportional to the cushion deflection d. Equation (1) is true not only of the machine as a whole, but of every part of it, however clastic the structure, If the craft approach land in pure translation, A is the same for all clemonts, but d varies throughout the structure, being least in the chessis parts and greatest in the parts remote from the impact points. A like treatment applies to longitudinal and lateral accelerations. The assumed maximum acceleration to be provided for in the design of on airplane is usually specified by the purchaser. Example 1.1\—If an accelerometer fixed to an airplane records a maximum vertical accelere- tion of 48 fost per second, what is the ratio of the ebnormal to tho normal loading Eeample 2—An airplane in landing has a vertical velocity component of 10 foot per second and a uniform cushion yield of 6 inches. Find the ratio of the abnormal to the normal stresses in the landing geer, assuming the machine to be a rigid structure. 5. SIMPLE STRESSES. The direct simple stresses here treated aro the common tensile, compressive, and shearing stresses. For each the intensity or unit stress is uniform over the cross section and is given by 8=P/4, @) P being the load sustained by the structural cross section A. For each case the lord and stress have the same direction. For torsion in a round sheft the intensity of direct sheating stress at different points of a oross seotion varies directly with the radius to those points and in the outermost fiber is Sm Meld @) where Iie the torsionsl moment, ¢ the distance from the conter of gravity to the outermost fiber, J the polar moment of inertia of the section. 6, INDIRECT SIMPLE STRESSE Indirect. simple stresses porpendicular to the applied loads occur in transverse and in torsional londing. In both cases the longitudinal and the trensverse sheering stresses at any point are equal. "be cshion fxs say be pay ari, pri prog, Tho alr hate gly with tin spring ioeraen with & ehh season ity atte detection, pending en the abi ofthe sheng mecbani. Xs pnt the lenge he ete tose, er ‘enn eclosion, ‘3p prove Q) equa to Wek of uebesng to the work of sa fs thot Agee see, ‘whence emis, saw 3 to sas of tb achion te verge cshintng tation, "oeselsana ool an oxeaplt led in ext are lve in Pare 1V,6 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTRE FOR ARRONAUTI In transverse loading the tension or compression is greatest in the outermost fibers of the beam and is S= MoI, @ where Ais the bending moment, J the moment of inertie of the cross section. In a beam so loaded the longitudinal shearing stress varies over any cross section, being zero at the remotest fiber and increasing toward the noutral axis of thet ecction. At any reference axis ¥ in the section, parellel to the neutral axis, the horizontal shear is + S=ae Vit 65) whore a is the sectionsl area outward from Y, ¢ the distance of the centroid of a from the neutral surface, V’ the totel shear over tho entiro beam section, and ¢ the thickness of the beam at Y. In most, but not all, practical cases the horizontal shear is s maximum at the neutral surface. Its value there is, for a round beam, 4/3 the mean vertical shear 17.4; for & rectangular one 3 V/2.A. Example 3,—Find the longitudinal shearing stress in a 4-inch square beam given the total vertical shear as 1,400 pounds; first with the diagonal vertical, then with it inclined 45°. ‘7. RESULTANT UNIT STRESS. ‘When several causes simultaneously produce like stresses at any point in a structure, thoso may be algebraically added. (a) Endwise stresses due to simultaneous endwise and transverse Toads—Soveral endwise stresses may occur at @ point simultaneously. ‘Thus in the lower rear spar of an airplane the lift produces tension, the drag compression; the bending moment produces tension and compression. The algebraic sum of all thoso is tho effective stress. If P be the aggregate cendwise stress, the above operation is expressed by the following equation, S=P/Az MZ, @ in which Mis the bending moment due to the running load only, 2, the section modulus. ‘The obvious physical meaning of this equation is that the fist term represents the unit direct stress, the second term the unit bending stress, which may be taken either as tensile or compressive, A more accurate formula for the total endwise unit stress here considered is S=P/A+ M/Z+EPAZ, (o) in which d is the deflection due to 2f only (computed as in figs. 18, 14, 15, 16), and & is a correction factor to be epplied to d, because the latter is slightly inereased by P. If in (6) and (7) P/A is a tensile stress, tho succeeding terms an be reduced to “equiva- lent tensile stress” by multiplying them by S,/S,, or the ratio of the bending to the tensile strength of tho material, This is sometimes done when S, differs materially from S,, Simi- larly, when P/A is a compressive stress. The equation (6) then assumes the form =S tr MZ @) where S is the equivalent tensile stress and + is the ratio of the tensile to the bending strength of the material. ‘The equivalent compressive stress is similarly found. Formulas (6), (7), may be used for wing epars and for non-tapering flat struts bearing a considerable side wind pressure. But if the strut be tapering, $ can not be found by formula (7) here presented, since d is unknown. However, for normal flying conditions the deflection is ignored, since there is no appreciable side wind against the strut. Example 4.—Find the resultant unit stress in a 2-inch square simple beam, due to an endwise load of 900 pounds, a maximum bending moment of 1,100 inch-pounds, and a maxi- mum deflection of 0.05 inch at the place of maximum moment. "ay walinoa eppatins Rem noe fA,AIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS, 7 ©) Endwise stresses due to simple endwise loads accompanied by bending—For a uniform columan or strut bearing an ondwise load, but no transverse one, the unit actuel stress in the outermost fiber is usuelly found by Renkine’s formula : Set +aQr)PIA, ® in which P is the actual end load producing stresses lower than the elastic limit, 1 is the length of the strut, r its least radius of gyration at the center section, and a is a numerical constant depending on the materiel, strut form, and mannor of constraining the ends. Values of a for various materials, forms, and end conditions are given in books on applied mechanics. Uf the endwvise load is distant p from the column axis the unit stress is Sal tar) +epir"] PA 10) where ¢ is the distance of the remotest fiber, and r is the radius of gyration. Example 5.—Find tho unit stress in a pin-ended column 1 inch square and 30 inches long under an axial load of 200 pounds; also the unit stress when taking the eccentricity of the load as 2 inches. (©) Combined shearing and normal stress. —If at any point of a section, S is the normal unit stress, and §, the transverse or the equal longitudinal shearing unit stress, then at that point the maximum resultant shearing stress S,, and maximum normal stress S, aro, rospeatively 8,—VS+ GRY ay San S/248, a2) Example 6.—A beam is subject to a compressive unit stress of 200 pounds per square inch and at the same time to a longitudinel shearing stress of 250 pounds per squere inch. Com- pute the maximum resultant stresses. 8. REPETITIVE AND EQUIVALENT STRESS. When a variable load stresses a member frequently through fraction m of its elastic limit, tho equivalent steady stress may be taken as s'=8 +m) aa) where $ is the allowable constant stress, and n is unity for very numerous stress fluctuations, ero for very few? Example 7.—It & member whos allowable constant stress is 20,000 is stressed frequently to 16,000 and has an elastic limit of 60,000, what is the equivalent stress? 9, MAXIMUM STEADY LOAD AND STRESS. For a member subject to uniform simple stress the greatest possible load it will sustain is Pasd as) § being the strength of tho material, and A the sectional ares of the member. Examples in airplane construction are: For tension,'the stays; for compression, the short struts; for shear, the clevis pins. In all euch cases the maximum lond and meximum unit stress ocour together. For a structural element not subject to uniform simple stress the greatest possible load may excood that causing the greatest stress. A long strut, for example, may bear a greater endwise load and sustain less fiber stress before much bending occurs than when bowed excessively. For a pin-ended woovlen strut having a slenderness ratio Y/r, above 120, the meximum load is computed by Euler's formula Pree ETP (as) whore 1 is the length between pins, 7 tho least moment of inertia of the middle section. For pin-ended struts with a lower slenderness ratio Johnson's formula Prax A C(I ~ 0/401?) (16) ‘Ger Banid’s Appled Meshes psn 8 To uw ol male () or computing Pray nt remaende formula) 0) ng 1 en Upon, stern of Consruetion stn 6,8 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS. is used, where A is the middle section area, the crushing strength of the material, I the least radius of gyration of the middle section. If the strut has very securely fixed ends, the above ‘two values of Prax may be quedrupled. ‘The crippling load on any strut or column is sometimes given as a function of.the slenderness ratio Z/r, in tables or diagrams derived from laboratory tests of full scale test pieces. Example 8.—Find the maximum load for pin-ended spruce column of length 60 inches, ‘ross section 3 square inches, and moment of inertia 0.3 inch *. 10, FACTORS OF SAFETY. Given the resultant fiberstress intensity, this may be divided into an assumed limiting stress to find the strength-stress ratio, commonly called the “factor of safety.” ‘Tho limiting stress is determined from standard test pieces of the material and of the structural forms in question. For each material and form employed in the industrial erts the assumed limiting stress is com- monly fixed by agreement between the constructor and the purchaser. For stays, turabuckles, fastenings, ete., and sometimes for struts—also for entire truss members, wings, fuselages, ete.— the factor of safety is taken as the ratio of the greatest possible load to the greatest actual load of the member, the former load being found experimentally, the latter either by calculation or by instrumentel test under working conditions either real or simulate: Example 9.—Find the factors of safety in example 6 fora maximum shearing stress of 1,000 pounds per square inch, end a maximum compressive stress of 4,000 pounds per square nach; elso the factor of safety in example 8 for an applied lond of 250 pounds.REPORT NO. 82. PART TL AIRPLANE WING STRESSES. By A. F Zam 11, SCOPE OF TREATMENT. ‘The study of wing stresses may cover in succession the fabrie, the ribs, the ailerons, the spars as beam members, the lift and drag trussing. From the resultant stresses so found are computed the factors of safety for steady normal flight, taking account of the known strength of the individual members or of their dimensions and materials, 132, WING FABRIC LOADING AND STRESS. ‘Tho tonsile stress in the fabric at any point of « wing surface may be computed from the given curvature and airpressure distribution at that point. ‘Typical external pressure dis tributions on a monoplane surface are shown in figures 1, 2, 8, and 4, The. internal pressure is sensibly constant and unknown, but with impervious fabric may be mado equel to the external surface prossure at any point by perforating the canvas thers, ‘At.any part of tho surface, as in figure 6, lot p be the resultant point pressure of the air jn pounds per square foot, a tho distance in inches between ribs, and ¢ the depth in inches of the bulge in the canvas midway between the ribs; then the febric tension ¢, in pounds per linear inch, noglecting the effect of the fore and aft curvature, can be shown to be approximately $=0.00087 pate, an ‘Values of t for various air pressures and bulging of the fabric are given in figure 6, 13, RIB LOADING AND STRESS. ‘The usual airplane rib may be considered as a beam supported at two points (at the spars) and sustaining the air foreo on all the febric lying neerer to itself than to the neighboring ribs. Tn figure 7 is shown the distribution of tho air force normal to the rib surface and elso tho distribution of the components ef this airforce normal to the chord, ‘The running load on the rib is not sufficiently uniform to make applicable the ordinary formulas for uniformly loaded beams. By considering the average loading upon ench element of length as a concentrated load we may compute the shear and moment for a number of points end plot them es in figure 8. ‘This process, however, is laborious. For approximate treatment we may divide the rib into three parts, the segment between the spars, the front segment, end the reer segment, and consider the totel running load on ‘each segment as a concentrated load. ‘The magnitude and position of each such load may be found by wellimown methods. From these concentrated loads the shear end moment dia- grams can be readily drawn, as shown in full line in figure 9, where the dotted lines are super- posed from figure 8. The maximum vertical shearing forees are practically the same in both cases, while the maximum negative bending moment in the case of such approximation is ebout, twice that of the true moment and should be halved for the working approximation. If the concentrated load on the front and rear segments, as shown in figure 9, be denoted for each by R and located st a distance 7 from the spar, the unit bending stress next to the spat is, 7 S=RYZ, as) Z being the section modulus of the cross section of the unsevered pert of the rib segment where it meets the spar. ss16—20—2 ®10 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS. Again, if R, the concentrated load on the portion of the rib amid spars, is distant « and from the front and rear spars, respectively, the unit bending stress at 2 is S=Rob/(a+d)Z, cag) Z being the section nodulus there. Dividing S in (10) by 2 gives a fair approximation to the true bending stress for the distributed lond. ‘The rib shesring stress may be found by the shearing stress formulas presented in Part I. Example 1—A rib loaded as in figure 39 hes the dimensions there specified; find the ‘unit stresses for bending, maximum shearing, and average vertical shearing just outside the spars and just inside the spars; also the unit bending stress at J between the spars. 14, AILERON LOADING AND STRESSES. The londs on the aileron are the control-wire pull end the air force. ‘The normal pull may be taken 23 the greatest the pilot would care to exert regularly in fight and is messured with 1 spring balance when the pilot seated in e stationery machine vigorously plies tho control. ‘The aileron moment equals tho control-wire pull times its distance from the aileron hinge axis; also equals the aileron air force times its distance from the hinge. If this latter dis- tance be assumed of some reasonable magnitude and bo divided into said moment, it gives the amount of the airforce. Sometimes also the air force is estimated from the size, incidence, and forward speed of the aileron, taken with suiteble aerodynamic date end with allowance for the propeller slip stream, if any. In practice, the aileron force may be assumed to he at the center of the surface and equal to PA, where P is the resultant pressure per unit aren of the aileron surface A. The valuo of P is usually specified by the purchaser. Having thus found cither the control-wire pull or the moment of the air force on the aileron, the stresses may bo readily computed from the frame diagram by the usual methods of statics. If the moment of the air foree tends to twist the eileron’s hinge rod, the unit stress in the latter is computed by the formula §= ML oy where Mf and Z are, respectively, tho given moment ond the torsion section modulus. In this caso the aileron ribs are simple eantilevors jutting out from the hinge rod, and are stressed like the trailing edge of a wing plans, and are treated by the foregoing rib analysis. Sometimes the control wire pulls on an siloron lever from whose outer end several stays run to the roar edge of the aileron surface, as shown in figure 38. Each principal aitern rib thon sustains a compressive component foree duc to the applied stay, a transverse running air force, and the transverse component forces of its outer and its inner ond attachments, If only the transverse forces be considered, tho aileron rib stress may be calculated by the formula for the mid sogment of a wing rib, as alrendy treated. The enciwise force causes, at any cross sec- tion of the aileron rib, a compressive unit stress roughly equal to that force divided by the section area. "The loading and trailing edges of the aileron are treated as continuous beams supported and loaded as in figure 13. Example 2.—An aileron bearing a uniform pressure of 20 pounds per square foot has the dimensions.and structural form shown in figure 38. Find the moment about the hinge and the stress in the control wire, Find also the vertical reactions at the stay wire upon the trailing edge beam. 15, RUNNING LOAD ON WING PLANES? AND SPARS. ‘The air loading and weight of a wing plane is in general not uniform along the whole length of the plane, but may be taken as uniform for each small unit of the length. ‘The actual distri- bution of tho sir loading throughout the length, in o uniform wind, is illustrated in Sgure 4. For “inser te tr “ying dnsene mal eppriag member os erg rleofn lene Shia gne ring comprsa ro Wn ‘ines the“ pla” and tha“ Pine” oad by isterpiane” range fore wilt, gaeopanee pen. "Tacote propalr ip reun ass th lane toe wind tales uals overt lee. Tobe vy acre ae Woul eget spo ataAIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS, a practical computation this distribution may be taken as constant along each panel or each spar length of the wing plane, and is so taken in the present treatment. ‘The manner of referring the running air load and running weight of the plano to the spars, and thete resolving them in the plane of the lift trussiug and drag trussing, is shown in figure 10, Let L? D, Whe the running lift, drag, and weight of the plane and al, Bl the distances, respec~ tively, of their points of application from the rear spar, a end 6 being numerical fractionsand J the distance between spars. Then at the front spar the parallel components of L, D are aZ, aD; and the parallel component of Wis bY, which, taken from aZ, gives the net running lift ecross ‘wind at the spar in question. Compounding graphically this net litt, aZ-b W, with the drag aD, gives the resulteut spar running load R. This resultant is now resolved graphically into the components 1, 1, in the lift and drag truss planes: also into w, w! in the spar web plano and normal thereto. Ina similar manner the resultant rmning loads and their component running loads in the lift and drag truss planes may be found for the remaining spars, Frequently in practice the running load on the lower spar of a biplane is found from that of the upper by dividing by some elinple ratio, say 1.2, as indicated by aerodynamic exporiments. Example $.—A biplane wing bas the form and loadings shown in figure 41; find the resultant londings on the spars and their components in the planes of the lift and drag trussing for angles of incidence of 2° and 12°, 16, SPAR BENDING MOMENTS, SHEARS, PIN REACTIONS, DEFLECTIONS. ‘From the running load w, on a spar, figure 10, and from the position of the strut pins, or constraints, the bending moments, shearing foreos, pin reactions, and deflections may be com- puted by tho familier formulas for loaded beams. In general, these four quantitaties can be computed by ditect use of Clapeyron’s original three-moment theorem, figure 11, but for usual cases are more conveniently found by the formules derived therefrom and presented in figures 18, 14, 15, 16. (@) Bending moments and bending stresses.—The bending moment diegram is usuelly a chein of parabolic curves, whose maxima are tabulated, for usual cesos, in figures 13, 14,15, 19. From these maxima and the tabulated joint moments the complete diagram is plotted, as in Sgure 17. In some unusual cases the axes of the spar, strut, and stay do not pass through @ common, point, ‘The increment of moment caused by such eccentricity. of the stay attachment is treatod analytically in figure 12 and applied graphically in figure 18. "The maximum bending moment in the strut plane, multiplied by w/w, gives that for the plane of the spar web, figure 10, from which may be computed the unit bending stresses in the spar. ‘The unit stress is given by the equation s=MZ, 1) Mbeing the moment and Z the section moduliss of the cross section of the spar. @) Shearing forces and shearing stresses.—The shear diagram is drawn by plotting as ordinates the values of the transverse shoaring force on each side of the pins, then joining the ordinates by straight lines, as shown in figure 17. Each line, as is well known, cuts the spar axis at a point of zero shear and of maximum moment, ‘The values of these shearing forces multiplied by w/u, give the shearing forces in the plane of the spar web, from which may be derived the corresponding shearing stresses by the shear formulas of Part I. (©) Pin reactions.—From the two “vertical” shears at any spar joint the pin reaction is most readily found by simple subtraction as in figures 14, 16, 16. If the points of zero shear—that is, of maximum moment—are knows, the pin reaction at any joint is taken as the distance between the neighboring maxima times the meen loading. @ Deflection. —To find the exact place and amount of the maximum spar panel bending, the deflection curve may be plotted from the elastic equation given in figures 14, 15, 16. ‘ie penlof peor wing planets apron betwowncomeulvo it sats, 1 Tbe Gnarnintin of Zan D ie explaed fee erodyanetrestnent ef irplans,12 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS, Otherwise, since the point of maximum deflection in any span is neat that of maximum bend- ing moment, the latter point may be teken as tho place of maximum deflection. ‘Then the approximate maximum deflection @ is, by the formula of figures 14, 15, 16, (my) = — 212 MI —2.) + 470 +2.) +P —23)/24 Bl, 2) where 2, is the tabulated abscissa of the point of maximum moment. As shown for an extreme practical case in figure 19, the difference between this approximate deflection and the true deflection is less then 2 per cent, Example 4.—Bind the shears, moments, and reactions for the upper and lower front spars of the biplane trussing shown in figure 40 due to the uniform running loads found in example 3; also the reactions of the spars in the planes of the lift and drag trussing and the shears and ‘momients on each spar in the plane of the spar web. Eenmple §.—Find and plot the resultant moments due to the uniform loading and the eccentric stay wire attachments shown in figure 18. Eotmple 6.—Compute the deflections in the plane of the spar web for all panels of the biplane trussing of figure 40, using the results of example 4. 17, CONCENTRATED LIFT AND DRAG ON WING TRUSSING. ‘The total lift componeat on any strut pin in the plane of the lift struts is equal and opposite to the pin reactions given by the formulas of figures 14, 15, 16 for a running load in the plane of the litt trussing. Multiplying this lift component by w/t, figure 10, and adding half the resistance of the adjoining strut and stay wires, gives the drag component on the strut pin in the plane of the drag struts. ‘The pin lifts and drags so found are taken as the applied loads on the lift trussing and drag trussing and are used to find the endwise stresses in their struts, stays, and spars, Convenient formulas for the concentrated drag loads are given in figure 20, An alternative method for finding thé force on the strut pin is to multiply the mean running load on the spar by the distance between the points of zero shear in the adjoining spar panels. Equivalent formulas for this operation are given in figure 21. Tn applying this alternative method, if the points of zero shear have not previously been found they may be taken as at the centers of each panel except the inner or root panel. For the root or inner panel the point of zero shear is three-eighths the panel length from the body hinge of the “engine section.” This is an approximate method sometimes used for brevity. Tls accuracy may be judged by reference to the typical moment diagram of figure 19. "To the above concentrated lifts must be geometrically added the weights of the struts and stays and in some cases the weight of the motor, the force of the aileron, tho thrust of the propeller, ete. ‘When external stays are applied to the wing, such as lead wires or under struts, these may either be assumed severed or be taken es an integral part of the trussing. They are commonly assumed to be severed, 50 that the wing may be shown adequately strong without them and not liable to disaster in case of their accidental rupture, ‘Then in tun the extornal stays are ‘assumed to bear the whole lift or drag while the internal ones are severed. Hf any sloping external stay, figure 24, of length r, whose three projections on the reference planes of the machine are z, y, 2, sustain a tension R, whose components are X, ¥', Z, then Rir= X/e=Yiy~Zie. 3) ‘Thus if any internal drag wire should fail, causing a forward pull X in the lead wire, the stress in this latter would be R=rX/z, entailing © compression in the spar Y—=yX/z. In case of cabane stays, figure 24, the y may be zero and R=rX/z. Similarly, the stress in a fore-and-aft diagonal wing stay, supporting a drag X on the top plane, is 2=r-X/z. Example 7.—Find the concentrated loads on the lift trussing of example 4, given the weight of the front struts, stays, cabanes, eto. Example 8.—Given the resistence of the front struts and stays and the running load, find ‘the concentrated loads on the drag trussing of example 4, by the zero shear method.AIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS, 18 Example 9.—Given the resistance of the struts and stays at high and low speeds, find the concentrated loads on the drag trussings for both speeds, using values of the pin reactions found in exemple 4. Extimple 10.—An aileron bearing a uniform pressure of 20 pounds per square foot has the dimensions and structural form shown in figure 38. Find the stresses in the stay wires. 18, ENDWISE STRESSES IN MEMBERS OF NONMULTIPLANE WING TRUSSING. + @) Dus to lift and drag.—From the given concentrated loads and frame diagram of the swing, the aggregate endwise stresses, and thence the unit stresses, are found by well known analytic and graphic methods. Convenient analytical methods of finding the aggregate stresses, i. e., in struts, stays, and spars, are presented in figures 22 and 23, ‘The usual graphic method is illustrated in figures 26 and 27. If the stress in but » single strut or stay of a biplane be desired, it oan be obtained directly by an eppropriate formula as a simple summation, or a product following a summation. In such truss analysis the following generalizations may be useful: 1. Any strut exerts a thrust equal to the sum of all the loads preceding it. Thus in figure 22 Ris preceded by the loads G, @”, H, H', 7, and therefore exerts at Je thrust equal to their sum. 2. Any stay exerts e tension equal to the sum of the loads preceding it times its own length divided by the truss gap. Thus for the stay @ the tension is (H+H’+I+1’) gh. Otherwise the vertical component of any stay tension equels the difference between the strut ‘thrust and the concentrated load on the strut joint; ‘also the horizontal tension component ‘equals the difference of the spar thrusts on either side of the joint. 3, Any top spar panel exerts e thrust equal to the sum of the moments of the preceding loads about its inner end divided by the gap. Any lower sper panel exerts a tension equal to the sum of the moments of the preceding loads about its outer end divided by the gap. The tension in a lower spar panel equals the compression in the one obliquely above and out from it. (@) Endwise stresses in struts, staye, and spars due to wing torsion.—The aileron lift PA exerts a torsional moment f= Pl about the wing axis distant 1 from PA, The ensuing endwise stresses in the wing struts, stays, and spars can be caleulated by the formulas for a ‘twisted pyramidal truss given in figures 33 end 34. Example 11.—Find the endwise stresses in the struts, steys, and spars of the front lift trussing, figure 40, for low speod and the rear lift trussing for high speed. Example 12.—Find the stresses in the drag trussings, figure 40, due to the concentrated loads of example 9. Enample 13.—Find the stresses and factors of safety in the spars, struts, end stays in figure 40 for low and high speeds, respectively. Eoample 1f.—Find the stresses in the principal members of the wing trussing of figure 40 due to & uniform air pressure of 20 pounds per square foot on the aileron surface of figure 38. 19, ENDWISE STRESSES IN MEMBERS OF MULIIPLANE WING TRUSSING. Figure 2 gives » general process for finding the stresses in a multiplane wing truss, and applies it to a triplane. Before employing this method the total lift on the strut exerted by all the planes is found by summing their individual lifts, as in article 17 on concentrated a 29, STRESSES IN REDUNDANT TRUSS MEMBERS. ‘The last article illustrates the case of a truis having redundant members, whose stresses, are indeterminate by rigid statics, but determinate by elastic statics. To generalize this case, suppose a multiplane wing truss having initial stresses in both its load wires and its landing "ras gp” Bee este dtncs been pO setae ber Bo i re ag ne,14 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS. wires, Here a lift L applied to a strut causes increase of tension in the load wires, decrease in the others. The increments of tension in both loed and landing wires can be resolved ver- tically, summed and equated to the increment in L which causes them. The obvious expression for this is, by figure 25, AL=APmip+AP'm'/p’ +AQn/q+4Q'/q’ in which the primes refer to the landing wires which cross the load wires diagonally. In many practical instances of wing and body construction the unprimed and primed quantities are respectively equal. ‘The formule then becomes: AL=2 (APm/p+AQn/q) Exanple 16.—Given the date for figure 25, as below, solve for the teissions in the stay wires; L=145 pounds; m=60 inches; n=60 inches; p=90.8 inches; ¢=94.2 inches; A 012 square inch; B=.012 square inch; and E=30,000,000. 21. GROUPING OF WING ANALYSIS DATA AND COMPUTED VALUES. Figure 28' shows synoptically for a typical wing, (1) the general aerodynamic data for its individual planes, (2) the load distribution on the surfaces and trussing at both high and low speeds, and the stress analysis for these conditions, (3) the tabulated dimensions of the truss members, their principal stresses and factors of safety. Such detail calculations us do not appear in the diagram are given in the solutions of the individual problems of this chapter. ais typet aga, prepare bythe wie waspubEsbed in pct by she Fann Katate Yeural in Desabe, 1; ene tn Aviation sd Aarcnstiod Bogneog i 1,REPORT NO. 82. PART MIL. AIRPLANE BODY STRESSES. ByA.P.Zame + 21, SCOPE OF TREATMENT. ‘The study of airplane body stresses may cover in succession: The tail unit; the tail skid; the chassis or lantiing oarriage; the fuselage;' each case compromising the applied loads, the induced reactions, the strength of the structural elements, and finelly the factors of safety; the fuselage boing treated last because stressed by all the other members thereto attached. 22, THE TAIL UNIT. ‘The tail unit comprises (a)'tho vertical tail surfaces; (b) the horizontal tail surfaces. The combined air forces on the tail surfaces—that is, the lateral force on the vertical surfaces and the vertical force on the horizontal surfaces—are taken as applied loads on the fuselage stern when in flight (@) The vertical tail surfaces —The rudder may be hinged to the rear edge of a fixed vertical fin attached to the stern of the fuselage or other rearward projecting framework. The loads on the rudder are the airforce and the tiller pull. In unbslanced rudders the normel tiller pull is usually taken as the grontest force a pilot would care to exert in regular flying, and is determined by measuring with a spring balance the force exerted by a pilot when seated in the stationary machine and plying the control vigorously. In common practice the force is assumed, as for the aileron in section 14, to be at the center of the surface and equal to PA, where P js the pressure er unit aren of the rudder surface A. ‘The fixed vertical fin sustains both its own air force and the hinge forces exerted by the vertical rudder. ‘The first may be taken as PA applied at the center of the fin area; the second may be computed by use of figure 13. @) The horizontal tail surfaces. —The horizontal rudder, ot elevator, is usually hinged to the rear odge of a fixed tail plane, or stabilizer. The elevator stresses aro found as for the cases already considered of the aileron and the vertical rudder. ‘The stabilizer is treated very like monoplane wing except thet it sustains considerable foree on its rear edge, due to the hinge pressures, and is aerodynamically influenced by the prosence of the horizontal rudder, and com- monly also by the propeller slip stream. ‘Esample 1.—An elevator bearing a uniform pressure of 20 pounds per square foot has the dimensions and structural form shown in figure 37. Find the moment about the hinge and the stresses in the stays and the control wires; also the hinge reactions. Esample 2.—Find the vertical components of the pin reactions of the front and rear beams of the stabilizer or horizontal fin, figure 87, due to a uniformly distributed pressure of 20 pounds per square foot and the hinge reactions of example 1. Example 8.—A rudder and vertical stabilizer bearing a uniform pressure of 20 pounds per ‘square foot has the dimensions and structural form shown in figure 37; find the transverse loads on the upper and lower trussing of the fuselage and the transmitted couple about the normal ‘axis of the various sections. The tail skid.—When the craft is landing or resting on the earth the tail skid force is taken asastern load on the fuselage. ‘The normal static or dead load on the tail skid is its ground pressure when resting on a level surface, or, in the case of certain waterplanes, it is the static lift on the reer lost. ‘The normal lift of the tail skid is L= Wo/l, figure 29, if W'be the total weight of the craft, end a, J, the dis- tances respectively of Wand Z from the tread, or forward support of the machine, uy16 ANNUAL, REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS! ‘The live load on the tail skid may be resolved into rectangular components which are found as in figure 31, when the craft's dimensions and accelerations, there assumed, are known, Otherwise the maximum tail skid foree to be provided against may be specified by the purchaser, From the force so found or specified the stresses in tho tail skid, tail float or superstructure may be approximately celeulated by elementary statics, ignoring the accelerations within the structure, Example 4—Compute the normal lift on the tail skid from the data given in figure Ezample §.—Given T=60,544 pound-feet?, j,=16 feot/o0o., jy=8 feelfsec?, a=0.1 rad. (seo, in figure 81 and the dimensions of a machine, find the resultant live load on the tail skid. 28, UNDERCARRIAGE LOADS AND STRESSES. ‘Tho normal static or dead Toad at the bottont of the underearsiage equal in magnitude the total woight there supported when the craft is resting level. ‘The supporting pressures are per- fectly dafinite in somo casés, as when the craft rests on two wheels and a skid, or on four cush- ioned wheels, ete. ‘Tho stresses in the under carriage may be computed first for the normal statie oad, then {or a similex magnified load by multiplying by an assumed ratio, such as j/g in section 4. ‘Wheu the airplane pitches, skids, or slews about, other considerations, which may be of great importance, enter the stress analysis. ‘The case of an airplane skidding or abruptly ‘canting is treated at tho end of this article. For a common airplane, Sgure 29, if J, a be, respectively, the distances aft the axle of the tail-skid too and the weight I of the whole craft less wheels, then the upward pressure on the skid toe is Wa, and this talcou from the weight gives twice the pressure I? on each of the axles. Resolving R parallel to the side-view projections of the struts, figure 29, gives, respoc- tively, the force P sustained jointly by the front strut and stey and Q bome by the rear ones. ‘These forces in turn resolved as shown give the stresses in the individual uprights of the under- carriage. The first resolution obviously give P=Resin asin y Q=R sin Bjsin 7, 4) where a, 8, 7 are, respectively, the angles opposite P, Q, R in theforce triangle. Similar equa~ tions in tum give the components of P, Q in the uprights. The stresses in the undertrussing of @ typical seaplane at rest are treated in figure 30. ‘The lift 2 resolved parallel to the front view projections of the struts and stays, as shown, give its components P, @ in the planes, respectively, of the stays and of the struts. Now resolving P in the true plane of tho stays, @ in that of the struts, as shown, gives the stresses in the uprights, As shown in figure 29, the strut pairs bear down each with the foree 7 on the axle, here assumed to be a straight and single tube. This axle normally finds support at the centers of the wheels and sustains on its segment outward from the struts bending ‘and shearing stresses computable by the simplest cantilever formulas as used for wing ribs. Botween the strut bearings the axle sustains a constant bending moment equal to the maximum in the cantilever portion, On this latter portion tho maximum vertical shearing atress equals the wheel lift 2; the maximum moment is RL if Ube the distance from the lift 2? to the down pressure of the strut pair. From the shear and moment the factors of safety are found as usual. ‘The live load on tho bottom of the undercarriage is trented in quite the same manner as that on the tail skid by the equations of figure 31. ‘When an airplane skids on the ground or rests with one wheel low, the ground reaction on one wheel can be resolved into two rectangular components, one parallel the other per- pendicular to the axis. ‘The parallel component F, say, exerts ou the axlo a bending moment, ‘M= FR, where R is tho radius of the wheel. If I be the weight, a the angle of cant, F=1/2 Wein a. The ensuing moment, M=i/2 WR sin a, may be quite formidable. Example 6.—From the data of figure 29 compute the normal load at the wheels of the underearriage; also the stresses in the undercarriage struts and stays and their factors of safety.AIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS, Ww Example 7—Bind tho stresses in the underearriige trussing of the seaplane in figure 30 due to a lift of 600 pounds applied at a point one-third the distance from the front to the rear strut attachments. Example 8,—An airplane weighing 3,000 pounds, with wheels 2 fest in diamoter and 6 feot ‘apart, rests with one wheel 10 inches lower than the other. Find the added bending moment on the axle, assuming each whoel to bear half the entire weight. 2%, FUSELAGE LOADS AND STRESSES. ‘The fuselage may sustain gravitational, aerodynamic, and impact or acceleration loads. ‘Tho ensuing stresses at each point of the structure are separately computed, then combined to de- termine the resultant stress there. A twofold analysis is usually made, (a) for fying conditions, @) for landing or static conditions. In both cases the analysis may be made either for the fuselage as a unit or separately for the rear segment, the front segment, and the center segment. @) Fuselage loads and siresses for flying conditions —Ii the loads exert no torque on tho fuselage, then for a typical rear segment, figuro 82 presents the analytical treatment, figure 42 the graphical. In practical computation the weights of the struts, stays, and longeron panels are regarded as all concentrated on the upper pins, rather than as part on the upper, part on the lower pins. The air force on the side of the segment is comparatively negligible; that on the stern, due to the tail unit, is given in paragraph 2 of this part. ‘The gravitational stresses in the front segment aro found similarly to those treated in (a) tho power stresses, due to propeller thrust and torque, engine vibration, ete., may be esti- mated separately, then combined with the former. ‘The aerodynamic forees on the bow are usually negligible. ‘The stresses in the cener segment of the fuselage, due to the gravitational and aerodynamic Toadings, may be found separately, then combined with those due to the action of the attached members; i. &, wings, undercarriage, and front and reer fuselage segments. ‘When the applied loads exert a torque on the fuselage, endwise stresses ensuing from the latter are computed by the formulas of figures 83 and 34 for twisted trusses. For example, if the rudder force Pa is distant 7 from any axis of tho fuselage, it may:be replaced by a force PA and a couple Pl, both applied at said axis, the force generating one set of stresses, the couple another, and each set separately computable by one or the other of the above formulas, @) Fuselage loads and stresses jor landing or siatic eonditions.—For static conditions the loads insido'the fuselage are the same as those for fight. The external applied loads are the wing weights, the reactions of the tail skid and underearringe. The stresses are found as shown in figures 32 and 42. For kinetic conditions the applied loads on each part are computed as explained in figure 81, The stresses are then found as explained in the preceding paragraph. Example 9—Find the stresses in the struts, stays, and longerons of the rear segment of the fuselage due to a uniform pressure of 20 pounds per square foot upon the horizontal tail- pieces; also those due to gravitational loads alone, Example 10.—Find the stresses in the struts, stays, and longerons of the vertical trussing of the front segment of the fuselage shown in figure 35, due to gravitational loads. Example 11—From the data in the problems above find the stresses and factors of safety for the principal members of the fuselage for a steady, circular flight around a level curve of 200 feet radius at 80 miles per hour. Example 12.—Find the stresses in the rear segment of the fuselage duo to the torsional Joads in oxample 3 28, GROUPING OF BODY ANALYSIS DATA AND COMPUTED VALUES. Figures 86 and 36 show synoptically for a typical airplane body the graphical analysis ‘and the numerical results for both flying and static conditions. Such detail calculations 93 do not appear in this diagram are given in the solutions of the individual problems of this part of the text. 14ss9—20—3REPORT NO. 82. PART IV. PROBLEMS IN AIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS. By L. E. Gnoor. PROBLEMS IN PART 1 Stresses in Materials, Eonmple 1—It an accelerometer fixed to an airplane records a maximum vertical accelera- tion of 48 feot per second per second, what is the ratio of the abnormal to the normal loading? Given g~32 feet per second per second, j=48 feet per second per second, ‘Thon by eection 4 re jg=48/92=1.5 (ratio). Ans. Eaample 2.—An sirplane in landing has a vertical velocity of 10 feet pat second and a uniform cushion yield of 6 inches, Find the ratio of the abnormal to the normal stresses in the landing gear, assuming the machine to be a rigid structure, Given V=10 feet per second. "Then by section 4 Velocity “head” h=o'/29 10}*/2(82) =1.56 feet. rel thd =1+1.56/0.5=4.12 (ratio). Ans. Example 8.—Find the longitudinal sheering stress in a 4-inch square beam, given the total vertical shear as 1,400 pounds, first with diagonal vertical, then with it inclined 45°, By equation 1 1. DIAGONAL VERTICAL, Shear at neutral axis Given a=8 aq. ins.; = 0,042 ins, By formula, 5 V=1,400 Ibs.; 7=21.33 ins.* Smac ViIt = 8(0.942)1400/21.38(6.656) =87.5 Ibs, por sq. in, Ans. Shear at 1/4 h? Given am4.58q. ins; V=1,400Ibs.; 1=21.33 i em 1.414 ins, $4,242 in Smac V/It =4.5(1.414)1400/21.98 (4.242) 08.3 Ibs. per sq. in, Ans.* Shear at 1/2 h. Given @=2 sq. ins.; V=1,400 Ibs.; /=21.98 ins. = 1.885 ins t=2.828 ins. Seac ViIt 7 =2 (1.885)1400/21.83 (2.828) =87.5 Ibs. per sq. ins. oem 1 Wales otbrvin tied all quate are expr inet, ound sand intnal nl, 2 Distance em bata eso outrage Bet ‘ote thet susie sear leat steal 1BAIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS, 19 Shear at 8/4 h. @=0.50.q. ins.; V=1,4001bs.; 1=21.38 ins.+ ¢=2.387 ins. t=1.414 ins. Sac Vilt =0.50(2.857) (1400)/21.98(1.414) =54.7 Ibs. per sq. in. Ans. Shear at outermost fiber. Since amo, Ans. Given a=8 sq. in: ; 1-21.38 ins c=1in, ted ins, (1,400) /21.88(4) 31.2 Ibs, per sq. in. Ans. Shear at 1/4 3. ‘ Given a=6 sq. in; V=1,400 Ibs.; 1=21,88 ins c= 1.25 ins. td ins, a0 ViIt. =6 (1.25) 1,400/21.83(4) = 128.1 Ibs. per'sq. in, Ans. Shear at 1/21. Given o=4 sq. ins.; V=1,400 Ibs.; 1=21.83 ins. = 1.50 ins. 5 t4 ins, Smac Vit (1.50) 1,400/21.38 (4) =98.4 Ibs. per sq. in. Ans. Shear at 3/4 1, am2 sq. ins.; V=1,400 Ibs.; [=21.88 ins. on 1.75 ins. td ins, Smac Vilt =2 (1.76) (2,400)/21.83(4) =57.4 Ibs, per sq. in. Ans, hear at outermost fiber. 8 =o, Eeample 4.—Find the resultant unit stress in « 2-inch squere simple beam, 80 inches long; due to an endwise load of 900 pounds, a maximum bending moment of 1,100 inch-pounds and a maximum deflection of 0.05 inches at the place of maximum moment. Given, Z=1.83 ins; d=0.05 in.; E=1,500,000. T= 1.33 ins; A=4 sq. ins. ‘Then by footnote, section 7. Keseo. 5 PET ‘=s00. [40-900/(1,500,000) (1.38)) =s00. [,845]= 1.52. ‘Then by formule 7 and computed value of K P/A+ MZ+ EP az '=900/4+1,100/1.83-+ 1.62 (900) (0.05)/1. 38 =225 +827 +51 =1108 Ibs. per sq. in.20 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTRE FOR AERONAUTICS, Example 5—Find the unit stress in a pin-ended column 1 inch square und 30 inches long under en axial load of 200 pounds; also the unit stress when taking the eccentricity of the lond us 2 inches. Given 1=30 ins.; r= y7/A=0.288 in.; P=200 Ibs. A=109q, in,; @=4/8,000 ‘Then by formula 9. S=[G +a/ryP/A [1 + (4/8,000) (80/0.288)*] 20/1 =3,081 Ibs. per sq. ins Given 1=80 in; r=0.288 (ins.); e+ 1/2 im. A=1 sq. in.; a=4/300 (constant) P=200 lbs.; p=2 ins. ‘Then by formula 10, S=[1+a(lr)*+ep/r) PIA [1 +8/4,000 (80/0.288)* + 0.5(2)/0.288*] 200/1 =5,400 Ibs, per sq. in. Example 6.—A beam is subject to a compressive unit stress of 200 pounds per square inch, and at the same time to a longitudinal shearing stress of 250 pounds per square inch. Compute the maximum resultant stresses. Given, S,—250 pounds per square inch, $—200 pounds per square inch. "Then by formulas 11 and 12 = OOF SEE : = VOB" + GOR : = 269 pounds per square inch. Ans. Si= VRS, = 200/2-+269=369 pounds per square inch, Ans, Example 7—If & member whose allowable constant stress is 20,000 is stressed frequently to 15,000 and has an elastic limit of 60,000, what is the equivalent steady stress? Given, $=20,000 pounds per square inch, n= (constant). 1% = 15,000/60,000=1/4 (ratio). ‘Then by equation 13 S'= SC +m)* =20,000 (1 +1/4)* =25,000 pounds per square inch. Ans. Example 8—Find the maximum load for a pin-ended spruce column of length 60 inches, cross section 3 square inches, and moment of inertia 0.3 inch. Given, 1=60 inches; r= 60/0.81 198 (slenderness ratio). 'A=3 square inches; £=1,500,000 pounds per square inch, 70.3 inch. Then by formula 15 Pau =2? Eft =9.86 (1,500,000) 0.9/(G0" =1,233 pounds. Ans,AIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS, 21 Example 9.—Find the factors of safety in example 6 for a maximum shearing stress of 41,000 pounds per square inch and a maximum compressive stress of 4,000 pounds per square inch; also the factor of eafety in example 8 for an applied load of 250 pounds. By section 10, From example 6 ‘Compressive stress = 869 pounds per square inch. Shearing stress = 269 potinds per'square inch. ‘Then, for compression F. S.=4,000/369=108.- Ans, For shear F. 8.=1,000/269=3.7. Ans. From example 8 ‘Maximum load carried by beam =1,250 pounds, Then, Fr, §,=1,250/250=5. Ans. PROBLEMS IN PART 1 Airplane Wing Stresses, Example 1:—A rib loaded as in figure 39 has the dimensions there specified. Find the unit stresses for bending, meximum shearing, end average vertical sheering just outside the spars and just inside the spars; also the unit bending stress at between the spars. sermon M. (@) Consider tho cap strips as carrying all the bending stresses, Given T=1.22 ins; Z=1.22/1.08=0.682 in? Ra4Ibs; I=2in, ‘Then by formula (18) Se RUZ = 4(21/0.632 = 12.6 Ibs. per sq. in, Ans. @) Consider the oap strips and web as carrying the horizontel shearing stress, Given [=2.01 in; ¢=1.0 in.; a=0.61 t=0.25 in. V=4 Ibs ‘Then by formula (5) $=a0 V/it =0.61(1)4/2.01(0.25)=4.9 Ibs, per sq. in, Ans. (©) The totel vertical shear at this section is not distributed as shearing stress over the web section, since the web of the rib ends at this section. ‘The total vertical shear, however, is caried primarily by a compressive stress on the upper surface of the tongue that projects into the spar. The compressive stress in this caso is Sa VA =4/(25x.50) =32 Ibs. per eq. in. Ans. SECTION N. (@ Consider the mid part of the rib as a simple beam. The bending stress at section N is then zero. @) Consider the cap strips and web as carrying the horizontal shearing stresses. Given 1=2,36 in; 6=1.08 in.; a=0.64 sq. in. =0.25 2.22 Ibs, "he polos given in thls amps mst be oe upon oly es appreinatios, Amesoursethoretaletuion su! hs into aomant te holed wa the ged sp strength of ged ports et Spar blag ef tt22 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS, ‘Then by formule (5) ac ¥/It =0.64(1.08)12,22/2.86(0.25) ~7.76/0.59= 18.1 Ibs. per sq. in. Ans. (©) Treat the total shearing force as in (6) of section M. @ Consider the bending stress 8 as carried by the actual section. Given 1=2.84; 6=2.80; a=14.20; b= 19.80; R=20.41 Hle=2,84/2.30=1.23 ‘Then by formula (19), SHR ab/r(a+d)e = 20.41 (14.20) (19.80)/2(84)(1.28) 69 Ibs. per sq. in Ans. @) Total vertical shear and also the horizontel shearing stresses are zero at this section. [SECTIONS P AND @. Treat similarly to section N and M, respectively. Example 2.—An aileron bearing a uniform pressure of 20 pounds per square foot has the dimonsions and structural form shown in figure 38. Find the moment about the hinge and the stress in the control wire. ind also the vertical reactions of the stay wire on the trailing edge beam, By section 14 and figure 38. Given P=20 Ibs. por sq. ft. (assumed loading), A=area of aileron surface =20.7 89. ft. ‘Thon totel loed=P A =20X20,7=414 Ibs, Ans. @) MomENT ABOUT HINGE, By figure 38, Center of gravity 0=9.45” from hinge, ‘M= OPA=9.45(414) =8,910 Ibs. in, Ans. (© sre6ss Mm CONTROL wane, By figure 38, given arm=12.75; moment=3,010 ‘Then tension =8,910/12.75 =307 Ibs. Ans. (©) VERTICAL REACTIONS OF TRAILING EDGE MEAN. ‘Total load distributed along trailing edge is approximately 1/2 aileron load. By figures 38 and 13, 2ul-=414/2 —207 Ibs. and running load = 207/162=1.28 Ibs. per linear in. a 1=81 in,; b=70 in.; a= 11 in, w=1.28 Ibs, per in, By formula in figure 13— ——— R=wl @ PBS =1.28 1) [461)*—70°/8(70) 81 =48.8 pounds. Ans. Ryn? (wI-R,) =2 [1.28 (81)~48.8]=109.7 pounds. Ans. Ry=48.8 pounds. Ans. Compare these answers with those found from the table in figure 13. ‘The vertical reactions are then as follows: For central stay=109.7 pounds. Ans. Outside stays (each) =48.8 pounds. Ans, "The tension in each stay wire may be found from these reactions, See example 10, (4) TOTAL, LOAD ON ATLERON, eeAIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS, 238 Beample 3.—A biplane wing has the form and loadings shqwn in figure 41; find the resultant, loadings on the spars and their components in tho planes of the lift and drag trussings for angles of incidence of 2° and 12°. ‘The running lift L, the running drag D, and the distances to their points of application (al) depend upon the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing, the angle of incidence, the stagger, the biplane effect, ete. The running lift Z and weight Was determined for any given wing plane of a machine ere constant for all angles of incidence in straightaway flight. In the present example, however, Z, D, W,a, and b are given. 1. ANALYSIS FOR Low SPEED. (acidenco 12°) (@), Running loads on upper front spar. Given L=2.256lbs/in D=0.275 Ibin, W=0.813 Ib, a=0.67 a=0.67 =0.46 ‘Then aL—1.511 Ibsin. aD=0.184Ib,/in, 6 W7=0.144 Ibs,jin, aL—b W=1.367 Ibs,/in. By simple graphics. 0, =1.380 Ibs.fin, 250.100 1b,/in, w= 1.870 Ibs./in, "The running loads on lower front epar, upper rear eper, and lower rear spar aro similarly found, Their values are given in the table below. 1, ANALYSIS FOR HIGH SPEED, ((nldence 2") (@) Running loads on upper front spa. Given L=2,256 141 W=0.313. 0=0.20 29 b= 0.460. Then aL=0.654 cD=0.061 bW=0.144 = aL—-bW=0.510. By graphics, «0.517 t,=0.106 .=0.510. "The running loads on lower front spar, upper rear spar, and lower rear spar are similarly found. Their values are given in the table below. Grouping of data and computations for running oad wy ty, on spar for low and high speeds: LOW SPEED. — ealeoe lees wo [or fase] ms | ° emg] ag] eg | 8 va] m8) Ae at) iB Bl a] 8 a 2 ogg} cage] oga| ot] oio| ony oA] LS] MB) Se] EB] es dna sad gmp valour as ben eds rt lp he cmpater a isi ahog eran “aia eeegtenenced ached of goaping st Gate kad competed valves Wr rend oloeacy ees eatpatd alos cal Grouping of eomputed values of running Toads on spare. Eig Spend Plaseo— Drag runing. | Spar web. Feat. | ‘Rane, | Frout.| Rear. 99 age | suo vit) | as24 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTED FOR AERONAUTICS. Example 4.—Find the shears, moments, and resctions for the upper and lower front spars of the biplane trussing shown in figure 40, due to the uniform running londs found in example 8; also the reactions of the spars in the planes of the lift and drag trussing and the shears and ‘moments on each spar in the plane of the spar web. 1. SHEARS, MOMENTS, REACTIONS FOR THE FRONT SPARS DUE TO RUNNING LOADS IN PLANE OF FRONT STEOTS : ‘Low SPB. 1. Upper wing spar—The upper wing spar is considered es a continuous beam supported at four points and having one overhanging end. D=1.389* Ibs.fins. }=60 ins.; e=84 ins.; d=79 ins, ‘Then by the formulas of figure 16. Auslliary Symbols. Yo, 889(50)+(84)7/4--1,889(90)0072 -- 237,970.21 877, 024.20 288.00 326.00 Mj 1.880(00)"2. 625.05 Mfg 217970 2132 ” $00.44 3g =[217070.21 —490 44268) 2090.14 MnO... 0.00 Vy (490.44—625.05)80 ~1.889(80)7. 31.41 V=(1080.14~490,4)/84—1.889(64)/2. 51.81 Vy=(0—1090.14)/79—1.880(70)2-. 07.89 T,=80(.380).. aor 204 “0 a ‘1.08 Ro B, 0445181. 85,95 Ryn t4 1067.89. 132.65, Rew ALBA. 4. 26.98 anar 4857 628 05~(07-1))20.889).-. e400 44—61.917/2(.889).. ‘A= 1080 14— (67 807/20. 588, 2. Lower wing spar.—The lower wing sper is considered as a continuous beam supported at three points and having one overhanging end. Given A= B= O=1.127* Ibs. per in.; a=27 ins.; 6=84 ins.; ¢=79 ins ‘Then by formulas of figure 14, “Peri iedmay bs wm, Je ct roto een oH ag Ton Altstein a ot ara emptiness i, opal. (Sv exnple7,PL TL ance. 38) "main od ea lower spars plane le tras erlw pee, (ee examples, PA 1.)AIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS. : 35 ‘Ausiliry Symbols. Ie. 12710684 707y/4]~1.127(87)84)2. 24478) oven : Myal.327 en". 2y=271401 60/828. ‘Shears, Right of Section. ‘Vy=(682.52—810.70)/84—1.127(8)2 Shears, Left of Section. ‘Maximum Moments Betwoen Joints. (2.siy/201.27). . aie 7882.52 (65.087/20.127). 1, REACTIONS OF SPARS IN PLANES OF LIFT AND DRAG RRUSSING FOR HIGH AND LOW SPEEDS. 988.41 ) gicit . | ies) ee | i el (HEY Le LBPE La] Bele P iy. [pa] i tk : naadad = | Saa5ae eeecce | s3a535 | i i — L Shast. » | 338883 Sass. f° Bist. aixnaaa «| aakads dasada Hanada Haddad = | aadaas mages aaaaad ‘aaadad i i i i i50 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS, Computation tables for direction cosine—Continued. BeBRER 1, SOLUTION. FOR TORQUE OF 7,142 INCHES-POUNDS AT STATION NO. 2 44 ins,; b=15 ins.; a= 7.74 ins, Given torque=7,742 ins-Ibs.; ‘Then by figure 34: R=torque/4l = 7,742) (8.44) 229,32 Ibs. P=RY = 229.82(15)/2(8.44) - 203.77 Q=Ry2 = 229.82 (7.76)/2(8.44). 105.28 Substituting these values in formulas of figure 34: pS +4y/S' +tyT+ty'T’+2 P= 0 —0.1138 +0.1498' —0.470T—0.149 7" +2(203.77)=0 (1) 42+t/T'+u,0+uT,-2Q=0 +0+0.588 U+0.143 7 —2(105.28) =0 @ tly U + ty! U' + 0, V+%_' V—2P =O +0.121 U— 0.140 0 +-0.408 7 +0.149 F” ~2(203.77)=0 3) V0, V+4,8-+8,/8' +2 Q=0 —0.12917+0.143 7” — 0.6578 +0+2(105.28) =0 @ 8,548" S'=0 —0.7488 +0.9869’ =0; 8’ =0.7598 P By 4T+t/T'=0 —08847+0.9861" =0; T= 0.8077 @) ti,U+Ug' T= 0 0.8047 +0.9810" =0; U’=0.8197 @ v,V+0¢/V'=0 —0.8807+0.981V'=0; V'=0.8077 @) Substituting values of S’, 7”, U’, V’ from equations 5,6,7,8, in equations 1,2,3,4 we find— $= 520.7, 7675.0. T= 298.7, ¥=678.0, Again by equations 5, 6, 7, S— In a similar manner the stresses may be determined for stations 3, 4, ete. ‘The table below gives these results for tho given torsion loads. : By Bil g ate Bea | ie Boo ia | Bi Bal | etREPORT NO. 82. PART v. ILLUSTRATIONS FOR PARTS I, If, II, 1V. By A. F, Zam and L. H, Onoox- a1G. 1-—Contour maps ot pressure on top and bottom surfaces ot types aerofell (model R.A. YF. 6,aspetfiato 6 to 1 ale at standard density). “SISKIVNY SSmUIS ERYIENY 8g54 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTIOS, FIG, 2—Pressure disuibutlon on median section of R. A. F. 6 aerofol of 1 to andard dent. spect ratio at 30 feet per second, aleat 1G, Pre ttn om toe eee tne at mand MA Fane oy lana “desl, speed 19 “4 y 7 RE a a1G, 4-—Juty, drag, and eonter of preseuze for typletaerfoll at varions cross sections and angles of iacidenct. (. AP. 0,6 404 aspect alo, 80 feet per second at speed.) a | oJ \\ \\\ \ \ \ asi re. \. \ aeSTONS 8 yaa | lL a \ ‘RAOTION OF ARROMOQST. NOTH FROM BID, “SISKTVNY SSmuIS EXVIEWY 9956 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS. rch SPE sored ta aRton LG. 8-—Valus of tie natural anal of tan « degrees, centtugal toes Bad whol ‘shri lm scody circular ight around a eel eave ot tudlun feet © Gade BQRggeSENgEnSS ES BESRRERERER ERIS Teaagea-eachaaee + AWhaRARaRaaaeeer [= | saeebeenecusness | SRSRRTREAEGEERSS | 7 gegeane-nodacne i SSasnausenmagare | Sagasaaguazersas qasngageusenseee | ae i oSneRessaguserre Reto et. Baa et. = | SaRSEESERERERERE | eaeaNauaangnsags ‘BSRSEHEAUSISNESY Siighezen“ensavae | i SeSRassuseserees Bag SnSPaSREHSEES Teas*waabaaavana ieshamsasssrereag Re et ‘SeRReSaagaEREaeT Bivgagasessenaa] fSaagasereceaaaa | asaagseeenuneesg Seam aeESaaSS | doe vera. Taaasaaechensa=es | : Sesecneecussanas | anesseaagzeneseg sf pres bilge aad oO pps tapas. restr p pounds per sgn "Teason tn pounds pr ner ie fy apo a suees seuaa ‘Bane | eaass aaese aasse geeag eaaua ‘aera | seats at aaHae aa283 ‘Fert pacing a=i2ioeies; Spe, ‘For sib spudog o=1B oes tm LS pe aaaee Bo waza | ‘arb pacag anit ats = 701 BeAIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS, BT a E FIG, 0-—Shetng foree and Yending moment on wing i daw tives ccentated ogce agnrouinstGy reps FIG. 40.—Resoluton of wing plane loads to wing spar ening he fosdag Nossal to cod shies "onde (ptetareu in im) soauenes0 ag + gtd D0) ¢ ge = BA + OOF {ET OR CONCHETRATED LOADS ONLY (REEISE), > Be Tay met sargt> + 0) 4 ayo = -PUe, ~ Ef) ~ aol iany ~ meg +95) ‘FOR RUUNING LOADS WITH SUEPORES 2 DIFFEASET LEVELS. Q 3 a Sib + algo + 0) + lgo = 408 fe H0n8/a + aat[fag-d TernE de 2 —Ateation af trecmamen eases of | _ he lhe he Hon govtraliy ateched stays; form 2,\Pig.21, 4s eppiiet, Bor etey aside the tru vy sePESHE estes He otras ers Oe onaton to roptsoed SAS pees CHeSomranH wy feb 8g 'SOLLAVNOSY WOE ARLLIICWOO AVOSIAGY TVSOLLVN LEASE TVAXSY1G. 18,—ending moments nd reactions fra continuous bea FIG, 14—endlng moments, shears and reactions for» continuous beam supported at thee polnts and am "piniaetay ropeotal ims Min ou end neehaeng.” Ck Boake cae pa we wh a Fy @ Peco (COE eee EEE EET op I 7 a 7 Me Ms Ry rT Aa . _ Atay mbole..|] I= (UF CAVE AS MARIO. bear gh of in. Phaser. {ent bending moment ee Buys ‘Postion. : a Dagntads, 1M Yor. 7 (Oti=aee— eRe: BM com, Me MyVEewen lst arty AGRE) +409 +a), Megoum (eno tr any pane Oe, | Be | Oe | Sh | Sip | Nom —Pe ort amas tA, 3, Co entra ramming id | cat] a] te] 4 ‘asxivey emus axviaH 69716,10, Bending moments, shear, and raclons fora continuous beam su0- ‘Galo SEER Seine a ee oe eon ‘Bade oa 13 o x : TOTTTTTEHE Tit _ re ° . Cn Re 3s & CF [enter gmat... 2B AP — Poa Avatar eyo. a Hite = hae oe Jott eadig noes tnt ears an pe ‘Sten pa queer typan OE SS VERE en ot ay Pe Scart, x N=) MEVOP—2) +P —APNOL HT. ‘Norn For Wr nage It A,B, Coe the lr anal lod 09 “SOLLAVNOWSY UOd SELLIMNOD AUOSIAGY TYNOWIYN GHOESU TVANSYAIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS. 61 PIG. 17—Snear and moment on upper and lower spars in 7 “Shene sapfane of rome st ‘ms ‘1G 30. compasiop of cstances fo maximum genecton asians beng omen for typical spar pee TM li t 3 ¢ a 11, 20-—conentate a on inten ae SUT sey san FF F ' i ' i 1 ‘ I, Bieuaxn Taveenre, (©) Por upper drag russing— 1. Leads dub to /ront upper sper plus resistance of front struts and stays. Gar tR,N. Hart hy ¥. Tart R Ne TarebR N, 2, Loads due to rear upper spar plusresitance tof rear strats and stays, CartR, My Beary, Ny Ueno Re My. Vanek, Ne ‘Whore ry ry tu ote, equal one-half the air redatance of the srats and stays adjecent to the ping; Neuyfu, the sitio ofthe running led on front spar in plane of drag fussing to the running load on front spar in plane of it fusing; 1¥j=uy/ey, the ratio ofthe running Jeed on rear spar, in plano of lift trussing to running load on rear gpar in plane of drag teasing: (©) For louer drag trussing.—For concentrated lords on lower drag trussing change the word upper into lower in (a) above. UL, Avr Tavaanso, ‘Tho formulas shove apply also to dmg trusting in ‘monoplanes or multiples, * Cone te rentncs eating ony She aoe drag ree.FIG. 22—Rnduse stresses ina ip ‘pata pann Rut eet e fs eng » + i = Le | 7 =I SE h\ |e le r\ fh i 1 | i | ee , sot 4 SUT STRESSES. PaGaa? Ono FotHmPLOr4 HE 1, Buzaxe Tavsana, (©) For upper drag trusting — 1, Loads duo to tho front upper spar plus one-elt tho sistance of the front struts and stays. GHOLNEH' 4 I=Q+Ir4T GLO LUSH SIG So RED ET STAY STRESSES. Pinpla+O"yhmptP 0 hmm Garrt dat Be, V=NG+O + H+ A VWh=KQt Hyh—=an, Hart BQ—2}400, RoNOLGLHLH+TET han R4D Tore Cen) Dia BonOLO LEH TILIA a mde Dimer, SPAR STRESS 2. Loads due to the rear upper spar plus one-half the resiatanco of the rear eteuts and stays Pim (GE )ifimY(P4GyIhordmy, a Ql OHO D4) FL ANA me PYRG ll st Ole) 4 Diy Tmt DAB) ABS Where ry ry ote, aro the Toads due to onechalf the sie rosietanco® of the Trout struts and stays; 7’, 1/5 1 fie, at0 tho loads duo to onohel! tho air resisianco* of the neue etrula and stays, 2, et., the distances tothe polata of zero shear. (8) For lower drag trusting. —Treatinent similar to above. II, Any Troserso. ‘The formulas above apply also to the drag truasing in monoplanes or multiplane THGog Mionoplans wig truss. Amaigbeal eraument 1 Is 1 STAY STRESSES. Paes rd Rear SPAR STRESSES. Prmd+erayafn Peng RmllOO beh HobAK TE HHT "a REP =O" any (OLONorerapHebabeNTI)+ete yh "eS +L he Bebe 1, Uswenan Gass, Rir=Xje= Yiy=tie LL, armen Cass. Ombre geet (© Bor eaban says, Rim (b4o4diGliHeedTi-balh oer enon atng aly in ple obs dmg sg. RerX}e (©) For crow diagon RarXfeAIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS, : 68 1G. 25.—tndiaesrste in ds and she in & multplane wing teu vial nant ea LTS ‘Lot L be the total lift on a multiplane strut, as shown, 2, Q, tensions inthe ataye 2,9, ap, dy, stretches of the Tengts p, 9, for vertical strain de of truss, ‘m, n, strut lengths between joints, A, B, B, cross sectional areas of stays and modulus of clastcity. ‘Thea =Prjp+Qnjg-tete, for more planes, if any, PaALéplp, dala, t., for more planes, if any. demgdgin=pdp/mmote, for mare planes if any. PiQ=Ame'|Bng?, Q[R=ete., for more planos if any. FOR A TRIPLANE, Amat Amtgt p+ Bn? ptf). Qa LBap(Amtetip Br? pha). FOR A QUADRUPLANE, aL Ame*|( Ans p+ Bohl e+ 0 opt). QmLBnpt| Brigit Corp An?ep). Cot Cog Amiahlp + BaP). Nora.—In a similar way the equation for any multiplane may be written, Having thus oblained the strut and stay sroses in a multiplano, tho 9 strate follow by ordinary stati,1G, 27, strat Moan wg tre wh para eps. 1710, 28-—e stresses xmnuplane wing rus. Grphleal ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS.wig. 24. ANALYSIS TOR LOW SPEED —44 MILES PER HOUR AIRPLANE WING ANALYSIS MON Bad STN SL—GTAUE HOIH YO SICATHNY edie— an. Face poe 4)AIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS. 65 1G, 20,-Grephiel analyss for aleplane underarstage, cee ‘Sing Visa oF uunezoapazAcs. ABU PEAME OF FRONT ; SEUSSIUR ‘AMAR TRUBSINO. 4, @ Pree Courowmsz 1 BraNe oF 2 ‘PRON? TROSS ING, een su . CouPonsers Is FIAmE OP ‘RRAR TRUSELIG. 2 (a) RBSOTOTION OF ARERE TAPP IY PIAME eee COE ‘HORUAT, 40 AXIS FRONT TRUSSING, BAR SHUSSINO66 ANNUAL REPORT NATIONAL aDvisoY GOADTTTEE FoR AERONAUTICS, FG. 90.—Grapbieat aaatas for seaplane andererrags, ncrcerion we ue Op-ermeseee oe axaeat Ghormrestem ernere! Read enteackoie,-F1G. 51-—Grastational pus dynamics! ead om sk and ate M(j-+ge098) * P= ML E—GS-+ge008 2b ele QM 9008)~P, PmaP, Gb; “Where Ais mast of craft less wheels and axe, Jus jy af0 component accelerations of 3 parallel to X,Y: 7, aro the angular inertia und acedratan about the axis o; 2, Jaro tho coordinates of craft controid retered to oF is the distance from skid contact to axle. . Nor#.—1fj, 7 be the simultaneous vertical accelerations at pointa on the longi- tudinal axis units apart, then «=(—J)l. UPPER LONGRRON STRESSES. Piao QmaO+OIe9 Bran (G+@NMO+e) +H I lar Smell GHOVOb HD+ AE HVAT ayes ‘LOWER LONGERON STRESSES, Pape Orage, Rl mre" dy SmesOMe STAY STRESSES, Pi=pl\G+0)—P'mjp,—P'”mfpaVigm) Omg G+64 HLH) ~ Omg V"msasMr—m) Rar O4O fH ATLT) rr mgr(e-m) NOLO PHEW IET 4 I4S)~8" nig 8” mg sen) STRUT STRESSES. Pa rPQ—m)ptP”"mlPs= 2d RaT$Qe—mOrtQmalty— Rey TE em ba ‘rset nt, epraant he length of the members wha stenesare Q”, BY te, P,Q Rete, epetvaly. Inrange mv and win Pi. 2 “SISKIVRY SSHMIS aXVIEWIY 19Patorquelt General cox:—Applied couples in plane of truss have, Use notation sinilar to that of igure 31 Then 4844/8147 Hy T4140 =O ASN SHET Hy tag U0 GSH THe Pehl UU UIE Perea Also 4,S4478'—0 Ql T=0 MD ad Special cage 1 —Right prismatic true, wet By Spevial cae #—Pyranidal wedge truss. ‘TE b=0, the wire U ean be dropped. Nore.—When some eget are normal to the buses, rome oblique, we the more general equations 191G. 4.—Stresous tm twisted pyrarldal truss, rectangular pe Restorquesil; P=Rbp2l; Gencoateaur~-Applied couples in plane of truss be. Denote tay trases by 8, 7, U, V; longeran stress by 8", 1°, U’, ¥ Denote stay direction eoines By fy Se as by fat Mes Up Mat Pe Poy Pe ‘Denote lmgoron cosines by the me letiers primed. Then 5S-be/8'44,Thty TIP ml; Also 59-+5/S"—0 REL Hulu U$IQ=0; GT} Td NU Ot Ved ESP =O; tO bey Om Veen VS HH/8420—05 VA! md ‘Specie ease Tight pete as. BL te Hey BLU yt My MY a a MM BD Speciat com 2 —Pseamidal wedge te. Tea=0, then Q=0, and the wire’ 8, U can be dropped. Nore.—When vem etiges are normal to the buses, ome oblique, use the r0re eeneral equations. 89 “SONMAVNOUAY WO MALLINIOO AUOSLAGY TVROLLVS LOATH TWAS| ANALYSIS FOR STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT ANALYSIS FOR UNDERCARRIAGE. AIRPLANE BODY ANALYSIS NOILIGNOD DILVLE TBAZI 201 SICATWNY“Saas” Zi, Rating wm ware ace 020.8 rex sare ou nt SEES AIRPLANE.” BODY ANALYSIS 1Hs16—20, (Face page 08) No.AIRPLANE STRESS ANALYSIS. 69 116. 97-—Speciteations for trea! tll wnt, 216, ¢—Speetteatious tr typen! wing sb cI acre q 1F(G, 33Specittions for type alleon and connections. Ara AGOTSGFL ely by eatss” daar" city! mina naam ALT 1G, 40.—Speciteations for typical biplane wing trussing. et “4 uy ZL. seer sate 81G, 41.—Wing ouds and spar ads, sia. 42; nde stresses tn body tustng wih seais teal 7, wa ‘pomncee 2F8-S8102, 13D WAORD Ox BIFIANS ¥IRO- vvenarca, 1 1 Read sock on ‘SOMLAVSOUSY HOE TALIVELOO AMOSTAGY TVNOMYSS LOdaE TORRY