Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements Second Edition David A. Bell Lambton College of Applied Arts and Technology Sarnia, Ontario, Canada Prentice-Hall of Indie Private Limited New Delhi - 110 001 2003This Indian Reprint—Rs. 225.00 (Original U.S. Edition—Rs. 1510.00) ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENTS, 2nd Ed, by David A. Bell © 1997 by David A. Bell. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, ‘by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher ISBN-81-203-2360-2 For sale in India Bangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, China, Fiji, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Syndicate Binders, B-167, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase | New Delhi-110020.Contents PREFACE UNITS, DIMENSIONS, AND STANDARDS Objectives 1 Introduction 1 1-1 SI Mechanical Units 2 1-2. Scientific Notation and Metric Prefixes 4 1-3. SI Electrical Units 5 1-4 SI Temperature Scales 7 1-5 Other Unit Systems 8 1-6 Dimensions 9 1-7 Standards 11 Review Questions 12 Problems 12 MEASUREMENT ERRORS Objectives 13 Introduction 13 _/2-1 Gross Errors and Systematic Errors 14 _2-2 Absolute Errors and Relative Errors 15° 73 Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, and Significant Figures 17 xi 13“4 Measurement Error Combinations 20 ES Basics of Statistical Analysis 24 Review Questions 27 Problems 27 ELECTROMECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS 29 Objectives 29 Introduction 29 ~3-1_ Permanent-Maghet Moving-Coil Instrument 30 3-2 Galvanometer 37 3-3. DCAmmeter 39 3-4 DC Voltmeter 46 ,-3-5 Rectifier Voltmeter 51 1-3-6 Rectifier Ammeter 56 ~3-7 Deflection Instrument Errors 58 3-8 Series Ohmmeter 60 3-9 Shunt Ohmmeter : 64 3-10 Volt-Ohm-Milliameter 69 £3-11 Electrodynamic Instrument 72 Review Questions 81 Problems 83 ANALOG ELECTRONIC VOLT-OHM-MILLIAMMETERS 86 Objectives 86 Introduction 86 4-1 Transistor Voltmeter Circuits ‘87 4-2 Operational Amplifier Voltmeter Circuits 95 4-3 Ohmmeter Function in Electronic Instruments 98 4-4 AC Electronic Voltmeters 103 4-5 Current Measurement with Electronic Instruments 108 4-6 Analog Electronic Multimeters 109 4-7 Multimeter Probes 111 Review Questions 114 Problems 115 lv ContentsDIGITAL INSTRUMENT BASICS Objectives 117 Introduction 117 5-1 Basic Logic Gates 118 5-2 Flip-Flops 120 5-3 Digital Displays 122 5-4 Digital Counting 125 5-5 Analog-to-Digital Converter 130 5-6 Digital-to-Analog Converter 133 Review Questions 136 Problems 136 DIGITAL VOLTMETERS AND FREQUENCY METERS Objectives 138 Introduction 138 6-1 Digital Voltmeter Systems 139 6-2 Digital Multimeters 144 6-3 Digital Frequency Meter System 150 6-4 Frequency Meter Accuracy 153 6-5 Time and Ratio Measurements 157 6-6 Counter Input Stage 157 6-7 Counter/Timer/Frequency Meter 160 Review Questions 161 Problems 161 LOW, HIGH, AND PRECISE RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS Objectives 163 Introduction 163 7-1 Voltmeter and Ammeter Methods 164 7-2 Substitution Method 167 7-3 Wheatstone Bridge 167 7-4 Low-Resistance Measurement 174 7-5 Low-Resistance Megsuring Instruments 176 7-6 High-Resistance Measurement 178 7-1 . High-Resistance Measuring Instruments 182 Contents 117 138 163Review Questions 186 Problems 187 INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENTS 189 Objectives 189 Introduction 190 8-1 RC and RL Equivalent Circuits 190 8-2 ACBridge Theory 195 8-3. Capacitance Bridges 198 8-4 Inductance Bridges 206 8-5 Multifunction Impedance Bridge 212 8-6 Measuring Small C, R, and L Quantities 212 8-7 Digital L, C, and R Measurements 215 8-8 Digital RCL Meter 218 8-9 QMeter 220 Review Questions 227 Problems 228 CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPES 230 Objectives 230 Introduction 230 9-1 Cathode-Ray Tube 231 9-2 Deflection Amplifiers 234 9-3 Waveform Display 236 9-4 Oscilloscope Time Base 240 9-5 Dual-Trace Oscilloscope 248 9-6 Oscilloscope Controls 252 9-7 Measurement of Voltage, Frequency, and Phase 254 9-8 Pulse Measurements 257 9-9 Oscilloscope Probes 263 9-10 Display of Device Characteristics 270 9-11 X-YandZDisplays 271 9-12 Oscilloscope Specifications and Performance 274 Review Questions 280 Problems 282 vi Contentsi 12 SPECIAL OSCILLOSCOPES 284 Objectives 284 Introduction 284 10-1 Delayed-Time-Base Oscilloscopes 285 10-2 Analog Storage Oscilloscope 289 10-3 Sampling Oscilloscopes 292 10-4 Digital Storage Oscilloscopes 298 10-5 DSO Applications 304 10-6 Representative DSO 311 Review Questions 311 Problems 312 SIGNAL GENERATORS 314 Objectives 314 Introduction 315 11-1 Low-Frequency Signal Generators 315 11-2. Function Generators 323 11-3 Pulse Generators 330 11-4 RF Signal Generators 337 11-5 Sweep Frequency Generators 342 11-6 Frequency Synthesizer 346 11-7 Arbitrary Waveform Generator 349 Review Questions 350 Problems 351 INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION 353 Objectives 353 Introduction 353 12-1 Comparison Methods 354 12-2 Digital Multimeters as Standard Instruments 358 12-3 Calibration Instruments 360 12-4 Potentiometers 362 12-5 Potentiometer Calibration Methods 368 Review Questions 371 Problems 372 Contents vi13 14 15 16 GRAPHIC RECORDING INSTRUMENTS 374 Objectives 374 Introduction 374 13-1 13-2 13-3 13-4 13-5 Strip Chart Recorders 375 X-YRecorder 380 Plotting Device Characteristics on an X-¥ Recorder 383 Plotters 384 Digital Waveform Recorder/Analyzer 386 Review Questions 387 WAVEFORM ANALYZING INSTRUMENTS 388 Objectives 388 Introduction 388 14-1 14-2 14-3- 14-4 Distortion Meter 389 Spectrum Analyzer 392 Digital Spectrurh Analyzer 398 Additional Waveform Analyzing Instruments 400 Review Questions 401 MISCELLANEOUS METERS 403 Objectives 403 Introduction 403 15-1 15-2 15-3 15-4 Thermocouple Instruments 404 Peak Response Voltmeter 408 True RMS Meters 410 Low-Level Voltmeter/Ammeter 413 Review Questions 417 LABORATORY POWER SUPPLIES 419 Objectives 419 Introduction 419 16-1 16-2 16-3 16-4 16-5 vill Unregulated DC Power Supplies 420 DC Voltage Regulators 424 Output Current Limiting 428 Power Supply Performance and Specifications 430 DC Power Supply Use 432 Contents16-6 Power Supply Testing 432 Review Questions 435 Problems 436 APPENDICES 438 Unit Conversion Factors 438 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems 441 INDEX 445 ContentsPreface ‘The objectives of this book are to explain the operation, performance, and applications of the most important measuring instruments normally encountered in an electronics labora- tory, and to discuss electronics measuring techniques. An understanding of electrical fun- damentals and transistor circuit operation is assumed. Because digital instruments are (generally) much more accurate, more versatile, tougher, and less expensive than analog instruments, they are rapidly replacing analog i struments. Therefore, analog instrument coverage is reduced, and treatment of digital in- struments is greatly expanded in the second edition of this book. Starting with SI units and measurement errors, the text progresses through electro- mechanical instruments, analog electronic instruments, digital voltmeters and frequency meters; to resistance, inductance, and capacitance measurement techniques. The special- ized instruments investigated in the latter half of the book include analog oscilloscopes, digital storage oscilloscopes, signal generators, waveform analyzers, and graphic record- ing instruments. Instrument calibration is also explained. The content of this book has been heavily influenced by those who reviewed the first edition and/or the manuscript for the second edition. I would very much like to re- ceive comments on the second edition from users of the book. David BellUnits, Dimensions, and Standards Objectives You will be able to: 1. Discuss the three fundamental mechanical units in the SI system, define the basic ST mechanical derived units, and identify the various metric prefixes. 2. Define the SI units for the following electrical and magnetic quantities: current, charge, emf, resistance, conductance, magnetic flux, flux density, inductance, capaci- tance. 3. Explain the two SI temperature scales. 4, Convert from non-SI to SI units, and determine the dimensions of various quantities. 5. Define the various measurement standards and their applications. Introduction Before standard systems of measurement were invented, many approximate units were used. A long distance was often measured by the number of days it would take to ride a horse over the distance; a horse’s height was measured in hands; liquid was measured by the bucket or barrel. With the development of science and engineering, more accurate units had to be de- vised. The English-speaking peoples adopted the foot and the mile for measuring dis- tances, the pound for mass, and the gallon for liquid. Other nations followed the lead of the French in adopting a metric system, in which large and small units are very conve- niently related by a factor of 10. ‘With the increase of world trade and the exchange of scientific information between nations, it became necessary to establish a single system of units of measurement that would be acceptable internationally. After several world conferences on the matter, a met- 1Tic system which uses the meter, kilogram, and second as fundamental units has now been generally adopted around the world. This is known, from the French term “systéme inter- national,” as the SI or international system. 1-1 SI MECHANICAL UNITS Fundamental Units ‘The three basic units in the SI system are: Unit of length: the meter (m)* Unit of mass: the kilogram (kg) Unit of time: the second (s) These are known as fundamental units. Other units derived from the fundamental units are termed derived units. For example, the unit of area is meters squared (m?), which is derived from meters. The meter was originally defined as | ten-millionth of a meridian passing through Paris from the north pole to the equator. The kilogram was defined as 1000 times the mass of 1 cubic centimeter of distilled water. The liter! is 1000 times the volume of 1 cubic centimeter of liquid. Consequently, 1 liter of water has a mass of 1 kilogram. Be- cause of the possibility of error in the original definitions, the meter was redefined in terms of atomic radiation. Also, the kilogram is now defined as the mass of a certain plat- inum-iridium standard bar kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. The second is, of course, 1/(86 400) of a mean solar day, but it is more accurately defined by atomic radiation, Unit of Force The SI unit of force is the newton* (N), defined as that force which will give a mass of I kilogram an acceleration of 1 meter per second per second. When a body is to be accelerated or decelerated, a force must be applied propor- tional to the desired rate of change of velocity, that is, proportional to the acceleration (or deceleration). Force = mass x acceleration an F=ma When the mass is in kilograms and the acceleration is in m/s’, the foregoing equa- tion gives the force in newtons. “*Canadian spelling is metre. ‘Canadian spelling is litre. Named for the great English philosopher and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). 2 Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. |If the body is to be accelerated vertically from the earth’s surface, the acceleration due to gravity (g) must be overcome before any vertical motion is possible. In SI units: g=9.81 mi? (2) “Thus, a mass of 1 kg has a gravitational force of 9.81 N. Work When a body is moved, a force is exerted to overcome the body's resistance to motion, The work done in moving a body is the product of the force and the distance through which the body is moved in the direction of the force. Work = force x distance W=Fd (1-3) The SI unit of work is the joule* (J), defined as the amount of work done when a {force of I newton acts through a distance of | meter. Thus, the joule may also be termed a newton-meter. For the equation W = Fd, work is ex- pressed in joules when F is in newions and d is in meters. Energy Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. Energy is.measured in the same units as work. Power Power is the time rate of doing work. If a certain amount of work Wis to be done in a time , the power required is work power = (-4) ‘The SI unit of power is the watt ' (W), defined as the power developed when 1 joule of work is done in } second. For P = Wh, P is in watts when-W is in joules and t is in seconds. ‘Named after the English physicist James P. Joule (1818-1899). ‘Named after the Scottish engineer and inventor James Watt (1736-1819). Sec. 1-3. SI Electrical Units 31-2 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND METRIC PREFIXES Scientific Notation Very large or very small numbers are conveniently written as a number multiplied by 10 raised to a power: 100=1x 10x10 =1x 10° 10000 = 1x 10x 10x 10x 10 =1x 10° oot = ——1__ 10x 10x 10 7 =1x 10% 1500 = 1.5 x 10° 0.015 = 1.5 x 107 Note that in the SI system of units, spaces are used instead of commas when writing large numbers. Four-numeral numbers are an exception. One thousand is written as 1000, while ten thousand is 10 000. Metric Prefixes Metric prefixes and the letter symbols for the various multiples and submultiples of 10 are listed in Table 1-1, with those most commonly used with electrical units shown in bold type. The prefixes are employed to simplify the writing of very large and very small quantities. Thus, 1000 Q can be expressed as J kilohm, or 1 k. Here kilo is the prefix that represents /000, and k is the symbol for kilo. Similarly, J x 107 A can be written as I milliampere, or 1 mA. Engineering Notation As already discussed, ] kQ is I x 10° Q, and 1 mA is'I x 10° A. Note also from Table 1-1 that J x 10° 0 is expressed as 1 MQ, and I x 10 A can be written as 1 1A. These quantities, and most of the metric prefixes in Table 1-1, involve multiples of 70° or 10”. Quantities that use 0° or J0~ are said to be written in engineering notation. A quantity such as J x 10% Q is more conveniently expre:sed as 10 x 10° Q, or 10 kQ. Also, 47 x 10~ A is best written as 4.7 x 10° A, or 4.7 mA. For electrical calculations, engineering notation is more convenient than ordinary scientific notation. 4 Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. 1TABLE 1-1 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND METRIC PREFIXES Scientific Value notation Prefix Symbol 1,000 000 000 000 10? tera T 1.000 000 000 10° giga G 1.000 000 10° mega M 1.000 10° kilo k 100 10? hecto h 10 10 deka da O14 10! deci a 0.01 102 centi c 0.001 10° milli m 0.000 001 10% micro B 0.000 000 001 10° nano n 0,000 000 000 001 10? Pico P 1-3 SI ELECTRICAL UNITS Units of Current and Charge Electric current (J) is a flow of charge carriers. Therefore, current could be defined in terms of the quantity of eléctricity (Q) that passes a given point in a conductor during a time of Is. The coulomb* (C) is the unit of electrical charge or quantity of electricity. The coulomb was originally selected as the fundamental electrical unit from which all other units were derived. However, since it is much easier to measure current accurate- ly than it is to measure charge, the unit of current is now the fundamental electrical unit in the SI system. Thus, the coulomb is'a derived unit, defined in terms of the unit of elec- tric current. The ampere’ (A) is the unit of electric current. The ampere is defined as that constant current which, when flowing in each of two infinitely long parallel conductors I meter apart, exerts a force of 2 x 107” newton per meter of length on each conductor, The coulomb is defined as that charge which passes a given point in a conductor each second, when a current of 1 ampere flows. These definitions show that the coulomb could be termed an ampere-second. Con- versely, the ampere can be described as a coulomb per second: “*Named after the French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806). ‘Named after the French physicist and mathematician André Marie Ampére (1775-1836). Sec. 1-3 SI Electrical Units 5coulombs amperes = ee onds (1-5) It has been established experimentally that J coulomb is equal to the total charge carried by 6.24 x 10'* electrons. Therefore, the charge carried by one electron is 1 o> Saaxi0* = 1.602 x 10°C Emf, Potential Difference, and Voltage The volt* (V) is the unit of electromotive force (emf) and potential difference. The volt (V) is defined as the potential difference between two points on a conduc: tor carrying a constant current of 1 ampere when the power dissipated between these points is I watt. As already noted, the coulomb is the charge carried by 6.24 x 10"* electrons. One joule of work is done when 6,24 x 10" electrons are moved through a potential differ- ence of 1 V, One electron carries a charge of 1/(6.24 x 10'*) coulomb. If only one elec- tron is moved through 1 V, the energy involved is an electron volt (eV). 1 1eV= Sax" J ‘The electron-volt is frequently used in the case of the very small energy levels associated with electrons in orbit around the nucleus of an atom. Resistance and Conductance The ohn’ is the unit of resistance, and the symbol used for ohms is Q; the Greek capita’ letter omega. The ohm is defined as that resistance which permits a current flow of I ampere when a potential difference of I volt is applied to the resistance. The term conductance (G) is applied to the reciprocal of resistance. The siemens' (S) is the unit of conductance. Named in honor of the Italian physicist Count Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), inventor of the voltaic pile. ‘Named afier the German physicist Georg Simon-Ohm (1787-1854), whose investigations led to his statement of “Ohm’s law of resistance.” *Named after Sir William Siemens (1823-1883), a British engineer who was bom Karl William vor ‘Siemens in Germany. The unit of conductance was previously the mho (“ohm spelled backwards). 6 Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. |Conductance = (1-6) resistance Magnetic Flux and Flux Density The weber* (Wb) is the SI unit of magnetic flux. The weber is defined as the magnetic flux which, linking a single-turn coil, pro- duces an emf of I V when the flix is reduced to zero at a constant rate in 1 s. The tesla’ (T) is the SI unit of magnetic flux density. The tesla is the flux density in a magnetic field when 1 weber of flux occurs in a plane of I square meter; that is, the tesla can be described as 1 Wb/m’. Inductance The SI unit of inductance is the henry* (H). The inductance of a circuit is 1 henry, when an emf of I volt is induced by the cur- rent changing at the rate of 1 A/s. Capacitance The farad' (F) is the SI unit of capacitance. The farad is the capacitance of a capacitor that contains a charge of 1 coulomb when the potential difference between its terminals is 1 volt, 1-4 SI TEMPERATURE SCALES There are two SI temperature scales, the Celsius scale’ and the Kelvin scale The Celsius scale has 100 equal divisions (or degrees) between the freezing temperature and the boil- ing temperature of water. At normal atmospheric pressure, water freezes at 0°C (zero de- grees Celsius) and boils at 100°C. ‘The Kelvin temperature scale, also known as the absolute scale, commences at ab- solute zero of temperature, which corresponds to -273.15°C. Therefore, 0°C is equal to 273.15 K, and 100°C is the same temperature as 373.15 K. A temperature difference of 1 K is the same as a temperature difference of 1°C. ‘*Named after the German physicist Wilhelm Weber (1804-1890). ‘Named for the Croatian-American researcher and inventor Nikola Tesla (1856-1943). ‘Named for the American physicist Joseph Henry (1797-1878). ‘Named for the English chemist and physicist Michael Faraday (1791-1867). ‘nvented by the Swedish astronomer and scientist Anders Celsius (1701-1744). ‘Named for the Irish-born scientist and mathematician William Thomson, who became Lord Kelvin (1824-1907). Sec. 1-4 “Temperature Scales 71-5 OTHER UNIT SYSTEMS In the traditional English-language (American and Imperial) systems of measurements, the fundamental mechanical units are the foot for length, the pound for mass, and the se¢ ‘ond for time. Other mechanical units derived from these are similar in both systems, with the exception of the units for liquid measure. The Imperial gallon equals approximately 1.2 US. gallons. Before the SI system was adopted, CGS systems using the centimeter, gram, and second as fundamental mechanical units were employed for scientific purposes. There were two CGS systems: an electrostatic system and a magnetic system. Many CGS units were too small or too large for practical engineering applications, so practical units were also used. When solving problems, it is sometimes necessary to convert from the traditional unit systems to SI units. Appendix 1 provides a list of conversion factors for this Purpose. Example 1-1 A bar magnet with a | inch square cross section is said to have a total magnetic flux of 500 maxwell. Determine the flux density in tesla. Solution From Appendix 1, total flux, ‘© = (500 maxwell) x 10% Wb =S5pWb area, A= (lin. x bin.) x (2.54 x 107) m? = 254 x 10% mm? flux density, B 2 ogee =7.75 mT ' Example 1-2 The normal human body temperature is given as 98.6°F. Determine the equivalent Celsius and Kelvin scale temperatures. Solution From Appendix 1, 8 Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. 1Celsius temperature Kelvin temperature = °F-32 =310.15K 1-6 DIMENSIONS Table 1-2 gives a list of quantities, quantity symbols, units, unit symbols, and quantity di- mensions. The symbols and units are those approved for use with the SI system. To un- derstand the dimensions column, consider the fact that the area of a rectangle is deter- mined by multiplying the lengths of the two sides. area = length x length ‘The dimensions of area are (length)” ‘TABLE 1-2. SI UNITS, SYMBOLS, AND DIMENSIONS Quantity ‘Symbol Unit Unit symbol Dimensions Length 1 meter m w Mass m kilogram kg im Time t second s (7) Area A ‘square meter m (e) Volume v cubic meter m wy Velocity v meter per second ms {iT} Acceleration a meter per second per second mis? (7?) Force F newton N (MLT*) Pressure P newton per square meter Nim? (ML"T} Work w joule J (MT?) Power P watt w (MT) Electric current 7 ampere A nm Electric charge Q coulomb c im Emf Vv volt v (Merer} Electric field strength E volt per meter Vin (MLT>7"') Resistance R ohm a [Me?r>1) Capacitance c farad F wer] Inductance L henry H (META) Magnetic field strength H ampere per meter Alm un) Magnetic flux © weber wo (META Magnetic flux density B tesla T (rrr) Sec. 1-6 Dimensionsor {area} = (L][L] =P Similarly, ty) = Hensth) . {41 [velocity] = He = in =ur'}) it 1 [acceleration] = elecity) _ LET] time] ~ 17} =(T] [force] = {mass} x [acceleration] = [M|[LT~} = (MLT?} (work] = [force] x [distance] = (MLT~][L] =(MLT>| = [work] _ [MLT™} (power) = [time] [7] =[MLT>} For the electrical quantities, current is another fundamental unit. So electrical quantities can be analyzed to determine dimensions in the fundamental units of L, M, 7, and I. Charge = current x time (charge) = (N[7] =UT) Example 1-3 Determine the dimensions of voltage and resistance. Solution From voltage, - eT 1) = (MPT) resistance, ree ea = (METI) es 10 Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. 11-7 STANDARDS ‘Working Standards Electrical measurement standards are precise resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage sources, and current sources, which can be used for comparison purposes when measur- ing electrical quantities. For example, resistance can be accurately measured by means of ‘a Wheatstone bridge which uses a standard resistor (see Section 7-3). Similarly, standard capacitors and inductors can be employed in bridge (or other) methods to accurately mea- sure capacitance and inductance. : The standard resistors, capacitors, and inductors usvally found in an electronics laboratory are classified as working standards, Working standard resistors are normally constructed of manganin or a similar material, which has a very low temperature coeffi- cient, They are available in resistance values ranging from 0.01 © to 1 MQ, with typi- cal accuracies of +0.01% to +0.1%. A working standard capacitor might be air dielec- tic type, or might be constructed of silvered mica. Available capacitance values are 0.001 uF to 1 pF with a typical accuracy of 0.02%. Standard inductors are available in values ranging from 100 pH to 10 H with typical accuracies of #0.1%. Calibrators provide standard voltages and currents for calibrating voltmeters and ammeters (see Section 12-3). Standard Classifications Measurement standards are classified in four levels: international standards, primary standards, secondary standards, and working standards. Thus, the working standards al- ready discussed are the lowest level of standards. International standards are defined by international agreements, and are maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. These are as accurate as it is scientifically possible to achieve. They may be used for comparison with primary stan- dards, but are otherwise unavailable for any application, Primary standards are maintained at institutions in various countries around the world, such as th: National Bureau of Standards in Washington. They are also construct- ed for the greatest possible accuracy, and their main function is checking the accuracy of secondary standards. Secondary standards are employed in industry as references for calibrating high-ac- curacy equipment and components, and for verifying the accuracy of working standards. Secondary standards are periodically checked at the institutions that maintain primary standards. In summary, working standards are used as measurement references on a day-to- day basis in virtually all electronics laboratories. Secondary standards are more accurate than working standards, and are used throughout industry for checking working stan- dards, and for'calibrating high-accuracy equipment. Primary standards are more accurate than secondary standards. They are maintained to the highest possible accuracy by na- tional institutions as references for calibrating secondary standards. International stan- dards are maintained by international agreement, and may be used for checking primary standards. Sec. 1-7 Standards un11 1-2 1-3 1-4 15 17 18 1-9 1-10 1-1 12 13 1-4 15 1-6 1-7 18 19 1-10 1 2 REVIEW QUESTIONS List the three fundamental SI mechanical units and unit symbols, and discuss their origin, State the SI units and unit symbols for force and work, and define each unit. State the SI units and unit symbols for energy and power, and define each unit, List the names of the various metric prefixes and the corresponding symbols. Also, list the value represented by each prefix in scientific notation. State the SI units and unit symbols for electric current and charge, and define each unit. State the SI units and unit symbols for electrical resistance and conductance, and define each unit, State the SI units and unit symbols for magnetic flux and flux density, and define each unit, State the SI units and unit symbols for inductance and capacitance, and define each unit. Name the two SI temperature scales, and identify the freezing and boiling tempera- tures of water for each scale. List the various levels of measurement standards, and discuss the application of each classification. PROBLEMS Referring to the unit conversion factors in Appendix 1, perform the following con- versions: (a) 6215 miles to kilometers, (b) 50 miles per hour to kilometers per hour, and (c) 12 square feet to square centimeters. Determine how long it takes light to travel to earth from a star 1 million miles away if the speed of light is 3 x 10" m/s. The speed of sound in air is 345 m/s. Calculate the distance in miles from a thun- derstorm when the thunder is heard 5 s after the lightning flash, A 140 Ib person has a height of 5 ft.7 in. Convert these measurements into kilo- grams and centimeters. A bar magnet has a cross section of 0.75 in. x 0.75 in. and a flux density of 1290 lines per square inch, Calculate the total flux in webers. Calculate the Celsius and Kelvin scale equivalents of 80°F. ‘A ¥« horsepower electric motor is operated 8 hours per day for 5 days every week. As- suming 100% efficiency, calculate the kilowatthours of energy consumed in 1 year. Determune the dimensions of area, volume, velocity, and acceleration. Determine the dimensions of force, work, energy, and power. Determine the dimensions of charge, voltage, and resistance. Determine the dimensions of capacitance and inductance. Units, Dimensions, and Standards Chap. 1Measurement Errors Objectives You will be able to: 1. Define and explain the following types of errors that occur in measurements: gross, systematic, absolute, relative, random. 2. Explain and apply the following measurement terms: tolerance, accuracy, precision, resolution. 3. Determine the resultant error for various calculations involving instrament and com- ponent error combinations. 4, Use basic statistical methods for analyzing measurement errors. Introduction No electronic component or instrument is perfectly accurate; all have some error or inac- curacy. It is important to understand how these errors are specified and how they combine to create even greater errors in measurement systems. Although it is possible that in some cases errors might almost completely cancel each other out, the worst-case combination of errors must always be assumed, OO ~—‘Apart from equipment errors, some operator or observer error is inevitable. Also. even when equipment errors are very small, the system of using the instruments can in- troduce a systematic error. Errors of uitexplainable origin are classified as random errors. Where accuracy is extremely important, some errors can be minimized by taking many readings of each instrument and determining mean values. 32-1 GROSS ERRORS AND SYSTEMATIC ERRORS rs are essentially human errors that are the result of carelessness. most Common errors is the simple misreading of an instrument. In Figure 2-I(a) the digital display of 32.5 mA (the range is 300 mA) might inadvertently be read as 32.5 A. Of course, many digital instruments (not all) display the measurement units alongside the indicated quantity. Thus, making this kind of error is less likely. Figure 2-1(b) shows an analog in- strument with three scales: 0 to 25, 0 to 10, and 0 to 50. The 25 scale is used when the range selection switch is set to a multiple of 25, the 10-scale is for ranges that area multiple of 10, and the 50 scale is for multiple of 50 ranges. Obviously, it is possible to read the wrong scale or, even when using the correct scale, toassume the wrong range multiple. »y Sometimes a meter is read correctly but the re ading is recorded incorrectly, or per- haps it is recorded in the wrong column in a table of measurement these kinds of mistakes occasionally. They can be avoided only by taking care in using and reading all instruments, and by thinking about whether or not each measurement makes sense. Substituting instrument readings into an appropriate equation, or plotting a few points on a graph, also helps to check the validity of recorded quantities while mea- ‘surements are still in progress. Measurement errors will occur if the accuracy of an instrument has not been checkec some time, that is, if the instrument has not been calibrated (see Chapter 12). ‘Errors will also occur with analog instruments if the pointer has not been mechanically zeroed before use. Analog ( 1s)must also be electrically zeroed for correct use (as well as mechanically zeroed). These kinds of errors can be termed gross errors, because {@) Digital instrument (b) Analog instrument indicating 32.5 mA. indicating 0.76 V Figure 2-1 Serious measurement errors can occur if an instrument is not read correctly. ‘The digital instrument is on @ 300 mA range, so its reading is in milliamperes. For the analog meter, the range selection must be noted, and the pointer position must be read from the correct scale 4 Measurement Errors Chap. 2they can be avoided with care. However, they might also be classified as systematic er- rors, because they are the result of the measurement system ~ Other systematic errors occur because the measurement system affects the me: _sured quantity. For example, when a voltmeter is employed to measure the potential dif- ference between two points in a circuit, the voltmeter resistance may alter the circuit volt- age (see Section 3-4). Similarly, an ammeter resistance might change the level of a current, Errors that are the result of instrument inaccuracy are also systematic errors. ‘Where more than one instrument is involved, the errors due to instrument inaccuracy tend to accumulate, The overall measurement error is then usually larger than the error in any one instrument. This is explored in Section 2-4. 2.2 ABSOLUTE ERRORS AND RELATIVE ERRORS If a resistor is known to have a resistance of 500 1 with a possible error of +50 2, the 450.0 is an absolute error. This is because 50 (1s stated as an absolute quantity, not as a percentage of the 500 ® resistance. When the error is expressed as a percentage or as a fraction of the total resistance, it becomes a relative error, Thus, the £50 QNis t10%, rela- tive to $00 ©, or +!/10 of $00 2. So the resistance can be specified as R=5002+ 10% Percentages are usually employed to express errors in resistances and other electri- cal quantities. The terms accuracy and tolerance are also used. A resistor with a possible error of +10% is said to be accurate to 10%, or to have a tolerance of £10% [see Figure 2-2(a)]. Tolerance is the term normally used by component manufacturers. Suppose that a voltage is measured as 20,00 V using an instrument which is known to have a 40.02 V First thre bands indicate resistance value Tolerance Volimeter accuracy = 20.1% Relative silvers 2 oer Gold = 5%) Measured voltage = 20.00 V GO. Relative cm = 20.0 VELEDD \ astute crror (a) Resistor tolerance is identified (6) Voltmeter accuracy defines the upper by acolored band and lower limits of measured quantity Figure 2-2 Percentage accuracy gives the relative error in a measured, or specified ‘quantity. The absolute error can be determined by converting the percentage error into an absolute quantity Sec.2-2 Absolute Errors and Relative Errors 15JAR AR_ t aT a Figure 2-3 Instead of percentages, errors i can be expressed in pars per million (ppm) relative tothe total quantity. Resistance change with temperature increase is usually =T> *C stated In ppm"C. error, The measured voltage can be stated as 20.00 V + 0.02 V. The 0.02 V is an absolute quantity, so it is an absolute error. But 0.02 V is'also 0.1% relative to 20 V, so the mea- sured quantity could be expressed as 20 V + 0.1% (see Figure 2-2(b)], and now the error is stated as a relative error. ‘Another method of expressing an error is to refer to it in parts per million (ppm) relative to the total quantity. For example, the temperature coefficient of a 1 MM resistor might be stated as 100 ppm/°C, which means 100 parts per million per degree Celsius. One millionth of 1 MQ is 1 9; consequently, 100 ppm of | MQ. is 100 Q. Therefore, a 1°C change in temperature may cause the | MQ resistance to increase or decrease by 100 O. (see Figure 2-3). Example 2-1 ‘A component manufacturer constructs certain resistances to be anywhere between 1.14 KO and 1:26 kQ and classifies them to be 1.2 kQ resistors. What tolerance should be stat- ‘ed? If the resistance values are specified at 25°C and the resistors have a temperature co- efficient of +500 ppnv/°C, calculate the maximum resistance that one of these compo- nents might have at 75°C. Solution Absolute error = 1.26 kQ.— 1.2 kO = +0.06 k or = 12 KO — 1.14 k= -0.06 KO. = 40.06 kD. 20.060 1.2kO = 45% Tolerance = 100% Largest possible resistance at 25°C: R=12k0+0.06kN =1.26kO Resistance change per °C: 500 ppm of R= —— 16 Measurement Exrors Chap. 2Temperature increase AT=75°C - 25°C = 50°C Total resistance increase: AR = 0.63 M/°C x 50°C =3150 Maximum resistance at 75°C: R+ AR=1.26KN4 315.0 = 12915 KO 2.3 ACCURACY, PRECISION, RESOLUTION, AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES Accuracy and Precision When a voltmeter with an error of +1% indicates exactly 100 V, the true level of the mea- sured voltage is somewhere between 99 V and 101 V. Thus, the measurement accuracy of £1% defines how cl 0 the actual measured quantity. The preci- sion with which not the same as the accuracy of measure- ich the measurement is made ment, although accuracy and precision are related. Consider the digital voltmeter indication shown in Figure 2-4(a). For the 8.135 V quantity indicated, the last (right-side) numeral refers to millivolts. If the measured quan- tity increases or decreases by 1 mY, the reading becomes 8.136 V or 8.134 V, respective- ly. Therefore, the voltage is measured with a precision of 1 mV. For the analog voltmeter in Figure 2-4(b), the pointer position can be read to within (perhaps) one-fourth cf the smallest scale division. Since the smallest scale division represents 0.2 V (on the 10 V ‘Thousanths of voles (millivolts) (2). Digital voltmeter display (b) Analog instrument display witha precision of 1 mV with a precision of 50 mV Figure 2-4 Measurement precision depends on the smaliest change that can be observed in the measured quantity. A 1 mV change will be indicated on the digital voltmeter display above. For the analog instrument, 5O mV is the smallest change that can be noted. Sec.2-3 Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, and Significant Figures 7range), one-fourth of the scale division is 50 mV. So 50 mV is the measurement precision of the analog instrument. Neither of these two measurements (digital or analog) takes ac- count of the measurement accuracy. ‘Suppose that the digital voltmeter referred to above has an accuracy of 40.2%. The measured voltage is 8.135 V + 0.2%, or 8.135 V + 16 mV, meaning that the actual volt- age is somewhere between 8.119 V and 8.151 V. So, although the quantity is measured with a precision of | mY, the measurement accuracy is +16 mV. The analog voltmeter in Figure 2-4(b) might have a typical accuracy of 2% of full scale, or +2% of 10 V. Thus, the measured quantity is 4.85 V + 200 mY, that is, 4.65 V to 5.05 V. In this case, the mea- surement is made to a precision of 50 mY, but the measurement accuracy is +200 mV. “The measurement precision for the digital and analog instruments discussed above might seem unimportant given the possible error due to the instrument accuracy. Howev- er, the instrument accuracy normally depends on the accuracy of internal components, and any error due to the measurement precision must be much smaller than that due to the specified accuracy of the instrument. Resolution The measurement precision of an instrument defines the smallest change in measured quantity that can be observed. This (smallest observable change) is the resolution of the instrument. in the case of the 10 V analog instrurent scale that can be read to a precision of 50 mV, 50 mV is the smallest voltage change that can observed. Thus, the measure- ment resolution is 50 mV. Similarly, with the digital instrument, the measurement resolu- tion is | mV. Consider the potentiometer illustrated in Figure 2-5. The circuit symbol in Figure 2-5(a) illustrates a resistor with two terminals and a contact that can be moved anywhere between the two. The potentiometer construction shown in Figure 2-5(b) reveals that the movable contact slides over a track on one side of a number of turns of resistance wire. The contact does not slide along the whole length of the wire but jumps from one point on one turn of the wire to a point on the next turn, Assume that the total potentiometer re- sistance is 100 0 and that there are 1000 turns of wire. Each turn has a resistance of 1009 -o10 1000 When the contact moves from one tum to the next, the resistance from any end to the moving contact changes by 0.1 ©. It can now be stated that the resistance froni one end to the moving contact can be adjusted from 0 to 100 0 with a resolution of 0.1 2, or a resolution of 1 in 1000. In the case of the potentiometer, the resolution defines how pre- cisely the resistance may be set, It also defines how precisely the variable voltage from the potentiometer moving contact may be adjusted when a potential difference is applied across the potentiometet. : Significant Figures ‘The number of significant figures used in a measured quantity indicate the precision of measurement. For the 8.135 V measurement in Figure 2-4(a), the four significant figures 18 Measurement Esrors Chap. 2Moving contact End terminal Shaft for adjustment Moving contact, ‘terminal (a) Potentiometer End t circuit symbol Resistance | wire (b) Potentiometer construction Figure 2-5 A potentiometer consists of a resistance wire wound around an insulating former, The movable contact slides from one turn to the next, changing the resistance {from one end to the moving contact) in steps. The potentiometer resolution depends on the number of steps. show that the measurement precision is 0.001 V, or I mV. If the measurement was made to a precision of 10 mY, the display would be 8.13 V or 8.14 V; that is, there would be only three significant figures. In the case of a resistance value stated as 47.3 92, the actual value may not be exact- ly 47.3 Q, but it is assumed to be closer to 47.3 O than it is to either 47.2 Q or 47.4 0. The three significant figures show that measurement precision is 0.1 9. If the quantity was 47.3 kQ, the measurement precision would be 0.1 kM, or 100 0. If 47.3 2 is rewrit- ten with two significant figures, it becomes 47 0, because 47.3 (Nis clearly closer to 47.0 than it is to 48 Q. If the quantity were written as 47.0 0, it would imply that the re: tance is closer to 47 © than it is to 47.1 ©, and in this case the zero (in 47.0 Q) would be a significant figure. Now consider the result of using an electronic calculator to determine a resistance value from digital measurement of voltage and current. V_ 814V 1 233mA 493 562 232k Clearly, it does not make sense to have an answer containing 10 significant figures when each of the original quantities had only three significant figures. The only reasonable ap- proach is to use the same number of significant figures in the answer as in the original quantities, So the calculation becomes v_ 814V 1 233mA =3.49k0 Sec.2-3 _Accutacy, Precision, Resolution, and Significant Figures 19The resistance is now stated to the same precision as the measured voltage and current. This calculation has not taken the accuracy of the voltmeter and ammeter into account (see Section 2-4). As illustrated by the discussion above, the number of significant figures in a quanti- ty defines the precision of the measuring instruments involved. No greater number of sig- nificant figures should be used in a calculation result than those in the original quantities. Where the quantities in a calculation have different precisions, the precision of the an. swer should not be greater than the least precise of the original quantities. 2-4 MEASUREMENT ERROR COMBINATIONS When a quantity is calculated from measurements made on two (or more) instruments, it must be assumed that the errors due to instrument inaccuracy combine in the worst possi- ble way. The resulting error is then larger than the error in any one instrument. Sum of Quantities Where a quantity is determined as the sum of two measurements, the total error is the sum of the absolute errors in each measurement. As illustrated in Figure 2-6(a), E=(V, 4 AV,) + (V2 + AV2) giving E=(V,+V2) + (AV, + AV) (2-1) Example 2-2 Calculate the maximum percentage error in the sum of two voltage measurements when V, = 100 V + 1% and V, =80 V+ 5%, Solution V,=100V+1% =100VL1V Vp=80V 45% =80Vt4V E=V\+V, = (100 V1 V)+(80 V4 V) =130V+(1V+4¥) =180VE5V = 180Vt28% 20 Measurement Errors Chap. 2yea SR oe I Ov) (a+ AVa) leaned m Mean 3m fa) Error in sum of quantities equals sum of errors qh £=%-V = (¥y 2 AN) (Va * A¥2) = (Vy Wa) (0% + Ma) (b) Error in difference of quantities equals sum of error 4 ]F8 ar PEt R ELbE P= (E£AE)X (14D pe ESSE T2Al (o) Percentage error in product or quotient of quantities equals sum of percentage errors Figure 2-6 When messured quantities are combined to determine another quantity, the ‘measurement errors must be assumed to combine in the way that gives the largest possi- ble resultant error. In Example 2-2, note that the percentage error in the final quantity cannot be cal- culated directly from the percentage errors in the two measured quantities Where two or more measured quantities are summed to determine a final quan- tity, the absolute values of the errors must be summed to find the total possible error. Difference of Quantities Figure 2-6(b) illustrates a situation in which a potential difference is determined as the difference between two measured voltages. Here again, the errors are additive: Sec. 2-4 Measurement Error Combinations a=(V, £AV,)~ (V2 ¢ AV.) E=(V,~V2) + (AV, + AV.) (2-2) Example 2-3 Calculate the maximum percentage error in the difference of two measured voltages when V, = 100 V + 1% and V> = 80 V + 5%. Solution V,=100Vt1V {as in Example 2-2) and V2 =80Vt4V E=(100V£1V)~(80V#4V) =20Vt5V =20V 425% Example 2-3 demonstrates that rhe percentage error in the difference of two quant ties van he very large. If the difference was smaller, the percentage error would be even larger. Obviously, measurement systems involving the difference of two quantities should be avoided, Product of Quantities Wher a calculated quantity is the product of two or more quantities, the percentage error is the sum of the percentage errors in each quantity [consider Figure 2-6(c)] PoE = (E+ AE) + AN) = EI4E M*1AE4 AE AF Since SE Al is very small, P= EIL(E AI+I AE) percentage error = eaiar x 100% eal, ww) 100% El EL 2 Measurement Errors Chap. 2(+ 4E) «100% a: = % error in P =(% error in I) + (% error in E) (2:3) Thus, when a voltage is measured with an accuracy of + 1%, and a current is measured with an accuracy of +2%, the calculated power has an accuracy of +3%. Quotient of Quantities Here again it can be shown that the percentage error is the sum of the percentage errors in each quantity. In Figure 2-6(c), I % error in Ell = (% error in E) + (% er inl) (2-4) Quantity Raised to a Power When a quantity A is raised to a power B, the percentage error in A® can be shown to be % error in A®= B(% error in A) | -~ 2-5) For a current / with an accuracy of +3%, the error in /? is 2(43%) = +6%. Example 2-4 ‘An 820 0 resistance with an accuracy of + 10% carries a current of 10 mA. The current was measured by an analog ammeter on a 25 mA range with an accuracy of 42% of full scale. 1 Calculate the power dissipated in the resistor, and determine the accuracy of the result. Solution P=PR P=(10mA) x 8202 =82mW error in R= 410% error in | = 42% of 25 mA =20.5mA _ 205mA “10mA =15% x 100% Sec. 2-4 Measurement Error Combinations 23% error in F = 245%) = 110% % error in P = (% error in I”) + (% error in R) = £(10% + 10%) = 420% Summary ForX=A4B, error in X = + (error in A) + (error in B)} For X= AB, % error in X = + [(% error in A) + (% error in B)] ForX = A/B, % error in X = + [(% error in A) + (% error in B)] For X =A, % error in X =+B(% error in A) 2-5 BASICS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Arithmetic Mean Value When a number of measurements of a quantity are made and the measurements are not all exactly equal, the best approximation to the actual value is found by calculating the average value, or arithmetic mean, of the results. For n measured values of x),.%2,.%3.. . .5 X,, the arithmetic mean is Sit aatay to tay (2-6) Determining the arithmetic mean of several measurements is one method of minimizing the effects of random errors. Random errors are the result of chance or accidental occur- ences. They may be human errors produced by fatigue, or they may be the result of such events as a surge in ac supply voltage, a brief draft upon equipment, or a variation in frequency. ‘When determining the mean value of a number of readings, it is sometimes found that one or two measurements differ from the mean by a much larger amount than any of the others. In this case, it is justifiable to reject these few readings as mistakes and to cal- culate the average value from the other measurements. This action should not be taken when more than a small number of readings differ greatly from the mean. Instead, the whole series of measurements should be repeated. Deviation The difference between any one measured value and the arithmetic mean of a series of measurements is termed the deviation. The deviations (dj, da. di... . . d,) may be posi- tive or negative, and the algebraic sum of the deviations is always zero. The average dev S “4 PR-PE Measurement Errors ~ Chap. 2 "ation may be calculated as the average of the absolute values of the deviations (neglecting. plus and minus signs), If the measured quantity is assumed to be constant, the average de- viation might be regarded as an indicator of the measurement precision (see Example 2-5). {dsl + Idol + |e n +|dal (2-7) Example 2-5 The accuracy of five digital voltmeters are checked by using each of them to measure a standard 1.0000 V from a calibration instrument (see Section 12-3). The voltmeter read- ings are as foliows: V; = 1.001 V, V2 = 1.002, V3 = 0.999, V, = 0.998, and Vs = 1.000 Calculate the average measured voltage and the average deviation. Solution Vit Vat Vat Vat Vs 5 1,001 V+ 1,002 V +.0.999 V 40.998 V+ 1,000 V . 5 From Equation 2-6, .001 V~ 1,000 V 002 V -'1.000 V 999 V — 1.000 V .998 V - 1.000 V .000 V - 1.000. From Equation 2-7, [dal + Jaa + Ml + fetal + Lt 2 5 0.001 V +.0.002 V + 0.001 V +0.002 V +0 = 5 .0012 V Sec. 2-5 Basics of Statistical Analysis 25From Example 2-5, the average measured voltage is 1.000 V, and the average devi- ation from this is 1.2 mV. These figures could be used to determine the accuracy of mea- surement made on any of the five instruments. Standard Deviation and Probable Error As already discussed, measurement results can be analyzed by determining the arith- metic mean value of a number of measurements of the same quantity and by further determining the deviations and the average deviation. The mean-squared value of the deviations can also be calculated by first squaring each deviation value before deter- mining the average. This gives a quantity known as the variance. Taking the square Toot of the variance produces the root mean squared (rms) value, also termed the stan- dard deviation (6). d+de+di+..+d? (2-8) ” For the case of a large number of measurements in which only random errors are present, it can be shown that the probable error in any one measurement is 0.6745 times the standard deviation: probable error = 0.67450 29) Example 2-6 Determine the standard deviation and the probable measurement error for the group of in- struments referred to in Example 2-5. Solution Equation 2-8, | = ,| 0.001? + 0.002? + 0.0017 + 0.002 + 0 3 = 0.0014V Equation 2-9, probable error = 0.6745 o = 0.6745 x 1.4 mV =0.94 mV 6 ‘Measurement Errors Chap. 2REVIEW QUESTIONS 2-1 Explain gross errors and systematic errors. Give examples of each. 2-2. Define absolute errors and relative errors. 2-3, Discuss accuracy, precision, and resolution, and explain how they are related, 2-4. Explain the significance of the number of significant figures in a stated quantity. 2-5. Discuss the resultant error in calculations involving quantities with stated accuracies when the quantities are (a) added, (b) subtracted, (c) multiplied, (d) divided, and (e) one quantity is raised to the power of the other. PROBLEMS 2-1 For the analog instrument in Figure 2-1(b), determine the meter reading when the selector switch is set to (a) 2.5 mA, (b) 5 V, and (c) 100 mA. 2-2. A batch of resistors that each have a nominal resistance of 330 are to be tested and classified as +5% and +10% components. Calculate the maximum and mini- mum absolute resistance for each case, 2-3. The resistors in Problem 2-2 are specified at 25°C, and their temperature coefficient is -300 ppm/°C. Calculate the maximum and minimum resistance for these compo- nents at 100°C. 2-4. Estimate the measurement precision of the digital and analog instruments in Figure 21. 2-5 Estimate the measurement precision of the digital instrument in Figure 2-2(b). 2-6 A 1 kO potentiometer that has a resolution 0.5 is used as a potential divider with + 10 V supply. Determine the precision of the output voltage. 2-7 Three of the resistors referred to in Problem 2-2 are connected in series. One has a +£5% tolerance, and the other two are 10%. Calculate the maximum and minimum values of the total resistance. 2-8 A de power supply provides currents to four electronic circuits. The currents are, 37 mA, 42. mA, 13 mA, and 6.7 mA. The first two are measured with an accuracy of +£3%, and the other two are measured with +1% accuracy. Determine the maximum and minimum levels - the total supply current. 2-9 Two currents from different sources flow in opposite directions through a resistor. 1, is measured as 79 mA on a 100 mA analog instrument with an accuracy of +£3% of full scale. /;, determined as 31 mA, is measured on a digital instrument with a #100 pA accuracy. Calculate the maximum and minimum levels of the current in Ry. 2-10 The voltages at opposite ends of a 470 2, +5% resistor are measured as V; = 12 V and V2 = 5 V. The meastfring accuracies are +0.5 V for V, and +2% for V2. Calcu- late the level of current in the resistor, and specify its accuracy. Sec.2-§ Problems a2-11 A resistor R; has a potential difference of 25 V across its terminals, and a current of 63 mA. The voltage is measured on a 30 V analog instrument with an accuracy of +£5% of full scale. The current is measured on a digital instrument with a#1 mA ac- curacy. Calculate the resistance of R, and specify its tolerance. 2-12 Calculate the maximum and minimum power dissipation in the resistor in Problem 2-10. 2-13 Determine the maximum and minimum power dissipation in the resistor in Problem 21. 2-14 A 470 Q, £10% resistor has a potential difference of 12 V across its terminals, If the voltage is measured with an accuracy of 6%, determine the power dissipation in the resistor, and specify the accuracy of the result. 2-15 The output voltage from a precision 12 V power supply, monitored at intervals over a period of time, produced the following readings: V, = 12.001 V, V3 = 11.999 V, Va = 11.998 V, Vs = 12.003 V, Vs = 12.002 V, Vg = 11.997 V, V; = 12.002 V, Vp = 12.003 V, Vy = 11.998 V, and Vig = 11.997 V. Calculate the average voltage level, the mean deviation, the standard deviation, and the probable error in the measured voltage at any time. 2-16 Successive measurements of the temperature of a liquid over a period of time pro- duced the following data: T, = 25.05°C, T = 25.02°C, Ts = 25.03°C, Ty = 25.07°C, Ts = 25.55°C, Ts = 25.06°C, T; = 25.04°C, Ty = 25.05°C, Ty = 25.07°C, T, 25.03°C, Ty = 25.02°C, Ty = 25.04°C, Ty3 = 25.02°C, Tia = 25.03°C, and Tys = 25.05°C. Determine the average temperature, the mean deviation from average, the standard deviation, and the probable measurement error. 2B Measurement Errors Chap. 2Electromechanical Instruments Objectives You will be able to: 1, Sketch the construction of a permanent-magnet moving-coil (PPMC) instrument, and explain its operation, 2. Show how PPMC instruments are used as galvanometers, de ammeters, de voltmeters, ac ammeters, and ac voltmeters, 3. Calculate appropriate shunt and series resistance values for given ammeter and volt- meter ranges, and determine instrument accuracy, 4. Sketch and explain the operation of series and shunt ohmmeter circuits. Explain ohm- meter scale shapes, and determine ohmmeter accuracy. 5. Sketch the front panel and scales for a typical volt-ohm-milliameter (VOM). Explain function and range selections, and discuss the use of the VOM. 6. Sketch and describe the construction of an electrodynamic instrument, and explain its de and ac operation. Show how an electrodynamic instrument may be used as a volt- meter, an ammeter, and a wattmeter. Introduction 6 The permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC) instrument consists basically of a light- weight coil of copper wire suspended in the field of a permanent magnet. Current in the wire causes the coil to produce a magnetic field that interacts with the field from the mag- net, fesulting in partial rotation of the coil. A pointer connected to the coil deflects over a calibrated scale, indicating the level of current flowing in the wire. The PMMC instrument is essentially a low-level de ammeter; however, with the use of parallel-connected resisors, it can be employed to measure a wide range of direct 29current levels. The instrument may also be made to function as a de voltmeter by con- necting appropriate-value resistors in series with the coil. Ac ammeters and voltmeters can be constructed by using rectifier circuits with PMMC instruments, Ohmmeters can be made from precision resistors, PMMC instruments, and batteries. Multirange meters are available that combine ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter functions in one instrument. The electrodynamic instrument is similar to the PMMC instrument exc: ept that it uses stationary coils instead of a permanent mangnet. The most important application of the electrodynamic instrument is as a wattmeter. 3-1 PERMANENT-MAGNET MOVING-COIL INSTRUMENT Deflection Instrument Fundamentals A deflection instrument uses a pointer that moves over a calibrated scale to indicate a measured quantity. For this to occur, three forces are operating in the electromechanical mechanism (or movement) inside the instrument: a deflecting force, a controlling force, and a damping force. The deflecting force causes the pointer to move from its zero position when a cur- rent flows. In the permanent-magnet moving-coil (PMMC) instrument the deflecting force is magnetic. When a current flows in a lightweight moving coil pivoted between the Poles of a permanent magnet (Figure 3-1(a)], the current sets up a magnetic field that in- teracts with the field of the permanent magnet. A force is exerted on a current-camying Conductor situated in a magnetic field. Consequently, a force is exerted on the coil tums, as illustrated, causing the coil to rotate on its pivots. The pointer is fixed to the coil, so it moves over the scale as the coil rotates, The controlling force in the PMMC instrument is provided by spiral springs [Figure 3-1(b)]. The springs retain the coil and poiner at their zero position when no flowing. When current flows, the springs “wind up” as the coil rotates, and the current is force they exert on the coil increases. The coil and pointer stop rotating when the controlling force becomes equal to the deflecting force. The spring material must be nonmagnetic to avoid any magnetic field influence on the controlling force. Since the springs are also used to make electrical connection to the coil, they must have a low resistance, Phosphor bronze is the material usually employed. As illustrated in Figure 3-2(a), the pointer and coil tend to oscillate for some tiine before settling down at their final position. A damping force is required to minimize (or damp out) the oscillations. The damping force must be Present only whe motion; thus it must be generated by the rotation damping force is normally provided by eddy curré the coil. In PMMC instruments, the The coil former (or frame) is con- structed of aluminum, a nonmagnetic conductor. Eddy currénts induced in the coil former Set up @ magnetic flux that opposses the coil motion, thus damping the oscillations of the coil [see Figure 3-2(b)}. ‘Two methods of supporting the moving system of a deflection instrument trated in Figure 3-3. In the jeweled-bearing suspension shown in Figure 3-3(a), ed ends of shafts or pivots fastened to the coil are inserted into cone-shaped cul ace illus- the point- ts in jewel (sapphire or glass) bearings. This allows the coil to rotate freely with the least possible 30 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Field Conductor flux flux (a) The deflecting force in a PMMC instrument is provided by a current-carrying coil pivoted in a magnetic field. (b)_ The controlting force from the springs balances the deflecting force. Figure 3-1 ‘The deflecting force in a PMMC instrument is produced by the current in the moving coil. The controlling force is provided by spiral springs. The two forces are equal when the pointer is stationary. Sec. 3-1 Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument 31I Pointer ‘oscillation Poimer oscillation with ‘no damping position | }f with damping Time ——> (2) Lack of damping causes the pointer to oscillate. Aluminum coil former (©) The damping force in a PMMC instrument is provided by eddy currents induced in the aluminum coil former 8s it moves through the magnetic field Figure 3-2 deflection instrument requires a damping force to stop the pointer osc lating about the indicated reading. The damping force is usually produced by eddy cur- rents in a nonmagnetic coil former. These exist only when the coit is in motion. friction. Although the coil is normally very lightweight, the pointed ends of the pivots have extremely small areas, so the surface load per unit area can be considerable. In some cases the bearings may be broken by ihe shock of an instrument being slammed down heavily upon a bench. Some jewel bearings are spring supported (as illustrated) to absorb such shocks more easily. ‘The taut-band method shown in Figure 3-3(b) is much tougher than jeweled-bearing suspension. As illustrated, two flat metal ribbons (phosphor bronze or platinum alloy) are 32. Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3‘Spring-supported Jewel bearing Jewel bearing Jewel bearing () Pivot and jewel-bearing suspension Pointer Spring Taut Band Taut Band Spring (©) Taue-band suspension Figure 3-3 The moving coil in a PMMC instrument may be supported by pivots in jew led bearings, or by two flat metal ribbons held taut by springs. Taut-band suspension is the toughest and the most sensitive of the two, held under tension by springs to support the coil. Because of the springs, the metal ribbons behave like rubber under tension. The ribbons also exert a controlling force as they twist, and they can be used as electrical connections to the moving coil. Because there is less friction, taut-band instruments can be much more sensitive than the jeweled-bearing type. The most sensitive jeweled-bearing instruments give full-scale deflection (FSD) with a coil current of 25 1A. With taut-band suspension FSD may be achieved with as little as 2 A of coil current. The fact that the spring-mounted ribbon behaves as a rubber band makes the instrument ex- tremely rugged compared to a jeweled-bearing instrument. If a jeweled-bearing instrument is dropped toa concrete floor from bench height, the bearings will almost certainly be shat- tered. A taut-band instrument is unlikely to be affected by a similar fall. Sec. 3-1 Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument 33PMMC Construction Details of the construction of a PMMC instrumént or D'Arsonval instrument are illus trated in Figure 3-4. The main feature is a permanent magnet with two soft-iron pole shoes. A cylindrical soft-iron core is positioned between the shoes 0 thet only very narrow ait gaps exist between the core and the faces of the pole shoes, The lightweight moving coil is pivoted to move within these narrow air gaps. The air gaps are made as aris 3S Possible in order to have the strongest possible level of magnetic flux cross, ing the gaps. Figure 3-4 also shows one of the two controlling spiral springs. One end of this Spring is fastened to the pivoted coil, and the other end is connected to an adjustable zero- Position control. By means of a screw on the instrument cover, the zero-position control the instrument scale. Another detail-shown in Figure 3-4 is one of (usually) two or three counterweights imply a machine screw along which a small screw-threaded ~ It replaces the soft-iron core shown in Figure 3-4). A thick cylindrical Piece Of soft iron surrounds the coil and the magnet. The magnetic flux flows cerose the air gaps and through the soft iron, and the coil sides move wit Permanent magnet Zero contrat Pole ve Figure 3-4 A typical PMMC instrument is Constructed of a horseshoe magnet, soft-iron Pole shoes, a soft-iron core, and a suspended Coil that moves in the air gap between the Soft iron core core and the pole shoes. 34 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Soft iron cylinder Permanent magnet Permanent “a Soft iron cylinder Figure 3-5. In a core-magnet PMMC instrument, the permanent magnet is located inside the mov- ing col. and the coil and magnet are positioned inside a soft-ion cylirider. major advantage of this core-magnet type of construction is that the moving coil is shielded from external magnetic fields due to the presence of the soft-iron cylinder, The current in the coil of a PMMC instrument must flow in one particular direction to cause the pointer to move (positively) from the zero position over the scale. When the current is reversed, the interaction of the magnetic flux from the coil with that of the per- Manent magnet causes the coil to rotate in the opposite direction, and the pointer is de- flected to the left of zero (i¢., off-scale). The terminals of a PMMC instrument are identi- fied as + and ~ to indicate the correct polarity for connection, and the instrument is said to be polarized. Because it is polarized, the PMMC instrument cannot be used directly to measure alternating current. Without rectifiers, it is purely a de instrument. ‘Torque Equation and Scale When a current / flows through a one-tum coil situated in a magnetic field, a force F is exerted on each side of the coil [Figure 3-6(a) F=BIl newtons where B is the magnetic flux density in tesla, J is the current in amperes, and / is the length of the coil in meters. Since the force acts on each side of the coil, the total force for a coil of N turns is F=2BIIN newtons The force on each side acts at a radius r, producing a deflecting torque: Tp =2BlINr newton meters (N - m) = BIIN(2r) Tp =BUIND G1) where D is the coil diameter [Figure 3-6(b)]. Sec. 3-1 Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil Instrument 35(a) Force F acts on each (b) Area enclosed by side of the coil coil is X1 (©) Linear scale on a PMMC instrument Figure 3-6 |The deflecting torque on the coil of a PMMC instrument is directly propor- tional to the magnetic flux density, the coil dimensions, and the coil current. This gives the instrument a linear scale. The controlling torque exerted by the spiral springs is directly proportional to the deformation or “windup” of the springs. Thus, the controlling torque is proportional to the actual angle of deflection of the pointer: Tc =K@ where K is a constant. For a given deflection, the controlling and deflecting torques are equal: K6@ =BIIND Since all quantities except @ and / are constant for any given instrument, the deflec- tion angle is 6=C1 G2) where C is a constant. 36 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Equation 3-2 shows that the pointer deflection is always proportional to the coil Current. Consequently, the scale of the instrument is linear, or uniformly divided; that is, if 1 mA produces a 1 cm movement of the pointer from zero, 2 mA produces a 2 cm movement, and so on [see Figure 3-6(c)]. As will be explained the PMMC instrument can be used as a de voltmeter, a de ammeter, and an ohmmeter. When connected with rectifiers and transformers, it can also be employed to measure altemating voltage and current, ae 3-1 A PMMC instrument with 2.100-turn coil has a magnetic flux density in its air gaps of B= 0.2 T. The coil dimensions are D = 1 cm and / = 1.5 cm. Calculate the torque on the coil for a current of | mA. Solution Equation 3-1, Tp= BIND =0.2Tx 15x10? 1 mA x 100% 1x 107 =3x10°N-m 3.2 GALVANOMETER A galvanometer is essentially a PMMC instrument designed to be sensitive to extremely low current levels. The simplest galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument with the type of center-zero scale illustrated in Figure 3-7(a). The deflection system is arranged so that the pointer can be deflected to either right or left of zero, depending on the direction of cur- rent through the moving coil. The scale may be calibrated in microamperes, or it may sim- ply be a millimeter scale. In the latter case, the instrument current ‘sensitivity (usually stated in A/mm) is used to determine the current level that produces a measured deflection. The torque equation for a galvanometer is exactly as discussed in Section 3-1. The deflecting torque is proportional to the number of coil turns, the coil dimensions, and the current flowing in the coil. The most sensitive moving-coil galvanometers use taut-band suspension, and the controlling torque is generated by the twist in the suspension ribbon. Eddy current damping may be provided, as in other PMMC instruments, by winding the coil jonmagnetic conducting coil former. Sometimes a nonconducting coil former is “employed, and the damping currents are generated solely by the moving coil. In this case, the coil is shunted by a damping resistor which controls the level of eddy currents gener- ated by the coil movements. Frequently, a critical damping resistance value is stated, which gives just sufficient damping to allow the pointer to settle down quickly with only a very small short-lived oscillation. Sec. 3-2 Galvanometer 37(2) Center-zer0 scale Suspension ribbon Soft iron core Permanent magnet (b) Basic deflection system of a galvanometer using a light beam, Figure 3-7 A galvanometer is simply an extremely sensitive PMMC instrument with Center-zero scale, For maximum sensitivity, the mass of the moving system is minimized by using a pointer that consists of a light beam reflected from a tiny mirror fastened to the coil. With the moving-coil weight reduced to the lowest possible minimum for greatest sensitivity, the weight of the pointer can create a problem. This is solved in many instru- ‘ments by mounting a small mirror on the moving coil instead of a pointer. The mirror re- fiects a beam of light on to a scale, as illustrated in Figure 3-7(b). The light beam behaves as a very long weightless pointer which can be substantially deflected by a very small coil current. This makes light-beam galvanometers sensitive to much lower current levels than pointer instruments, Galvanometer voltage sensitivity is often expréssed for a given value of critical damping resistance. This is usually stated in microvolts per millimeter. A megohm sensi- tivity is sometimes specified for galvanometers, and this is the value of resistance that must be connected in series with the instrument to restrict the deflection to one scale divi- sion when a potential difference of 1 V is applied across its terminals. Pointer g: vanometers have current sensitivities ranging from 0.1 to 1 wA/mm. For light-beam i struments typical current sensitivities are 0,01 to 0.1 pA per scale division. 28 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Figure 3-8 An adjustable shunt resistor is, employed to protect the coil of a galvanome- {er from destructively excessive current lev- cls. The shunt resistance is initially set to zero, and then gradually increased to divert current through the galvanometer. Shum 5 resistance Example 3-2 A galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 1 A/mm and a critical damping resistance of 1 kQ. Calculate (a) the voltage sensitivity and (b) the megohm sen: Solution Voltage sensitivity = 1 kx 1 A/mm =1mVimm For a voltage sensitivity of I Vimm, 1 V/mm megohm sensitivity = TpA/mm 1M. 3-3 DC Galvanometers are often employed to detect zero current or voltage in a circuit rather than to measure the actual level of current or voltage. In this situation, the instru- ment is referred to as a null meter or null detector. A galvanometer used as a null meter must be protected from the excessive current flow that might occur when the voltage across the instrument terminals is not close to zero. Protection is provided by an ad- Justable resistance connected in shunt with the instrument. (see Figure 3-8). When the shunt resistance is zero, all of the circuit current flows through the shunt, As the shunt re~ sistance is increased above zero, an increasing amount of current flows through the gal- vanometer. Galvanometer applications have been largely taken over by electronic instru- ments that can measure extremely low levels of voltage and current. These instruments are discussed in Section 15-4. AMMETER Ammeter Circuit An ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit in which current is to be mea- sured. To avoid affecting the current level in the circuit, the ammeter must have a re: tance much lower than the circuit resistance. The PMMC instrument is an ammeter, Pointer deflection is directly proportional to the current flowing in the coil. However, Sec.3-3 DC Ammeter »PMMC instrument Ammeter shunt Current terminals {a) Construction of de ammeter Coil resistance Figure 3-9 A direct-current ammeter con- sists of a PMMC instrument and a low- Shunt resistance shunt. The meter current is direct- resistance ly proportional to the shunt current, so that the meter scale can be calibrated to indicate (b) Ammeter circuit the total ammeter current. maximum pointer deftection is produced by a very small current, and the coil is usually ‘wound of thin wire that would be quickly destroyed by large currents. For larger currents, the instrument must be modified so that most of the current to be measured is shunted around the coil of the meter. Only a small portion of the current passes through the mov- ing coil. Figure 3-9 illustrates how this is arranged. A shunt, ot very low resistance, is connected in parallel with the instrument coil [Figure 3-9(a)]. The shunt is sometimes referred to as a four-terminal resistor, because it has two sets of terminals identified as voltage terminals and current terminals. This is to ensure that the resistance in parallel with the coil (R,) is accurately defined and the con- tact resistance of the current terminals is removed from R,. Contact resistance can vary with change in current level and thus introduce errors. 40 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3In the circuit diagram in Figure 3-9(b), Ry is the meter resistance (or coil circuit re- sistance) and R, is the resistance of the shunt. Suppose that the meter resistance is exactly 99 0 and the shunt resistance is 1 ©. The shunt current (/,) will be 99 times the meter current (/,). In this situation, if the meter gives FSD for a coil current of 0.1 mA, the scale should be calibrated to read 100 x 0.1 mA or 10 mA at full scale. The relationship between shunt current and coil current is further investigated in Examples 3-3 and 3-4. Example 3-3 ‘An ammeter (as in Figure 3-9) has a PMMC instrument with a coil resistance of Ry, =99 2 and FSD current of 0.1 mA. Shunt resistance R, = |, Determine the total current pass- ing through the ammeter at (a) FSD, (b) 0.5 FSD, and (c) 0.25 FSD, Solution (a) At FSD. meter voltage Vn = InRalsee Figure 3-9b)] = 0.1 mAx99.0 =9.9mV and TR = Vou -#- anv =99mA total current 1=1,+ ly = 9.9 MA + 0.1 A =10mA (b) At 0.5 FSD: I= 0.5 0.1 mA = 0.05 mA Voy = Inn = 0.05 MA x99 01 = 4.95 mV ate ei total current I= 1,+ Iq = 495 mA +05 mA =5mA mV = 4.95 mA (c) At 0.25 FSD: Im = 0.25 X0.1 mA = 0.025 mA Von = InRm = 0.025 mA x 99 2 =2475 mV 415 mV 12 = 2.475 mA Ssc.3-3 DC Ammeter - a1total current 1 = 1, + y= 2.475 mA + 0.025 mA =25mA Ammeter Scale The total ammeter current in Example 3-3 is 10 mA when the moving-coil instrument indicates FSD. Therefore, the meter scale can be calibrated for FSD to indicate 10 mA. When the pointer indicates 0.5 FSD and 0.25 FSD, the current levels are 5 mA and 2.5 mA, respectively. Thus, the ammeter scale may be calibrated to linear- ly represent all current levels from zero to 10 mA. Figure 3-10 shows a panel meter (for mounting on a control panel) that has a direct current scale calibrated linearly from 0 mA to 50 pA. Shunt Resistance Refer again to Example 3-3. If a shunt having a smaller resistance is used, the shunt cur- rent and the total meter current will be larger than the levels calculated. In fact, shunt re- sistance values can be determined to convert a PMMC instrument into an ammeter for measuring virtually any desired level of current. Example 3-4 demonstrates how shunt re- sistances are calculated. Figure 3-10 A de ammeter made up of a PMMC instrument and a shunt has a linear current scale (Courtesy of bach-simpson limited.) a Electromechanica! Instruments Chap. 3Example 3-4 A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100 yA and a coil resistance of 1 k®. Calculate the re- quired shunt resistance value to convert the instrument into an ammeter with (a) FSD = 100 mA aad (b) FSD = 1 A. Solution (a) FSD=100mA: Ve = Inf = 100 WA x 1k = 100 mV Lt ln ~ Im = 100 mA - 100 pA = 99.9 mA 100 mV i, 99.9 mA = 1.0010 (bo) FSD=1A: a 100 mV. R= T= 9999mA = ¥-10001 2 Swamping Resistance The moving coil in a PMMC instrument is Wound with thin copper wire, and its resis- tance can change significantly when its temperature changes. The heating effect of the ceil current may be enough to produce a resistance change. Any such change in coil resis- tance‘will introduce an error in ammeter current measurements. To minimize the effect of coil resistance veriation, a swamping resistance made of manganin or constantan is con- nected in series with the coil, as illustrated in Figure 3-11. Manganin and constantan have resistance temperature coefficients very close to zero. If the swamping resistance is nine times the coil resistance, a 1% change in coil resistance would result in a total (swamping plus coil) resistance change of 0.1%. Swamping Coil resistance resistance Figure 3-11 A swamping resistance made Of a material with a near-zero temperature Coefficient can be connected in series with the coil of a PMMC instrument to minimize 5 ‘temperature errors, Sec. 3-3. DC Ammaier 43(a) Multirange ammeter (b) Make-before-break using switched shunts switch Figure 3-12 A multiringe ammeter consists of a PMMC instrument, several shunts, and S.SuUGh that makes contact with the next shunt before losing contact with the previous tance values, Maltirange Ammeters sistance of the instrument would affect the current flowing in the circuit. Move important, {(urTeat large enough to destroy the instrument might flow through its moving coil, a geg..=sseseses make- before-break switch makes contact with the next terminal before it breaks contace with the previous terminal. Thus, during switching there are actually two shunts in parallel with the instrument, Figure 3-13 shows another method of protecting the deflection instrument of an ammeter from excessive current flow when switching between shunts, Resistors Ry Ro and Rs constitute an Ayrton shunt. In Figure 3-13(a) the switch is at contact B, and the ‘otal resistance in parallel with the instrument is Ry + Ry + Rs, The meter circuit resistance remains R,, When the switch is at contact C [Figure 3-13(b)]} the resistance Asis in series with the meter, and R, + Ry is in parallel with Ry + Rs, Similarly, with the switch at contact D, R, is in parallel with Ry + Ry + Ry, Because the shunts are Permanently connected, and the switch makes contact with the shunt junctions, the de- ection instrument is never left without parallel-comnected shunt (or shunts). In Ex- “4 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3(b) (Ry +R) in parallel with (R,, + Rs) Figure 3-13 An Ayrton shunt used with an ammeter consists of several series-connect- 4 resistors all connected in parallel with the PMMC instrument. Range change is effect- ed by switching between the resistor junctions. ample 3-5 ammeter current ranges are calculated for each switch position on an Ayr- ton shunt. Example 3-5 oe A PMMC instrument has a three-resistor Ayrton shunt connected across it to make an am- meter, as in Figure 3-13. The resistance values are R, = 0.05 0, Rp =0.45 0, and Ry=4.5.0. ‘The meter has R,, = 1 kO and FSD = 50 yA. Calculate the three ranges of the ammeter. Solution Refer to Figure 3-13. Switch at contact B: V, = InRm = 50 WAX 1 KO = 50 mV fee RV +Ra+Ry 50 mV. * 00504045 rasa ~!0mA Scc.3-3 DC Ammeter 45+1,=50 HA +10mA = 10.05 mA Ammeter range = 10 mA. Switch at contact C. V.= In(Rm + Rs) = 50 HAC KN+4.5 0) =50mv oe RAR . 50 mV 052+0450 =100mA 1=50 pA +100 mA = 100.05 mA. Ammeter range = 100 mA. Switch at contact D: V, = In(Ry + Ry + Re) =50 pA KN +4.5.04+0.45 0) =50mV ¥, _ S0mv 1 0.05.2 =1A T=S0WA+1A = 1.00005 4 Ammeter range = 1 A. 3.4C VOLTMETER Voltmeter Circuit 46 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3PMMC instrument Series resistance ot “multiplier” +-———_,____ (2) Construction of de voltmeter Multiplier Coil resistance resistance \a a / S 7, Figure 314 A de voltmeter is made up of ™ &PMMC instrument and a series multiplier resistor. The meter current i direcily pro- ¥ Portional tothe applied voltage, so thatthe ; ‘meter scale ean be calibrated to indicate the (b) Voltmeter circuit anh v Solution VelW(R,+Rq) [see Figure 3-14(b)) a710 a Wi 40 | ait Wy, pe 9.¢, VOLTS, Figure 3-15 A de voltmeter using a PMMC instrument has a linear voltage scale. For V=50V FSD, Im = 100 pA SOV. = ~1ki "= Toona |e = 499k. At 0.8 FSD: In = 0.8 X 100 pA, = 80 pA V= IR, + Rn) = 80 HA(499 K+ 1 kQ) =40V AtO.S FSD: In = 50 BA V=50 wA(499 kN +1 KO) =25V 0.2 FSD: In = 20 pA V=20 wA(499 K+ 1k) =10V Swamping Resistance As in the case of the ammeter, the change in coil resistance (R,,) with temperature change can introduce errors ina PMMC voltmeter. However, the presence of the voltmeter multi. Plier resistor (R,) tends to swamp coil resistance changes, except for low voltage ranges 43 Electromechanicel Instruments Chap. 3where R, is not very much larger than R,,. R, will also be temperature sensitive to some degree (not as much as the copper wire coil), and in some cases it might be necessary to construct the multiplier resistor of manganin or constantan. Voltmeter Sensitivity The voltmeter designed in Example 3-6 has a total resistance of Ry=R, + Ry = 500 kD Since the instrument measures 50 V at full scale, its resistance per volt is 500k2 SOV = 10k0/V ‘This quantity is also termed the sensitivity of the voltmeter. The sensitivity of a voltmeter is always specified by the manufacturer, and it is frequently printed on the scale of the instrument. If the sensitivity is known, the total voltmeter resistance is easily calcu- lated as (sensitivity x range). [It is important to note that the total resistance is not (sensi- tivity x meter reading).} If the full-scale meter current is known, the sensitivity can be de- termined as the reciprocal of full-scale current. Ideally, a voltmeter should have an extremely high resistance. A voltmeter is al- ways connected across, or in parallel with, the points in a circuit at which the voltage is to be measured. If its resistance is too low, it can alter the circuit voltage. This is known as voltmeter loading effect. Multirange Voltmeter A multirange voltmeter consists of a deflection instrument, several multiplier resistors, and a rotary switch. Two possible circuits are illustrated in Figure 3-16. In Figure 3-16(a) only one of the three multiplier resistors is connected in series with the meter at any time. The range of this voltmeter is V=In(Rmp + RY where R can be R. 3, or Ry. In Figure 3-16(b} the multiplier resistors are connected in series, and each junction is connected to one of the switch terminals. The range of this voltmeter can also be caleu- lated from the equation V = [,(Rm, +R), where R can now be Ry, Ry + Rz, or Ry + Rz + Ry. Of the two circuits, the one in Figure 3-16(b) is the least expensive to construct. This is because (as shown in Example 3-7) all of the multiplier resistors in Figure 3-16(a) must be special (nonstandard) values, while in Figure 3-16(b) only R, is a special resistor and all other multipliers are standard-value (precise) resistors. Example 3-7 a A PMMC instrument with FSD = 50 pA and R,, = 1700 01 is to be employed as a volt- meter with ranges of 10 V, 50 V, and 100 V. Calculate the required values of multiplier re- sistors for the circuits of Figure 3-16(a) and (b). Sec.3-4 DC Voltmeter. aMultiptier resistors Meter resistance o-~+— v ~o- (a) Multirange volimeter using switched multiplier resistors L—o~—____), (b) Multirange voltmeter using series-connected tultiplier resistors Solution Circuit as in Figure 3-16(a): Figure 3-16 A multirange voltmeter con- sists of a PMMC instrument, several multi- plier resistors, and a switch for range selec- tion. Individual, or series-connected resistors may be used. Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3 2Circuit as in Figure 3-16(b): Rut Ry = Hh R= RR, = 2OY - 19830-1700 50 pA =800k2 Rat Ry +Ry4 R= Bo y= Bk kk, = OY 400 ka ~ 198.3 k1- 1700.0 50 pA =1MQ 3-5 RECTIFIER VOL? VETER PMMC Instrument on AC As discussed earlier, the PMMC instrument is polarized, that is, its terminals are identi- fied as + and ~, and it must be connected correctly for positive (on-scale) deflection to occur, When an alternating current with a very low frequency is passed through a PMMC instrument, the i of the ac. As the current _ 70. Boes negative, the pointer is deflected (off-scale) to the left of zero. This Kind c: pointer movement can occur only with ac having a frequericy of perhaps 0.1 Hz oF lower. With the normal 60 Hz or higher supply frequencies, the damping mechanismage value of the current flowing through the moving coil. The average value of purely si- nusoidal ac is zero. Therefore, a PMMC instrument connecied directly to measure 60 Hz ‘ac indicates zero. I at td an ac supply may be indicating zero, there can actually be a.very large rms current flow- ing in its coils . Full-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter Rectifier instruments use silicon or germanium diodes to convert altemating current to a series of unidirectional current pulses, which produce positive deflection when passed through a PMMC instrument. The full-wave bridge rectifier circuit in Figure 3-17 passes the positive half-cycles of the sinusoidal input waveform and inverts the negative half- cycles. When the input is positive, diodes D, and D, conduct, causing current to flow through the meter from top to bottom, as shown. When the input goes negative, D, and D3 conduct, and current again flows through the meter from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. The resulting current waveform is a scries of positive half-cycles with- out any intervening spaces (see Figure 3-17). As in the case of a de voltmeter, the rectifier voltmeter circuit in Figure 3-17 uses a series-connected multiplier resistor to limit the current flow through the PMMC instru- ment. The meter deflection is proportional to the average current, which is 0.637 x peak current. Bu: the actual current (or voltage) to be indicated in ac measurements is normal- ly the rms quantity, which is 0.707 of the peak value, or 1.11 times the average value. Since there are direct relationships between rms, peak, and average values, the meter scale can be calibrated to indicate rms volts. 5.07/ A rectifier voltmeter as discussed above is for use only on pure sine-wave voltages, When other than pure sine waves aré applied, the voltmeter will nor indicate the rms volt- age. PMMC \/. ma “SAAR Figure 3.17 An ac voltmeter may be constructed of a PMMC instrument, a multiplier resistor, and a full-wave bridge rectifier. The instrument scale is correct only for pure sine waves. 52 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3 19. It is important to note that although a PMMC instrument connected towe 3-8 APMMC instrument with FSD = 100 A and R,, = 1 k9 is to be employed as an ac volt- meter with FSD = 100 V (rms). Silicon diodes are used in the bridge rectifier circuit of Figure 3-17. Calculate the multiplier resistance value required. Solution At FSD, the average current flowing through the PMMC instrument is Igy = 100 BA ty. _ 100 pA - = 0637 ~ 0637 157 BA (applied peak v (rectifier volt droy total circuit resistance peak current Iq = In= rectifier volt drops = 2Vr (for D, and D, or Dz and Ds) applied peak voltage = 1.414Vim total circuit resistance = R, + Rm 1.414V ya — 2Vr ) kere = 1.414Ving — 2Ve ~Re In _ (1.414 x 100 V)- 2x 0.7V) _ . 157 pA 1k =890.7kN eee ——s—Cc ite Example 3-9 / Calculate the pointer indications for the voltmeter in Example 3-8, when the rms input voltage is (a) 75 V and (b) 50 V. Solution . . 1.414Vi,~ 25 @ Jay = 0.631 o.es7( a =063{ (1.414 x75 V)- 2x07 »| 890.7kN + 1kO = 75 pA=0.75 FSD Sec.3-5 Rectifier Voltmeter 533414 x50 V)~ 2x07 v) ” - oss 890.7 kN + 1k. | = 50HA=0.5 FSD SO Example 3-10 Calculate the sensitivity of the voltmeter in Example 3-8, Solution In = 157 pa, a. = 0.7071, = 0.707 x 157 pA. = 111 pA (at FSD) ‘Vana = 100 V (at FSD) = lov | total R= TT 900.9 ko ane R . soiiviye B 20980 yy = 9.009 kOVV =9kQWV 2 conducts duting the negative half-cycies of thu input. When conducting, D, causes a small voltage drop (V,) across D; and the meter, thys preventing the flow of any signifi. sctint revere vont NOUBA the meer via Dy, Die Ds aes oc any Sei ‘against reverse voltages, ‘The waveform of voltage developed across the meter and Rey is a series ofPMMC instrument Figure 3-18 Half-wave rectification may be used with a PMMC instrument and a multiplier resis- tor for ac voltage measurements. A shunt resistor (Rex) is included to ensure a satisfactory retifier forward current level. The additional rectifier (D;) minimizes reverse leakage curret through Ds. Example 3-11 A PMMC instrument with FSD = 50 pA and R,, = 1700 Q is used in the half-wave recti- fier voltmeter circuit illustrated in Figure 3-18. The silicon diode (D,) must have a mini- mum (peak) forward current of 100 1A when the measured voltage is 20% of FSD. The voltmeter is to indicate 50 V rms at full scale. Calculate the values of R, and Rsy. Solution At FSD, Iq) = 50 pA. Meter peak current, eee ee I= 5x 0637 * 05x0.637 At 20% of FSD, diode peak current I, must be at least 100 yA; therefore, at 100% of FSD, 100% Irges = “agg * 100 HA = 500 WA Teigeas) = Im * Is Tstacpeaty = Tripesty ~ Im = 500 WA ~ 157 pA = 343 pA Vonipeak) = Imm = 157 pA x 1700 2. = 266.9 mV Vipers) _> 266.9 mV = Yarn - 2669mV _ 7g 9 FS Tanga) BHA (applied peak voltage) ~ Vngeay~ Tages) =e A 14Vina~ Vga) ~ Ve Ig) = Sec. 3-5 Rectifier Voltmeter 5S1.414Vins — Vonipeaty — Ve Trtpess) = (1414 x50 V) ~ 266.9 mV -0.7V 500 WA, = 139.5k0 ee Half-Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter The circuit in Figure 3-19 is that of an ac voltmeter employing a half-bridge full-wave employed instead of the four diodes used in a full-wave bridge rectifier This circuit pass- es full-wave rectified current through the meter, but as in the circuit of Figure 3-1 of the current bypasses the meter, During the Positive half-cycle of the input, diode D, is forward biased and Dy is re- verse biased. Current flows from terminal | through D, and the meter (positive to nega- tive), and then through R, to terminal 2. But R, isin parallel withthe meter and R,, which While nhs saat series. Therefore, much of the current flowing in D, passes through Ri), while only part of it flows through the meter and Ry, During the negative half-cycle of the input, Ds is forward biaéed and D, is reverse biased. Current nom flows from terminal 2 through R, and the meter, and through D, to terminal 1. Now, R; is in Parallel with the Series-connected meter and R,. Once again, much of the diode current bypasses the meter by flowing through R,. This arrangement forces the diodes to operate beyond the knee of their characteristics and helps to compensate for differences thee might occur in the char- acteristics of D, and Dp. 3-6 RECTIFIER AMMETER Like a de ammeter, an ac ammeter must have a very low resistance because it is. al- ways connected in series with the circuit in which current is to be measured. This R Figure 3.19 Circuit of an ac voltmeter using a half-bridge full-wave rectifier, The ‘resistors inthe half-bridge circuit appear in Parallel with the PMC instrument during altemate half-cycles to Ensure a satisfactory ‘rectifier forward current, 56 Electromechanical Instruments Chap, 3low-resistance requirement means that the voltage drop across the ammeter must be very small, typically not greater than 100 mV. However, the voltage drop across a diode is 0.3 to 0.7 V, depending on whether the diode is made from germanium or sil- icon. When a bridge rectifier circuit is employed, the total diode volt drop is 0.6 to 1.4 V, Clearly, a rectifier instrument is not suitable for direct application as an ac am- meter. The use of a current transformer (Figure 3-20) gives the ammeter a low terminal resistance and low voltage drop. The transformer also steps up the input voltage (more secondary turns than primary turns) to provide sufficient voltage to operate the rectifiers, and at the same time it steps down the primary current to a level suitable for measurement by a PMMC meter. Since the transformer is used in an ammeter circuit, the current trans- formation ratio [y/1, = N,/N, is very important. A precise load resistor (R,, in Figure 3-20) is connected across the secondary wind- ing of the transformer. This is selected to take the portion of secondary current not re- quired by the meter. For example, suppose that the PMMC instrument requires 100 1A (average) for FSD, and the current transformer has N, = 2000 and N, = 5. If the rms pri- mary current is 100 mA, the secondary rms current is 5 L= > = 250 pA = Fp * 100 mA = 250 p. or an average of te a x 250 WA =225.2 pA Since the meter requies 100 A for FSD, the value of Rj is calculated to pass the remain- ing 125.2 pA. ‘The range of the instrument can be changed by switching-in different values of load resistance. Another method of range changing involves the use of additional terminals (or taps) on the primary winding to alter the number of primary tums, as shown in Figure 3-20. a bn Rn WR a transformer a Figure 3-20 Ac ammeter circuit consisting of a current transformer, full-wave bridge rectifier, and a PMMC instrument. Sec. 3-6 Rectifier Ammeter s7Example 3 -12 / A rectifier ammeter with the circuit shown in Figure 3-20 is to give FSD for a primary current of 250 mA. The PMMC meter has FSD = | mA and R,, = 1700 ©. The current transformer has N, = 500 and N, = 4. The diodes each have Vr = 0.7 V, and the series re- sistance is R, = 20 kQ. Calculate the required value of R,. Solution 4, 1mA i" a ae Peak meter current In= 5 65> = 637 =157mA Transformer secondary peak voltage, Eq = In(Re+ Rm) + 2V¢ 57 mA (20 kM + 1700.9) +1.4V or secondary voltage and Ne i WN, 4 = 250 mA x 500 = Wal Im =2mA-— 1.11 mA=0.89 mA - t, 0.89mA = 282k 3-7 DEFLECTION INSTRUMENT ERRORS Reading Errors ‘Some sources of error in measurements made by deflection instruments bearing fric- tion, improperly adjusted zero, and incorrect reading of the pointer indication. Zero and friction errors can be minimized by carefully adjusting the mechanical zero of an instru- 58 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3ment before use and by gently tapping the meter to relieve friction when zeroing and reading. Portable instruments should normally be used lying flat on their backs. Care in deciding the exact position of the pointer on the scale will reduce reading erfors. Even with an accurately marked scale and a sharp pointer, two observers may disagree about the exact scale reading. This occurs because of parallax error: the uncertainty about the eye of the observer being directly in line with the end of the pointer. Parallax crroriselim- inated in good instruments by the use of a knife-edge pointer and a mirror alongside the scale. When an observer lines up the pointer and the mirror image of the pointer, the observer's eye is exactly in the line with the pointer, and the scale can then be read accurately. Specified Accuracy High-quality instruments may have their accuracy specified as a percentage of the actual scale reading, or measured quantity. However, for most deflection instruments, manufac- turers specify the accuracy as a percentage of FSD. This means, for example, that an in- strument that gives FSD for a coil current of 100 wA, and which is specified as accurate to +1%, has atl wA ‘accuracy at all points on its scale. Thus, as demonstrated in Exam- ple 3-13, the measurement error becomes progressively greater for low scale readings. Example 3-13 x An instrument that indicates 100 1A at FSD has a specified accuracy of +1%. Calculate the upper and lower limits of measured current and the percentage error in the measure- ment for (a) FSD and (b) 0.5 FSD. Solution (a) At FSD: indicated current = 100 pA error = 41% of 100 pA =21 WA ‘actual measured current = 1001 1A =9910 101 nA error = £1% of measured current (b) At0.5 FSD: indicated current = 0. error = 41% of FSD =41pa ‘actual measured current = 50 pA £1 pA =49 pA to 5] pA Sec. 3-7 Deflection Instrument Errors 59+1 pA SOuA % 100% = +2% of measured current ae 3-8 SERIES OHMMETER Basic Circuit An ohmmeter (ohm-meter) is normally part of a volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM), or multi- function meter. Obmmeters do not usually exist as individual instruments. The simplest ohmmeter circuit consists of a voltage source connected in series with a pair of terminals, a standard resistance, and a low-current PMMC instrument. Such a circuit is shown in Figure 3-21(a). The resistance to be measured (R,) is connected across terminals A and B. The meter current indicated by the instrument in Figure 3-21(a) is (battery volt- age)/(total series resistance): Resistance to be measured Standard resistance Meter resistance Meter (a) Basic circuit of series ohmmeter Ohms 15k ~ * 5 * » i & % 75 (b) Ohmmeter scale Figure 3:21 Basic series ohmmeter circuit consisting of a PMMC instrument and a series-connected standard resistor (Rj). When the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full-scale deflection occurs. At half-scele deflection Ry = Rj, and at zero 4 deflection the terminals are open-circuited. o Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Ey se; 7 RFR +Ry When the external resistance is zero (i.e., terminals A and B short-circuited), Equa- tion 3-3 becomes. _ n= RR, If R; and Ry» are selected (or if Ry is adjusted) to give FSD when A and B are short-circuited, FSD is marked as zero ohms. Thus, for R, = 0, the pointer indicates 0 {see Figure 3-21(b)}. When terminals A and B are open-circuited, the effective value of resistance R, is infinity. No meter current flows, and the pointer indicates zero current. This point (zero current) is marked as infinity (ce) on the resistance scale (Figure 3-21(b)}. Ifa resistance R, with a value between zero and infinity is connected across te nals A and B, the meter current is greater than zero but less than FSD. The pointer post. tion on the scale now depends on the relationship between R, and R, +R. Ths is demonstrated by Example 3-14, Example 3-14 The series ohmmeter in Figure 3-21(a) is made up of a 1.5 V battery, a 100 A meter, and a resistance R, which makes (R, + R,,) = 15 kQ. (a) Determine the instrument indication when R, = 0. (b) Determine how the resistance scale should be marked at 0.5 FSD, 0.25 FSD, and 0.75 FSD. Solution (a) Equation 3-3, le eer wee = 100 wA (FSD) (6) Ac0.5 FSD: t= OBA = 50 ua From Equation 3-3, Ret Ri + Ram Ee R= a aR) Sec.3-8 Series Ohmmeter a10.25 FSD: 10.75 FSD: internal resistance of the ohmmeter (i.e, .= Ri + Ry). This makes sense because at FSD the total Tesistance is Ri +R,, and when the resistance is doubled, Re+R +R, = Ry + Rn), the circuit current is halved, Ohmmeter with Zero Adjust E, 43, 4 Re+R, ~~ a Electromechanical Instruments ‘Chap. 3Also, the meter voltage is Vin = Iy(RallRn) which gives meter current as (3-5) Each time the ohmmeter is used, terminals A and B are first short-circuited, and Ry is adjusted for zero-ohm indication on the scale (i.e., for FSD). If this procedure is fol- lowed, then even when the battery voltage falls below its initial level, the scale remains correct. Example 3-15 demonstrates that this is so. ae 3-15 The ohmmeter circuit in Figure 3-22 has E, = 1.5 V, Ry = 15 kO, Ry, = 50 Q, Ry = 50.0, and meter FSD = 50 4A. Determine the ohmmeter scale reading at 0.5 FSD, and deter. mine the new resistance value that R, must be adjusted to when E, falls to 1.3 V. Also, re- calculate the value of R, at 0.5 FSD when E, = 1.3 V. Solution At 0.5 FSD, with Ey = 1.5 V, Von = In X Ry =25 WA X 50.0 =1.25 mV pa Yn = 1250 R500 =25 pA Iy= lh In =25 wA+25 pA =50 nA RAR, = Fe hs Figure 3-22 An adjustable resistor (R;) connected in parallel with the meter pro- Vides an ohmmeter zero control, The ohm- ‘meter terminals are intially short-circuited And the zero contro i adjusted to gi zero-ohms reading. This due to variations inthe battery voltage. Sec.3-8 Series Ohmmeter 63=30k0 Re=30kKO.~ R, = 30k 15k = 15K With R, =O and E, = 1.3 V, ie & 3V. RAR, OF 15D = 86.67 pA 12= ly Inurs0) = 86.67 BA ~ 50 pA. = 36.67 pA Vm = Inn = 50 WA x 50.0 =25mv = 68.18. At0.5 FSD, with , = 1.3, Vm = Im X Ry = 25 WA x 50.0. = 1.25 mV Vn _ 1.25 mV ota. BR 68.182 = 18.33 pa In= I+ In = 18.33 BA +25 pA = 43.33 wa R+R,= fe. 13V ty 43.33 A =30kN R= kKA-R, =30k0- 15K =15kO 3-9 SHUNT OHMMETER Circuit and Scaleof the zero control (R, in Figure 3-22) would have to be made every time the resistance range is changed. In the shunt ohmmeter circuit, this adjustment is not necessary; once zeroed, the instrument can be switched between ranges with only minor zero adjust- ments. Figure 3-23(a) shows the circuit of a typical multirange shunt ohmmeter as found in good-quality multifunction deflection instruments, The deflection meter used gives FSD when passing 37.5 A, and its resistance (R,) is 3.82 kQ. The zero control is a 5 kO vari- able resistance, which is set to 2.875 kQ when the battery voltages are at the normal lev- els. Two batteries are included in the circuit; a 1.5 V battery used on all ranges except the Rx 10 kM range, and a 15 V battery solely for use on the R x 10 kA range. R,, the resis- tance to be measured, is connected at the terminals of the circuit. The terminals are iden- tified as + and — because the ohmmeter circuit is part of an instrument that also functions as an ammeter and as a voltmeter. It is important to note that the negative terminal of each battery is connected to the + terminal of the multifunction instrument. The range switch in Figure 3-23(a) has a movable contact that may be step-rotated clockwise or counterclockwise. The battery terminals on the rotary switch are seen to be longer than any other terminals, so that they make contact with the largest part of the movable contact, while the other (short) terminals reach only to the tab of the moving contact. In the position shown, the R x 1 k terminal is connected (via the movable con- tact) to the + terminal of the 1.5 V battery. If the movable contact is step-rotated clock- wise, it will connect the 1.5 V battery in tum to R x 100, R x 10, and R x | terminals. When rotated one step counterclockwise from the position shown, the movable contact is disconnected from the 1.5 V battery, and makes contact between the R x 10 k terminal and the + terminal of the 15 V battery. In Figure 3-23(b) the typical scale and controls for this type of ohmmeter are ‘illus- trated. When the range switch is set to R x 1, the scale is read directly in ohms. On any other range the scale reading is multiplied by the rerge factor. On R x 100, for example, the pointer position illustrated would be read as 30.0 x 100 = 3 kQ. The instrument must be zerved before use to take care of battery voltage variation. This can be performed on any range, simply by short-circuiting the + and ~ terminals and adjusting the zero control until the pointer indicates exactly 0 2. When changing to or from the R x 10 k(2 range, the ohmmeter zero must always be checked because the circuit supply is being switched between the 15 V and 1.5 V batteries. ‘The vhmmeter equivalent circuit for.the R x 1 range is shown in Figure 3-24. Cur- rent and resistance calculations are made in Example 3-16. Example 3-16 Calculate the meter current and indicated resistance for the ohmmeter circuit of Figure 3-23(a) on its R x 1 range when (a) R, = 0 and (b) R, = 24.9. Solution The equivalent circuit in Figure 3-24 is derived from Figure 3-23(a), for the RX1 range, Sec. 3-9 Shunt Ohmmeter 6Zero control a 37.5 HA Movable contact (a) Multirange ohmmeter circuit (b) Range switch and scale Figure 3-23 Circuit, scale, and range switch for a typical multirange shunt ohmmeter, as used on 8 multifunc- tion analog instrument. The 15 V battery is used only on the R x 10 kG range, and the 1.5 V battery is the sup- + ply for all other ranges. 62.875 k2 gs02 ko Figure 3:24. Equivalent cit ofthe mul tirange shunt ohmmeter (Figure 3-23) on the CBorsan Beton etre sum of he 5K, 90002 nd 90 freeston. ‘The 2875 kcband he 382 BO resinors ae the 2 coed ad ier einen, minty (a) When R, =0: battery current, 1sv 6 FATTO MOHD + 28S IN IHD] 7 1sv 14 2+ (10 QI6875 KD] = 62.516 mA Using the current divider rule: 0a meter current Iy = 62.516 MA xp = 37.5 pA = full scale=0.0 (6) When Ry = 24.2: 1sVv ts” eae 1d a+ (0 AIKTE6BS KD) 31.254 mA 00 Im = 31.254 mA x yeaa = 18.72 pA » half scale= 24.2 Obmmeter Accuracy Referring to Figure 3-23(b), it is clear that the ohmmeter scale is nonlinear. On the R x 1 range the pointer indicates 24 Q at 0.5 FSD. At 0.9 FSD, the indicated resistance is 2.6 Q, and at 0.1 FSD the resistance measured is 216 ©. (Although they are not marked Sec. 3-9 Shunt Ohmmeter o7on the scale, these resistance values can be calculated for 0.9 and 0.1 FSD.) Therefore, in the range 0.1 to 0.9 FSD, resistance values from 2.6 £2 to 216 © can be measured. But the portion of the scale from 0.1 FSD to zero deflection includes all resistance-values from 216 © to infinity. Also, that part of the scale from 0.9 FSD to FSD covers all resistance values from 2.6 0 to 0 2. Clearly, on this range of the ohmmeter; resistance values from 0 to 2.6 2 and from 216 2 to infinity cannot be measured or even oughly estimated. For example, at what points on the scale would 0.01 2 and 200 kQ be found? The useful range of the ohmmeter scale is seen to be approximately from 10% to 90% of FSD. Now consider the actual accuracy of the resistance measurement. As already demonstrated, an ohmmeter indicates 0.5 FSD when the measured re- sistance R, is equal to the ohmmeter internal resistance. Also, it was explained in Section 3-7 that the current meter accuracy is usually specified as a percentage of full scale, Now consider the errors that may occur in resistance measurement by an ohmmeter that uses an instrument with an accuracy of +1%. At 0.5 FSD, the accuracy of pointer deflection is +1% of FSD, which, when used as a current meter, is +2% of the indicated current. Also, at 0.5 FSD, (measured resis- tance R,) = (ohmmeter intemal resistance R,) and Ey = RAR, Since the current meter accuracy (at 0.5 FSD) is #2% of the indicated current, the accuracy of I, is +2%. Consequently, the accuracy of the total circuit resistance is £2% (assuming that the ohmmeter was initially zeroed to suit the battery voltage). If R, is made up of precision resistors, virtually none of the +2% resistance error can be assumed to reside in R,. All of the resistance error must exist in R,, the measured resistance. The total resistance error is +2% of (R, + R,). Since R, = R, at 0.5 FSD, the total error in R, is = +2% of (2R,) = +4% of R,. Thus, an ohmmeter that uses precision intemal resistors and a current meter with an accuracy of +1% of FSD measures resistance at 0.5 FSD with an accuracy of £4%. Example 3-17 Analyze the accuracy of the ohmmeter in Figure 3-21(a) when the pointer is at 0.8 FSD if the meter used has a 1% accuracy. Solution A108 FSD: E R= 2 an CT and =p, Trso. so R,+R,= Ba 1.25R, * 08 68 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3or 125R,-R, 0.25R, =R, Ria AR, total error = 1% of FSD S| # of pointer indication = 1.25% of pointer indication total R, error = 1.25% of (Ry + R,) : 25% of (4R, + R,) 25% of Ry The analysis above demonstrates that when indicating half-scale deflection, the ohmmeter error is +4 (current meter error). Also, at 0.8 FSD the ohmmeter error is +6.25 (meter error). Similarly, at 0.2 FSD the ohmmeter eiror can be shown to be £6.25 (meter error). It is seen that for greatest accuracy the ohmmeter range'should always be selected to give an indication as close as possible to 0.5 FSD. 3-10 VOLT-OHM-MILLIAMMETER As its name suggests, the volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) is a multifunction instrument that can be used to measure voltage resistance and current. All VOMs can measure resis- tance, de voltage, de current, and ac voltage. Some can also measure ac current, and some have decibel scales. A typical good-quality analog VOM (the Simpson 250) is illustrated in Figure 3-25. Front Panel Controls ‘The left-hand and central knobs on the instrument in Figure 3-25 are used for function and range selections. The righ-hand knob is a ZERO OHMS control for the ohmmeter function. The mechanical zero control is just below the base of the pointer. The available ‘selections for the left-hand knob are: AC VOLTS: for ac voltage measurements DC or +DC: for de current and voltage measurements Musical note symbol: for continuity testing ‘The central knob has the following function and range selections: 2.5 V to 1000 V: for ac or de voltage measurements Sec. 3-10 Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter oFigure 3-25 Typical deflection volt-ohm- ‘milliammeter, or multimeter. (Courtesy of bach-simpson limited.) 1 mA to 500 mA: for de current measurements (note that the instrument manufac- turer uses MA as the symbol for milliamperes) (R x 1) to (R x 10,000): for resistance measurements Terminals ‘The terminals marked + (plus) and — (minus) (also identified as COMMON) are those normally employed for all voltage, current, and resistance measurements. With the central selector switch at the 250 V 500 V 1000 V position, the maximum measured voltage is 250 V when using the plus and common terminals. A maximum of 500 V can be mea- sured if the input is applied to the common and 500 V AC DC terminals. Similarly, for 1000 V maximum, the input should be connected to the common and 1000 V AC DC ter- minals. The -/0 A and +/0 A terminals’are used for 1 A to 10 A de measurements, and the OUTPUT 350 VDC terminal is for decibel measurements. Overload Protection ‘The deflecting coil in a PMMC instrument is-normally wound of fine copper wire with a plastic film or varnish-type insulation. If the coil current is too high, the insulation may m0 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3be destroyed by overheating, and in extreme circumstances the copper wire might be melted. The instrument in Figure 3-25 is equipped with an overload protection circuit (as well as fuses). When the meter current exceeds a maximum safe level, the overload de- vice open-circuits the instrument internally, and the RESET button pops up. The device is reset by pushing the button down. Scales ‘The instrument shown in Figure 3-25 has a knife-edge pointer and a mirror scale to avoid parallax error (see Section 3-7). The top scale is used only for resistance measurements. ‘When the (R x I) range is selected, the resistance is read directly in ohms. On the (R x 100) and (R x 10,000) ranges, the scale reading must be multiplied by the appropriate factor. Thus, at center scale, the measured resistance might be 15 22, 1500 Q, or 150 kO, depending on the range selected. The 0 to 250 V scale is read as 0 to 2.5 V when the 2.5 V range is selected, and as 0 10 25 V for the 25 V range. For the 10 V and 50 V ranges, the appropriate scale markings are read. An AC AMP CLAMP scale is provided for use with a clamping-type high-current probe. (This is discussed in Section 4-7.) A decibel scale is also included for measuring audio power levels. Accuracy ‘The specified accuracy for the Simpson 260 is +2% of full scale for de voltage and cur- rent, +3% of full scale for ac voltage, and 2° to 25° ARC for resistance measurements. The most accurate voltage or current measufement is made on the range that gives the greatest on-scale deflection. Greatest accuracy of resistance measurement is made when the pointer is closest to half-scale (see Section 3-9). VOMs can typically be used for ac measurements up to a frequency of about 100 kHz. Using a VOM as a de Ammeter 1. Set the function and range switches to +DC and 500 MA (the largest selectable range). 2. If necessary, adjust the mechanical zero control to set the pointer exactly at zero on the scale. Tap the instrument gently to relieve friction when zeroing. 3. Connect the instrument in series with the circuit or component in which the current is to be measured, with (conventional) current direction into the + terminal and out of the COMMON terminal. (If the current direction is reversed, positive pointer de- flection can be obtained by switching from +DC to ~DC.) 4, Adjust the range selection to give the greatest possible on-scale deflection. 5. Tap the instrument gently to relieve friction when reading the pointer position. ‘When using the instrument as an ammeter, there will be a voltage drop across the instrument, which might have some effect on the current being measured. The ammeter voltage drop for the Simpson 260 ranges from 250 mV to 500 mV. Sec. 3-10 Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter nUsing a VOM as a de‘Voltmeter 1. Set the function and range switches to +DC and 250 V (the largest selectable range) 2. If necessary, adjust the mechanical 2ero control to set the pointer exactly at zero on the scale. Tap the instrument gently to relieve friction when zeroing. 3. Connect the instrument in parallel with the circuit or component that is to have its voltage measured. The + terminal should be connected to the most positive of the two points at which the voltage is to be. measured. The COMMON terminal should be connected to the most negative of the two points, (If the voltage polarity is re- versed, positive pointer deflection can be obtained by switching from +DC to -DC.) 4. Adjust the range selection to give the greatest possible on-scale deflection, 5. Tap the instrument gently to relieve friction when reading the pointer position. When using the VOM as a voltmeter, the instrument resistance might affect the measured voltage. The voltmeter resistance can be calculated as (sensitivity x range), For the Simpson 260, the specified sensitivity is marked on the lower left-hand side of the scale as 20,000 QV. Using a VOM as an ac Voltmeter 1. Set the function and range switches to AC VOLTS ONLY and 250 V (the largest se- lectable range). 2. Continue as for a de voltmeter, with the exception that terminal polarity need not be observed. For ac voltmeter applications, the sensitivity of the Simpson 260 is 5 kO/V. VOM Probes The range of a VOM can be extended by the use of high-voltage, high-current, and high- frequency probes. These are exactly as discussed in Section 4-7. 3-11 ELECTRODYNAMIC INSTRUMENT Construction and Operation ‘The basic construction of an electrodynamic or dynamometer instrument is illustrated in Figure 3-26(a). When this is compared to:the PMMC instrument in Figure 3-4, itis seen that the major difference is that two magnetic field coils are substituted in place of the Permanent magnet. The magnetic field in which the moving coil is pivoted is generated by passing a current through the stationary field coils. When a current flows through the pivoted coil, the two fluxes interact (as in the PMMC instrument), causing the coil and Pointer to be deflected. Spiral’springs provide controlling force and connecting leads to the pivoted coil. Zero adjustment and moving system balance are also as in the PMMC. instrument. n Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Pointer Moving coil Control spring (a) Coil arrangement (b) Air damping system Figure 3.26 An electrodynamic instrument has a moving coil, as in a PMMC instrument, but the magnetic fetd is produced by two current-carrying field coils instead of a magnet. Damping is pro. Vided by an enclosed vane. Another major difference from the PMMC instrument is that the electrodynam- ic instrument usualy has air damping. A lightweight vane pushes air around in an enclosure when the pivoted coil is in motion [see Figure 3-26(b)]. This damps out all rapid movements and oscillations of the moving system. As will be explained, ~tlectrodynamic instruments can be used on ac. The altemating current would induce _ “unwanted eddy Currents in a_metallic coil former. Therefore, the_damiping” method employed in a PMMC instrument would not be suitable for an electrodyi instru- ment. Normally, there is no iron core in an electrodynamic instrument, so the flux path is entirely an air path. Consequently, the field flux is much smaller than in a PMMC instru- Ment. To produce a strong enough deflecting torque, the moving-coil current must be much larger than the small currents required in a PMMC instrument. - As in the case of the PMMC instrument, the deflecting torque of an electrodynam- ic instrument is dependent on field flux, coil current, coil dimensions, and number of coil tums. However, the field flux is directly proportional to the current through the field coils, and the moving-coil flux is directly proportional to the current through the mov- ing coil. Consequently, the deflecting torque is proportional to the product of the two currents: Tp © There coit Imoving coit When the same current flows through field coils and pivoted coil, the deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current: Thx P Sec.3-11 Electrodynamic Instrument 73This gives the deflection angle as (3-6) e deflection is proportional to /?, the scale of the instru- hand) end and spaced out at the high end, ta instrument compared to a PMMC /er_sensit inear scale. A major advantage of the electrodynamic instrument is S fiat polacized; that is, a b ‘ained regardless of the direction of currentin the Coils. Thus the instrument can be u to measure ac or de. AC Operation Consider Figure 3-27 in which the fixed and moving coils of an electrodynamic instru- Tment are shown connected in series. In Figure 3-27(a) the current direction is such that the flux of the field coils sets up S poles at the ‘op, and N poles at the bottom of each coil The mo. ing-coil flux produces an N pole at the right-hand side of the coil, and an § pole at the left-hand side. The N pole of the moving coil is a Scale Moving \, Field coil coils (a) Current flowing from top to bottor produces po: deflection (b) Current flowing from bottom to top also Produces positive deflection Figure 327 Positive defection'of pointer occurs in an electrodynamic instrument regardless of current direction. The instrument can be used directly for both ac, and de measurements, 4 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3 ieneNow consider what occurs when the current through all three coils is reversed. Fig- ure 3-27(b) shows that the reversed current causes the field coils to set up N poles at the top and S poles at the bottom of each coil. The moving-coil flux is also reversed so that it has an S pole at the right-hand side and an N pole at the left. Once again similar poles are adjacent, and repulsion produces clockwise rotation of the coil and pointer. It is seen that the electrodynamic instrument has a positive deflection, regardless of the direction of current through the meter. Consequently, the terminals are nor marked + and ~ (i.e., the instrument is not polarized). As already explained, the electrodynamic instrument deflection is proportional to /? when the same current flows in'the moving coil and field coils). When used on ac, e deflection settles down to a position proportional to the average value of 7”. Thus, the ‘deflection is proportional to the mean-squared value of the current. Since the scale of the meter is calibrated to indicate [rather than 7°, the meter indicates root-mean-squared™ current, or the rms value, The rms value has the same effect as a numerically équiv: “de Value. Therefore, the scale of the instrument can be read a8 either de or rms ac. This is “the characteristic of a transfer instrument, which can be calibrated on dc and then used to _measure ac. (Voltmeters are available that operate on an electrostatic principle. These are “also acide transfer instruments.) Because the reactance of the coils increase rapidly with increasing frequency, elec- trodynamic instruments are useful only at low frequencies. Electrodynamic wattmeters, in particular, perform very satisfactorily at domestic and industrial power frequencies. Electrodynamic Voltmeter and Ammeter Figure 3-28(a) shows the usual circuit arrangement for an electrodynamic voltmeter. Since a voltmeter must have a high resistance, all three coils are connected in series, and a multiplier resistor (made of manganin or‘constantan) is included. When the total resis- tance of the coils, and the required current for FSD are known, the multiplier resistance is calculated exactly as for de voltmeters. The instrument scale can be read either as de volt- age or rms ac voltage. Because electrodynamic instruments usually require at least 100 mA for FSD, an electrodynamic voltmeter has a much lower sensitivity than a PMMC voltmeter. At 100 mA FSD, the sensitivity is 1/100 mA = 10 Q/V. For a 100 V instrument, this sensitivity gives a total resistance of only 1k. Therefore, an electrodynamic voltmeter is not suit- able for measuring voltages in electronic circuits because of the loading effect. In an electrodynamic ammeter, the moving coil and its series-connected swamping resistance are connected in parallel with the ammeter shunt. This is illustrated in Figure 3-28(b). The two field coils should be connected in series with the parallel arrangement of shunt and moving coil, as shown. Because the field coils are always passing the actual current to be measured, resis- tance changes in the coils with temperature variations have no effect on the instrument performance. However, as in PMMC ammeters, the moving coil must have a manganin or constantan swamping resistance connected in series. Also, the shunt resistor must be made of manganit The scale of the electrodynamic ammeter can be read either as de levels or rms ac values. Like the electrodynamic voltmeter, this instrument can be calibrated on de and then used to measure either de or ac. Sec. 3-11 Electrodynamic Instrument 15Muhtiplier resistor A Field Moving - al coils v: (a) Electrodynamic voltmeter Swamping resistor Figure 3.28 For use as a voltmeter, an ¢lectrodynamic instrument has the field Coils, moving coil, and multiplier resistor all Connected in series. For use as an ammeter, the field coils are seriesed with the parallel. (b) Electrodynamic ammeter ‘connected shunt and moving-coil circuit. Electrodynamic Wattmeter For both de and ac applications, the most important use of the electrodynamic instrument is as a wattmeter. The coil connections for power measurement are illustrated in Figure 3-29(a). The field coils are connected in series with the load in which power is to be mea- currents, deflection = C x El, where C is a constant, or meter indication = EI watts. In Figure 3-29(b) the electrodynamic wattmeter is shown in a slightly less complicated form fran in Figure 3-29(a). A single-coil symbol is used to represent the two series-connected field coils. trument would still have a posi- {ve deflection. In ac circuits where the supply polarity is reversing continuously, the cles, todynamic wattmeter gives a positive indication proportional to Em]. Like electrody- namic ammeters and voltmeters, the wattmeter can be calibrated on de and then used 7p Measure power in either de or ac circuits, In ac circuits the load current may lead or lag the load voltage by a phase angle . ‘The wattmeter deflection is proportional to the in-phase components of the caren ar vollage. As shown in Figure 3-25(c), the instrument deflection is proportional to EI eve % Electromechunical Instruments Chap. 3Supply | E Load in which power is to be measured Multiplier z resistor (a) Electrodynamic wattmeter circuit Series-connected - field coils (c) Wattmeter measures ET cos ¢ Figure 3.29 An electrodynamic wattmeter has the moving coil and multiplier resistor connected in parallel with the load, and the field coils in series withthe load. Instrument defiection is proportional to ET c0s 6. . Since the trie power dissipated in a load with an ac supply is El cos ¢, the electrody- namic wattmeter measures true power. An important source of error in the wattmeter is illustrated in Figure 3-30(a) and (b). Figure 3-30(a) shows that if the moving coil (or voltage coil) circuit is tonnected in parallel with the load, the field coils pass a current (/ + /,), the sum of the load current and the moving-coil current. This results in the wattmeter i icating the load power (EN, plus a small additional quantity (E/,). Where the load current is very much larger than /,, this error may be negligible. In low-load-current situations, the error may be quite signifi- cant. Sec. 3-11 Electrodynamic Instrument 7T+ : Deflection & E(I + Ly) Supply i gE Load El + Ely Ww Error (a) Error due to moving-coil current I Y Deflection a (E + Ep) Supply E+ Ep Load eae x 7 a Error (b) Error due to field coils voltage drop Deflection a E(I + Jy ~1,) Supply E Load ee (©) Compensated wattmeter using an additional coil wound alongside the field coils Figure 3-30 Wattmeter coil connections can result in significant reading errors. The Error in is not important if Jy J, and that in (b) snot important when Ey E. The 1, error is eliminated by the compensated wattmeter connection in (c) In Figure 3-30(b) the voltage coil is connected to the supply side of the field coils so that only the load current flows through the field coils. However, the voltage applied to the series-connected moving coil and multiplier is E+ Ey (the load voltage plus the vole, age drop across the field coils). Now the wattmeter indicates load power (ED) plus an ad- tional quantity (£7). In high-voltage circuits, where the load voliage is very sauch larg- B Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3er than the voltage drop across the field coils, the error may be insignificant. In low-volt- age conditions, this error may be serious., "The compensated watimeter illustrated in Figure 3-30(c) eliminates the errors de- scribed above. Since the field coils carry the load current, they must be wound of thick cop- per wie. Jn the compensated wattmeter, an additional thin conductor is wound right along- fide every turn on the field coils. This additional coil, shown dashed in Figure 3-30(¢), becomes part ofthe voltage coil circuit. The voltage coil circuit is seen to be connected di- rectly across the load, so that the moving-coil currents always proportional to load voltage. ‘The current through the field coils in /+ 1, so that afield coil flux is set up proportional to + 1, But the additional winding on the field coils carries the moving-coil current /, and this sets up a flux in opposition to the main flux of the field coils. ‘The resulting flux in the field toils is proportional to (+ 1,)~ I] I. Thus, the additional winding cancels the field ux due to J,, and the wattmeter deflection is now directly proportional to El. "The range of voltages that may be applied to the moving-coil circuit of a wattmeter can be changed by'switching different values of multiplier resistors into or out of the cir- cuit, exactly as in the case of a voltmeter. Current ranges can most easily be changed by Switching the two field coils from series connection to parallel connection. Figure 3-31 il lustrates the circuitry, controls, and scale for a typical multirange wattmeter. Tn the circuit shown in Figure 3-31(a), the series-connected multiplier resistors give three possible voltage range selections: 60 V, 120 V, and 240 V. The current range switch connects the field coils in series when set to the right, and in parallel when switched left. ‘The wattmeter scale and controls illustrated in Figure 3-31(b) relate to the circuitry in Figure 3-31(a). With the range switches set at 0.5 A and 240 V, the instrument scale reads irectly in watts, and FSD indicates 120 W. Similarly, with the 1 A and 120 V ranges se- lected, the scale may again be read directly in watts. When the range selections are 120V and 0.5 A, FSD = 120 V x0.5 A=60W ‘Also, for a range selection of 1 A and 60 V, FSD =60Vx1A=60W and for the switch at 0.5 A and 60 V, maximum deflection indicates 0.5 A x 60 V = 30 W. Tt is seen that to read the wattmeter correctly, the selected voltage and current ranges must be multiplied together to find the FSD power. In using a wattmeter itis pos: sible to obtain a reasonable on-scale deflection, while actually overloading either the cur- rent or voltage coils. For example, suppose that the wattmeter voltage range is set to 60 V and the current range to 1 A. The instrument will have FSD = 60 V x | A = 60 W. Now Suppose that the actual load current is 0.5 A, and the actual supply voltage is 120 V. The indicated power is P=120Vx05A=60W _ Thus, the instrument would indicate 60 W at full scale, and there is no obvious problem, However, because the voltage circuit has 120 V applied to it, while set at 260 V Tange, the moving coil is actually passing twice as much current as itis designed to take. This could cause overheating, which may destroy the insulation on the moving coil. Sec. 3-11 Electrodynamic Instrument ”Load Voltage voltage range switch (a) Circuit of multirange wattmeter (b) Watumeter scale and ‘range controls Figure 331 In « multrange wautmeter. the field coils may be switched between series ‘connection and aralel connection, and the moving-coil multiplier resistor is selectable. The eeae illustrated ‘reads directly in watts only forthe 1 A x 120 V and 0.5 A x 240 V ranges With the electrodynamic wattmeter, the moving coil and field coils are supplied in- dependently. Usually, a load in which power is to be measured has a constans level of “vpply voltage. When the load current changes, the supply voltage does not change, In this situation, the moving coil carries a constant current proportional to the supply volt- age, The instrument deflection is now directly proportional to the load current. and che scale can be calibrated linearly, Using Wattmeters Before connecting a wattmerer into a circuit, check the mechanical zero of the instrament and adjust it if necessary. While zeroing, tap the instrument gently to relieve bearing fric- tion. The current circuit of @ wattmeter must be connected in series with the load in 80 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3Which power is to be measured. The voltage circuit must be connected in parallel with the load. If the pointer deflects to the left of zero, either the current terminals or voltage ter- minals must be reversed. Before connecting a multirange wattmeter into a circuit, select a voltage range equal to or higher than the supply voltage. Select the highest current range. Then, switch down to the current range that gives. the greatest On-scale deflection. Do not adjust the voltage range below the level of the supply voltage. This step ensures that the (low. « Gurrent) voltage coil does not have an excessive current flow. However, it is still possible that excessive current may be passing through the current coils, although the meter is in. dicating less than full scale. This should also be avoided, but it is less damaging than ex- cessive voltage coil current. : Electrodynamic wattmeters are useful for measurement on supply frequencies up to @ maximum of 500 Hz. Thus, they are not suitable for high-frequency power measure. ments. REVIEW QUESTIONS 3-1 List the three forces involved in the moving system of a deflection instrument. Ex- Plain the function of each force and how it is typically produced, Illustrate the ex. planations with suitable sketches. 32 Describe jeweled-bearing suspension and taut-band suspension as used in deflec- tion instruments. Discuss the merits of each. 33 Sketch the basic construction of a typical PMMC instrument. Identify each part of the instrument and explain its operation. 3-4 Sketch the construction of a core-magnet type of PMMC instrument. Explain, 3-5 Develop the torque equation fora PMMC instrument and show that its scale is linear. 3-6 Sketch the basic construction of a light-beam galvanometer. Explain its operation, 37 For a galvanometer define current sensitivity, critical damping resistance, voltage sensitivity, and megohm sensitivity. 38 Discuss galvanometer applications. Show how a variable shunt should be used for galvanometer protection. Explain, 3-9 Sketch a circuit diagram to show how a PMMC instrument can be used as a de am- meter, Explain the circuit operation. 3-10 Explain the following terms: four-terminal resistor, ammeter swamping resistance, make-before-break switch, Ayrton shunt, IL Sketch the circuit diagram for a multirange ammeter using (a) several individual shunts and (b) an Ayrton shunt. Explain, 12 Sketch a circuit diagram to show how a PMMC instrument can be used as a de voltmeter, Explain the circuit operation. $13 Sketch the cireuit diagram for a multirange voltmeter using (a) individual multpl- er resistors and (b) series-connetted multiplier resistors. Explain the circuit opera. tion in each case. Sec. 3-11 Review Questions 81CC _ 3-14 Explain voltmeter sensitivity, voltmeter loading effect, and voltmeter swamping re- sistance, 315 Discuss the response of a PMMC instrument to alternating current and to rectified ac, 416 Sketch the circuit and waveforms for an ac voltmeter using a PMMC instrument and a bridge rectifier. Explain the circuit operation, 317 Sketch the circuit and waveforms for an ac voltmetmer using a PMMC instrument and a half-wave rectifier. Explain the circuit operation. 318 Sketch the circuit and waveforms for an ac voltmeter using a PMMC instrument and a half-bridge full-wave rectifier. Explain the circuit operation. 3-19 Sketch the circuit of a rectifier ammeter and explain its operation. 3-20 Explain parallax error as it applies to a deflection instrument, and show how it can ‘be minimized. 321 Discuss the measurement accuracy of a PMMC instrument, 32 ‘Sketch the circuit of a series ohmmeter with a zero control. Explain the circuit op- eration. 3-23 Sketch a typical ohmmeter scale. Explain, 3-24 Sketch the circuit of a multirange shunt ohmmeter, Also, sketch typic range con- trols and scale. Explain the circuit operation, and discuss the scale readings on each range. 3-25 Discuss ohmmeter accuracy, and explain which part of the scale gives the most ac- curate resistance measurement. 3-26 List the Procedure for using the VOM in Figure 3-25 as a dc ammeter, 3-27 List the Procedure for using the VOM in Figure 3-25 as (a) a de voltmeter and (b) an ac voltmeter. 3-28 Sketch the construction of an electrodynamic instrument, Identify each part of the instrument, and explain its operation. 3-29 Write the torque equation for an electrodynamic instrument. List the advantages and disadvantages of an electrodynamic instrument compared to a PMMC instru. ment. 3-30 ‘Sketch the arrangement of coil connections in an eléctrodynamic instrument, and explain the instrument ac operation. 3-31 Sketch the circuit of an electrodynamic instrument employed as (a) a voltmeter and (b) an ammeter. Explain’ each circuit. 4-32 Sketch the circuit of an electrodynamic instrument employed as a wattmeter. Ex: plain why the instrument measures de power and true ac power. 3-33 Sketch the circuit of a compensated wattmeter, and explain how it eliminates mea- surement errors. 3-34 Sketch the circuit of a multirange electrodynamic wattmeter. Explain its opera- tion and discuss the precautions that should be observed when using the instru. ment. 82 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 3PROBLEMS a (na PMMC instrument with a 300-turn coil has a 0.15 TT magnetic flux density in its / ~~ at gaps. The coil dimensions are D = 1.25 em and 1 = 2 em. Caleulate the longus when the coil current is 500 pA. 32) PMMC instrument has a 0.12 T magnetic ux density in its air gaps. The coil di- (~ mensions are D = 1.5 em and | = 2.25 em, Determine the number of coil tums re, quired to give a torqus of 4.5 Nm when the coil is current is 100 A. © (BY A galvanometer bas a current sensitvity of 500 nA/mm and a 3 KO critical damping f ~“~— resistance, Calculate its voltage sensitivity and megohm sensitivity. cu, GAYA galvanometer has 2 300 1 V/mm voltage sensitivity and a megohm sensitivity of ("15M Determine its critical damping resistance. (3-5/Determine the current sensitivity and megohm sensitivity for a galvanometer that o( V —~ deflects by 5 cm when the coil current is 20 wA. "©" 3-6 A PMMC instrument with a 750 01 coil resistance gives FSD with « 500 BA coil current. Determine the required shunt resistance to convert the instrument into ade ammeter with an FSD of (a) 50 mA and (b) 30 mA. ‘A de ammeter is constructed of a 133.3 0 resistance in parallel with a PMMC ine strument. If the instrument has a 1.2 kO coil resistance and 30 wA FSD, determine ° the measured current at FSD, 0.5 FSD, and 0.33 FSD. 3-8 A de ammeter consists of an Ayrton shunt in parallel with a PMMC instrument that has a 1.2 KO coil resistance and 100 wA FSD. The Ayrton shunt is made up of four 0.1 O series-connected resistors. Calculate the ammeter range at each setting ofthe shunt. - 39 A 12 V source supplies 25 A to a load. Calculate the load current that would be measured when using an ammeter with a resistance of (a) 0.12 9, (b) 0.52 ©, and (00.002 9. 3-10 An ammeter measures the current in a 10 0 load supplied from a 10 V source. Calculate the measured load current when the ammeter resistance is (a) 0.1.0 and ()10. i¢ SILA PMMC instrument with a 900 0 coil resistance and an FSD of 75 wA is to be 7 used as a de voltmeter. Calculate the individual multiplier resistance to give an FSD Of (8) 100 ¥. (b) 30, and (c) 5 V. Also, determine the voltmeter sensitivity Calculate the multiplier resistance values required for the voltmeter in Problem 3- 11 when series-connected multipliers are used. 3-13 A PMMC instrument with Ry = 1.3 kO and FSD = 500 A is used in a multirange de voltmeter. The series-connected multiplier resistors are Ry = 38.7 KO, Ry = 40 KO, and R; = 40 kO. Calculate the three voltage ranges and determine the volemever sensitivity. 3-14 Two resistors, Ry = 47 kM and Rp = 82 KAD, are connected in series across a 15 V supply. A voltmeter on’a 10 V range is connected to measure the voltage across Ry, The voltmeter sensitivity is 10 kO/V. Calculate Vea (a) with the voltmeter connect- ed and (b) with the voltmeter disconnected. 31 8 Sec. 3-11. Problems 83ee 3-15 A 100 kA potentiometer and a 33 kQ resistor are connected in series across a9 V supply. Calculate the maximum voltage that can be measured across the poten- tiometer using a voltmeter with (a) a 20 kOJV sensitivity and a 15 V range and (b) a 100 KOVV sensitivity and a 10 V range. 3-16 Two resistors, R; = 70 kA and Ry = 50 kM, are connected in series across a 12 V supply. A voltmeter on a 5 V range is connected to measure the voltage across Ry. Calculate Vio (a) with the voltmeter disconnected, (b) with a voltmeter having a sensitivity of 20 kO/V, and (c) with a voltmeter that has a sensitivity of 200 kOUV. 3-17 An ac voltmeter uses a bridge rectifier with silicon diodes and a PMMC instrument with FSD = 75 pA. If the meter coil resistance is 900 Q and the multiplier resistor is 708 k, calculate the applied rms voltage when the voltmeter indicates FSD. 3-18 Determine the new multiplier resistance required for the voltmeter in Problem 3-17 ~ to change its range to 300 V FSD. , 3-19 Determine the pointer position on the voltmeter in Problem 3-18 when the applied 2 mms voltage is (a) 30 V and (b) 10 V. 3-20 A PPMC instrument with a 900 22 coil resistance and an FSD of 75 pA is to be used with a half-wave rectifier circuit as an ac voltmeter. Silicon diodes are used, and the minimum diode forward current is to be 80 wA when the instrument indi- : cates 0.25 FSD. Calculate the shunt and multiplier resistance values required to give 200 V FSD. 3-21 Calculate the sensitivity of the ac voltmeter in Problem 3-17. 3-22, Calculate the sensitivity of the ac voltmeter in Problem 3-20. 3-23 A rectifier ammeter is to indicate full scale for a 1 A rms current. The PMMC in- strument used has a 1200 Q coil resistance and 500 wA FSD, and the current trans- former has N, = 7000 and N, = 10. Silicon diodes are used and the meter series re- sistance is R, = 150 KO. Determine the required secondary shunt resistance value. 3:24 A rectifier ammeter has the following components: PMMC instrument with FSD = 200 WA and R,,= 900 0; current transformer with N, = 600 and N, = 5; diodes with Ve ~ 0.3 V; meter series resistance R, = 270 kQ; transformer shunt secondary resis- tance R, = 98.7 kQ. Calculate the level of transformer primary current for instru- ment FSD. 3-25 Calculate the sensitivity of the ac voltmeter in Example 3-11 when diode D, is (a) included in the circuit and (b) omitted from the circuit cv» 3-26).A PMMC instrument with 250 »A FSD has a specified accuracy of +2%. Calculate / “~~~ the méasurement accuracy at currents of 200 1A and 100 WA. 3.27 A deflection instrument with 100.1A FSD has a +3% specified accuracy. Calculate the possible error when the meter indication is (a) 50 1A and (b) 10 yA. (3-28) A 25 yA current is measured on an instrument with 37.5 pA FSD. If the measure- A/ ~~" ment is to be accurate to within +5%, determine the required instrument accuracy. 3.29 A series ohmmeter is made up of the following components: supply voltage E, V, series resistor R; = 30 kO, meter shunt resistor Rp = 50 ©, meter FSD = 50 pA, and meter resistance R,, = 50 0, Determine the resistance measured at 0, 0.25, 0.5, and 0.75 of full-scale deflection. 84 Electromechanical Instruments Chap. 33-30 3-31 3-32 3-33 3-34 3-35 3-36 3-37 3-38 A series ohmmeter that has a standard internal resistance of Ry = 50 k@ uses a meter with FSD = 75 wA and R,, = 100 ©. The meter shunt resistance is Ry = 300 2, and the battery voltage is Eg = 5 V. Determine the resistance measured at 0, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of full-scale deflection. For the ohmmeter circuit in Problem 3-29, determine the new resistance to which Ry must be adjusted when Eg falls to 2.5 V. Also, determine the new resistances measured at 0.5 and 0.75 of full-scale deflection. Calculate the accuracy of resistance measurement for the ohmmeter in Problem 3- 29 at 0.5 and 0.75 of FSD if the meter used has a specified accuracy of +2%. Using a 4.5 V battery together with a meter that has 100 A FSD and a coil resis- tance of 100 ©, design a series ohmmeter t6 have a range of 1'k11 to 100 kM. Calculate the meter current for the ohmmeter circuit in Figure 3-23(a) on its R x 10 range when R, is (a) 0 0, (b) 500.0, and (c) 70 ©. Determine the resiStance measured at 0.75 FSD with the ohmmeter in Example 3-15 when Ey is (a) 1.5 V and (b) 1.3 V. Calculate the meter current for the ohmmeter circuit in Figure 3-23(a) on the (R x 100) and (R x 10 k) ranges when R, = 0. Determine the accuracy of an ohmmeter at 20% of FSD if the meter used is accu- rate to #1%. Calculate the resistance of the VOM in Figure 3-25 on its 50 V de range and on its 250 V ac range. Problems 8sAnalog Electronic Volt-Ohm-Milliammeters Objectives You will be able to: 1. Sketch various transistor analog voltmeter circuits, and explain the operation of each circuit. Calculate circuit currents, voltages, and input resistance, 2. Sketch an input attenuator circuit as used with an electronic voltmeter. Explain its op- eration, and deline the circuit input resistance, : 3. Using illustrations, explain the problems that can occur with electronic voltmeter ground terminals when measuring voltages in a circuit, 4. Draw the circuit diagrams of various op-amp analog voltmeters Explain the operation of each circuit, 5. Draw series, shunt, and linear ohmmeter circuits as used in electronic instruments, and explain the operation of each circuit, 6. Sketch the circuit diagrams of various ac electronic voltmeters, and explain their oper- ation. : 7. Sketch a circuit to show how current is measured by an electronic voltmeter Explain the circuit operation. 8. Draw the front panel of a typical analog electronic voltmeter showing the various con- trols and meter scales. State typical performance specifications for the instrument, and discuss its applications. Introduction Nolimeters constructed of moving-coil instruments and multiplier resistors (see Chap- ter 3) have some important limitations, They cannot measure very low vollages, and there resistance is too low for measurements in high-impedance circuitry. These restrictionsare overcome by the use of electronic circuits that offer high input resistance, and which amplify low voltages to measurable levels. When such circuits are used, the instrument becomes an electronic voltmeter. Electronic voltmeters can be analog instruments, in which the measurement is indi: cated by a pointer moving over a calibrated scale, or digital instruments, which display the measurement in numerical form (see Chapter 5). As well as amplification, transistor and operational amplifier circuits offer advantages in the measurement of resistance, di- rect current, and alternating current, 4-1 TRANSISTOR VOLTMETER CIRCUITS Emitter-Follower Voltmeters Voltmeter loading (see Section 3-4) can be greatly reduced by using an emitter follower ‘An emitter follower offers a high input resistance to voltages being measured, and pro. vides a low output resistance to drive current through the coil of a deflection meter. The basic emitter-follower voltmeter circuit illustrated in Figure 4-1 shows a PMMC instru- ment and a multiplier resistance (R,) connected in series with the transistor emitter. The de supply is connected—positive to the transistor collector and the negative to the deflec. tion meter. The positive terminal of voltage E (to be measured) is supplied to the transis. tor base, and its negative is connected to the same terminal as the power supply negative The transistor base current in Figure 4-1 is substantially lower than the meter cus. rent _ oh os where hire is the transistor current gain. Thus, the circuit input resistance is Figure 4-1. An emitter follower offers a high input resistance to a measured voltage, and a low output resistance to a deflection voltmeter circuit: Vpg introduces an error in the measurement. Sec. 4-1 Transistor Voltmeter Circuits 87E R, b which is much larger than the meter circuit resistance (R, + R.). Example 4-1 The simple eminer-follower voltmeter circuit in Figure 4-1 lea Voc = 20 V, R, + Ra = 9.3 KA /,,= 1 mA at full scale, and transistor hgg = 100. + (a) Calculate the meter current when E = 10V, (b) Determine the voltmeter input resistance with and without de transistor. Solution @ Ve=E~-V_=10V-0.7V =93V Ye . 93V R+Ry 93kR =1mA In (©) With the transistor, Jy mw a. my LMA Ape 100 Without the transistor, RR + Ra = 93D =—___’'[e- es ‘The transistor base-emitter voltage drop (Vgc) introdemm an error in the simple emitter-follower voltmeter. For example, when E is 5 V in the eiscuit in Example 4-1, the meter should read balf of full-scale, that is, 0.5 mA. Howewmx, as a simple calculation shows, the meter current is actually 0.46 mA. The error can ke @liminated by using a po- tential divider and an additional emitter follower, as illustrated igpFigure 4-2. ‘The practical emitter-follower circuit in Figure 4-2 uses @plus-and-minus, or dual- polarity supply (typically, +12 V). Transistor Q, has its base Mased to ground via resistor i, and a potential divider (R,, Rs, and R.) provides an adjuseatin bias voltage (V,) to the base of transistor Q,. Resistors Ry and Ry connect the transisuw emitter terminals to the negative supply voltage (~Vzz), and the meter circuit is connaetad between the transistor emitters. The circuit input resistance is R, in parallel with the aagat resistance at the tran- sistor base. 8 Analog Electronic Volvwm-Millimeters Chap. 4Figure 4-2 Practical emitter-follower voltmeter circuit using a second transistor (Q:) and a potential divider (R,, Rs. and Rg) to eliminate the Vpe error produced by Q). When no input voltage is applied (E = 0 V), the base voltage of Q, is adjusted to give zero meter current. This makes V, = 0 V, Vey = Vex =—0.7 V, and (meter circuit voltage) V= 0 V. Now suppose that’a 5 V input is applied to the Q, base. The meter voltage is V=Vey—Vex = (E—Vee1)- Vex =(5 V-0.7 V)-(-0.7 V) =5V Thus, unlike the case of the simple emitter-follower voltmeter, all of the voltage to be measured appears across the meter circuit; no part of it is lost as transistor Veg Example 4-2 An emitter-follower voltmeter circuit such as that in Figure 4-2 has Ry = Vec= #12 V. (@) Determine J, and fy when E=0V. (b) Calculate the meter circuit voltage when E=1 V and when E=0.5 V. 3.9kQ and Solution ) Vea = Ves = 0V ~Vee~ Vee =0V-07V~-(-I2V) =13V wm. [ok Sec. 4-1 Transistor Voltmeter Circuits 99(b) When E= 1. Vep= B= Vpp= 1-07 =03V Ver = Vp~ Vee=0V ~O.7V =-07V V= Ver Ve =IV 03 V-(-0.7 V) When E=0.5 V, Ver = E- Vie =0.5V-0.7V =-02V Vex = Vp~Vaz=0V-0.7V =-0.7V V=Vey~Ve2=~0.2 V=(-0.7 V) =05V Ground Terminals and Floating Power Supplies - The circuit in Figure 4-2 shows the input voltage Eas being measured with respect to ground, However, this may not always be convenient. For example, suppose that the volt- age across resistor R, in Figure 4-3(a) were to be measured by a voltmeter with its nega- tive terminals grounded. The voltmeter ground would short-circuit resistor Rc and seni- ously affect the voltage and current conditions in the resistor circuit. Clearly, the voltmeter should not have one of its terminals grounded. For the circuit in Figure 4-2 to function correctly, the lower end of R, must be at zero volts with respect to +Vcc and —Vj,. The + and — supply voltage may be derived from two batteries [Figure 4-3(b)] or from two de power supply circuits (Figure 4-3(c)] In both cases, the negative terminal of the positive supply is connected to the positive ter- minal of the negative supply. For +9 V supplies, Vcc is +9 V with respect to the common terminal, and Veg is -9 V with respect to the common terminal. In many electronic cir- cuits, the power supply common terminal is grounded, In electronic voltmeter circuits, this terminal is not grounded, simply to avoid the kind of problem already discussed. When left without any grounded terminal, the voltmeter supply voltages are said to be floating. This means that the common terminal assumes the absolute voltage (with respect to ground) of any terminal to which it may be connected. An inverted triangular symbol is employed to identify the common terminal or zero voltage termina! in a circuit [see Figure 4-3(b),(c)]. Although the electronic voltmeter supply voltages are allowed to float, some in- struments have their common terminal connected to ground via a capacitor, usually 0.1 uF. If batteries are used as supply, the capacitor is connected to the chassis. Where a 90 Analog Electronic Volt-Ohm-Millimeters Chap. 4Voltmeter Shon circuit (a) A voltmeter with one of, it's terminals grounded can short-circuit a component in a circuit in which voltage is being measured. + S + Common terminal Circuit symbol 7 Common terminal for commom oT (&)t supply using batteries (6) supply using power supplies Vee Figure 4-3 Serious measurement errors can result when a grounded voltmeter terminal is incor- rectly connected to a circuit. When a circuit has a plus-and-minus supply voltage, the voltmeter com- ‘mon terminal should always be connected to the common terminal of the supply. 115 V power supply is included in the voltmeter, the chassis and the capacitor are grounded. Thus, when measuring voltage levels in a transistor circuit, for example, the common terminal introuces a capacitance to ground wherever it is connected in the cir- cuit. To avoid any effect on conditions within the circuit (oscillations or phase shifts), the voltmeter common terminal should always be connected to the transistor circuit ground or zero voltage terminal. All voltages are then measured with respect to this point. Sec. 4.1 ‘Transistor Voltmeter Circuits 1Voltmeter Range Changing The potential divider constituted by resistors R,, Ry. Re, and Ry in Figure 4-4 allows large input voltages to be measured on an emitter-follower voltmeter. This network, called an input attenuator, accurately divides the voltage to be measured before it is applied to the input transistor. Calculation shows that the Q) input voltage (Eq) is always 1 V when the maximum input is applied on any range. For example, on the 5 V range, RAR +R, Eg=5V x —Ret Ret Ry _ 2 *R+R,+R.+Ry =5.V x 1000+ 60 0 + 40K. 800 KO + 100kN + 60kO + 40KQ =1V ‘The input resistance offered by this circuit to a voltage being measured is the total resistance of the attenuator, which is 1 MQ. A 9 MQ resistor could be included in series with the input terminal to raise the input resistance to 10 MQ. This would further divide the input voltage by a factor of 10 before it is applied to the gate terminal of Qs. FET-Input Voltmeter The input resistance of the transistor voltmeter circuit can be increased further by using an additional emitter follower connected at the base of Q, in Figure 4-2. However, the use . ‘ rE Input +44 input —ebe Emitter-follower attenuator sage voltmeter ee Figure 4-4 A voltmeter input atemuato is simply a potential divider that accurately divides the voltage to be measured. The FET input stage (Q3) gives the emitter follower a very high input resist- 92 Analog Electronic Volt-Ohm-Millimeters Chap. 4of a FET source follower (Qs), as illustrated in Figure 4-4 gives a higher input resistance than can be achieved with a bipolar transistor. The FET source terminal is able to supply all of the base current required by Q,, while the input resistance at the FET gate is typi- cally in excess of | MQ. Consider the voltage leyels in the circuit of Figure 4-4. When E =0 V, the FET gate is at the zero voltage level. But the gate of an n-channel FET must always be negative with respect to its source terminal. This is the same as stating that the source must be pos- itive with respect to the gate. If Vgs is to be -5 V, and Eg = 0 V, the source terminal volt- age must be +5 V. This means that the base terminal of Q, is at +5 V, and, since Q, base voltage must be equal to Q, base voltage, Q» base must also be at +5 V. As in the circuit of Figure 4-2, Rs in Figure 4-4 is used to zero the meter when the input voltage isOV. Now consider what occurs when a voltage to be measured is applied to the circuit input. With the attenuator shown, Eg will be a maximum of 1 V. This causes the FET source terminal to increase until Ves is again ~5 V. That is, ¥é goes from +5 to +6 V to maintain Vgs equal to ~5 V. The ¥ increase of | V is also a 1 V increase in the base volt- age of Q,. As already explained, all of this (1 V) increase appears across the meter cir- cuit. ample 4-3 Determine the meter reading for the circuit in Figure 4-4 when E = 7.5 V and the meter is set to its 10 V range. The FET gate-source voltage ise-5 V, Vp = +5 V, Re + Rn = 1 KO, and J,,= 1 mA at full scale. Solution On the 10 V range: A RAR, OO Rat Rot Re Ra 60k +40 KO =75V% SOKA + 100 KO + 60 KM+ 40K =0.75V “e— Ves = 0.75 V ~(-5 V) =5.15V Vey = Vs~ Vie = 5.75 V 0.7 V =5.05 V Ve : 43V Vp~Vye=5V-0.7V = Ver - Vin =5.05V-4.3V =0.15 V =e v__ ons I= RoaRa | TKO =0.75 mA (75% of full scale) Sec. 4-1 Transistor Voltmeter Circuits 3On the 10 V range, full scale represents 10 V, and 75% of full scale would be read as 7.5. Difference Amplifier Voltmeter The instruments discussed so far can measure a maximum of around 25 V. This could be extended further, of course, simply by modifying the input attenuator. The minimum (full-scale) voltage measurable by the electronic voltmeter circuits already considered is 1 V. This too can be altered to perhaps a minimum of 100 niV by selection of a meter that will give FSD when 100 mV appears across R, + Ry. However, for accurate meas- urement of low voltage levels, the voltage must be amplified before it is applied to the meter, Transistors Q; and Q, together with Rz1, Ry, and Ry in Figure 4-5(a) constitute a differential amplifier, or emitter-coupled amplifier. The circuit as a whole is known as a difference amplifier voltmeter. This is because when the voltage at the base of Q, is zero, and an input voltage (E) is applied to the Q, base, the difference between the two base voltages is amplified and applied to the meter circuit. When a small positive voltage is applied to the base of Q, in Figure 4-5, the current through Qy is increased, and that through Q; is decreased. An increase in Ic, causes JerRt, to increase ard thus produces a fall in voltage Vey. Similarly, a decrease in eq pro- duces a rise in Vea. The consequence of this is that the voltage across the meter circuit in- creases positively at the right-hand side and negatively at the left. This meter voltage (V) is directly proportional to the input voltage (E). +¥ ce. Ry (b) Zero control Vee (@) Voltmeter circuit Figure 4-5 A difference amplifier voltmeter amplifies low-level input voltages for measurement on the deflection voltmeter circuit 94 Analog Electronic Volt-Ohm-Millimeters Chap. 4Potentiometer R in Figure 4-5(b) is an alternative method of providing meter-zero adjustment. Q, base control, as in Figure 4-4, could also be used in the circuit of Figure 4-5. When the movable contact of Rs is adjusted to the right, the portion of Ry added to Riz, is increased and the portion of Ry added to R,2 is reduced. When the contact is moved left, the reverse is true. This, Voy and Vcz can be adjusted differentially Sy means of Ry, and the meter voltage can be set to zero, 4-2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER VOLTMETER CIRCUITS Op-Amp Voltage-Follower Voltmeter The operational amplifier voltage-follower voltmeter in Figure 4-6 is comparable to the simple emitter-follower circuit. However, unlike the emitter-follower, there is no base- emitter voltage drop from input to output, The voltage-follower also has a much higher input resistance and lower output resistance than the emitter-follower. The voltage- follower input (Eg) is. applied to the op-amp noninverting input terminal, and the feedback from the output goes to the inverting input. The very high internal voltage gain of the operational amplifier, combined with the negative feedback, tends to keep the inverting terminal voltage exactly equal to that at the noninverting terminal. Thus, the output voltage (V,) exactly follows the input. As discussed earlier, the attenuator selects the voltmeter range. ‘ t <———— Irn ++ ——— Voltage follower ———p x attenuator Meter circuit ' ' ' t 1 ' ' ' t Figure 46 An IC operational amplifier voltage-follower voltmeter emitter-follower voltmeter, except that the voltage-follower input resistance is much higher than that ofthe emitter follower, ad there is no base-emitter voltage drop Sec. 4-2 Operational Amplifier Voltmeter Circuits 95Op-Amp Amplifier Voltmeter Like a transistor amplifier, an 1C operational amplifier circuit can be used to amplify low voltages to levels measurable by a deflection instrument. Figure 4-7 shows a suitable op- amp circuit for this purpose. Input voltage E is applied to the op-amp noninverting input, the output voltage is divided across resistors R3 afd Rg, and Vas is fed back to the op-amp inverting input terminal. The internal voltage gain of the op-amp causes Va; to always equal E. Consequently, the output voltage is Rs+Ry Ry (41) Thecircuitisknown as anoninverting amplifier, because its outputis positive when apositive input voltages applied, and negative when the input isa negative quantity. The noninverting amplifier has a very high input resistance, very low output resistance, and a voltage gain of (4-2) Figure 4-7 _An operational amplifier noninverting amplifier can be used to amplify low ‘input voltages to a level suitable for the defection ‘meter circuit. The voltmeter gain is (Ry + Ray. 6 Analog Electronic Volt-Ohm-Millimeters Chap. 4