Module 2: COMPARATORS

Comparators can give precision measurements, with consistent accuracy by eliminating human
error. They are employed to find out, by how much the dimensions of the given component differ
from that of a known datum. If the indicated difference is small, a suitable magnification device
is selected to obtain the desired accuracy of measurements. It is an indirect type of instrument
and used for linear measurement. If the dimension is less or greater, than the standard, then the
difference will be shown on the dial. It gives only the difference between actual and standard
dimension of the workpiece. To check the height of the job H 2 , with the standard job of height
H1

Initially, the comparator is adjusted to zero on its dial with a standard job in position as shown in
Figure(a). The reading H 1 is taken with the help of a plunger. Then the standard job is replaced by the
work-piece to be checked and the reading H 2 is taken. If H 1 and H 2 are different, then the change i~
the dimension will be shown on the dial of the comparator. Thus difference is then magnified 1000 to
3000 X to get the clear variation in the standard and actual job.

In short, Comparator is a device which

(1) Picks up small variations in dimensions.
(2) Magnifies it.
(3) Displays it by using indicating devices, by which comparison can be made with some
standard value.

Classification:
1. Mechanical Comparator: It works on gears pinions, linkages, levers, springs etc.
2. Pneumatic Comparator: Pneumatic comparator works by using high pressure air, valves,
back pressure etc.
3. Optical Comparator: Optical comparator works by using lens, mirrors, light source etc.
4. Electrical Comparator: Works by using step up, step down transformers.
5. Electronic Comparator: It works by using amplifier, digital signal etc.
6. Combined Comparator: The combination of any two of the above types can give the best
result.
Characteristics of Good Comparators:
1. It should be compact.
2. It should be easy to handle.
3. It should give quick response or quick result.
4. It should be reliable, while in use.
5. There should be no effects of environment on the comparator.
6. Its weight must be less.
7. It must be cheaper.
8. It must be easily available in the market.
9. It should be sensitive as per the requirement.
10. The design should be robust.
11. It should be linear in scale so that it is easy to read and get uniform response.
12. It should have less maintenance.
13. It should have hard contact point, with long life.
14. It should be free from backlash and wear.

Mechanical Comparator

It is self-controlled and no power or any other form of energy is required. It employs mechanical
means for magnifying the small movement of the measuring stylus. The movement is due to the
difference between the standard and the actual dimension being checked. The method for
magnifying the small stylus movement in all the mechanical comparators is by means of levers,
gear trains or combination of these. They are available of different make and each has its own
characteristic. The various types of mechanical comparators are dial indicator, reed type
comparator, sigma comparator, Johansson mikrokator.

Dial Indicator:
It operates on the principle, that a very slight upward pressure on the spindle at the contact point is
multiplied through a system of gears and levers. It is indicated on the face of the dial by a dial finger.
Dial indicators basically consists of a body with a round graduated dial and a contact point connected
with a spiral or gear train so that hand on the dial face indicates the amount of movement of the
contact point. They are designed for use on a wide range of standard measuring devices such as dial
box gauges, portal dial, hand gauges, dial depth gauges, diameter gauges and dial indicator snap
gauge.
Corresponds to a spindle movement of 1 mm, the movement mechanism of the instrument is housed
in a metal case for its protection. The large dial scale is graduated into 100 divisions. The indicator is
set to zero by the use of slip gauges representing the basic size of part.
Requirements of good Dial Indicator:

1. It should give trouble free and dependable readings over a long period.
2. The pressure required on measuring head to obtain zero reading must remain constant over the
whole range.
3. The pointer should indicate the direction of movement of the measuring plunger.
4. The accuracy of the readings should be within close limits of the various sizes and ranges
5. The movement of the measuring plunger should be in either direction without affecting the
accuracy.
6. The pointer movement should be damped, so that it will not oscillate when the readings are being
taken.

Applications:
1. Comparing two heights or distances between narrow limits.
2. To determine the errors in geometrical form such as ovality, roundness and taper.
3. For taking accurate measurement of deformation such as intension and compression.
4. To determine positional errors of surfaces such as parallelism, squareness and alignment.
5. To check the alignment of lathe centers by using suitable accurate bar between the centers.
6. To check trueness of milling machine arbors and to check the parallelism of shaper arm with
table surface or vice.

Reed-type comparator

In Mechanical comparator, the gauging head is usually a sensitive, high quality, dial indicator
mounted on a base supported by a sturdy column. The reed mechanism is frictionless device for
magnifying small motions of spindle.

It consist of a fixed block A which is rigidly fastened to the gauge head case, and floating block
B, which carries the gauging spindle and is connected horizontally to the fixed block by reeds C.
A vertical reed is attached to each block with upper ends joined together. The amount of target
swing is proportional to the distance the floating block has moved but of course very much
magnified. The scale may be calibrated by means of gauge block (slip gauges) to indicate any
deviation from an initial setting. Sensitivities are of the order of 0.25 micron per scale division.
The mechanical amplification is usually less than 100, but it is multiplied by the optical lens
system. It is available in amplifications ranging from x 500 to x 1000.

Johansson Mikrokator

This comparator was developed by C.F. Johansson. It works on the principle of a Button spring,
spinning on a loop of string like in the case of Childrens toys.

The method of mechanical magnification is shown in Figure. It employs a twisted metal strip. Any
pull on the strip causes the center of the strip to rotate. A very light pointer made of glass tube is
attached to the center of the twisted metal strip. The measuring plunger is on the slit washer and
transmits its motion through the bell crank lever to the twisted metal strip. The other end of the
twisted metal strip is fastened to the cantilever strip. The overhanging length of the cantilever strip
can be varied to adjust the magnification of the instrument. The longer the length of the cantilever,
the more it will deflect under the pull of the twisted metal strip and less rotation of the pointer is
obtained. When the plunger moves by a small distance in upward direction the bell crank lever turns
to the right hand side. This exerts a force on the twisted strip and it causes a change in its length by
making it further twist or untwist. Hence the pointer at the center rotates by some amount.
Magnification up to 5000X can be obtained by this comparator

Sigma Comparator

The plunger is attached to a bar which is supported between the bending plates at the top and bottom
portion as shown in Figure (a).

The bar is restricted to move in the vertical direction. A knife edge is fixed to the bar. The knife edge
is attached to the sapphire plate which is attached to the moving block. The knife edge extorts a force
on the moving block through sapphire plate. Moving block is attached to the fixed block with the
help of crossed strips as shown in Figure (b). When the force is applied on the moving block, it will
give an angular deflection. A Y-arm which is attached to the moving block transmits the rotary
motion to the driving drum of radius r. This deflects the pointer and then the reading is noted.

If l = Distance from hinge pivot to the knife edge

L = Length of y-arm
R = Driving drum radius
D Length of the pointer
Then the total magnification = (L/l) *(D/R)
Advantages of Mechanical Comparator:

1. They do not require any external source of energy.

2. These are cheaper and portable.
3. These are of robust construction and compact design.
4. The simple linear scales are easy to read.
5. These are unaffected by variations due to external source of energy such air, electricity etc.

Disadvantages:
1. Range is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.
2. Pointer scale system used can cause parallax error.
3. There are number of moving parts which create problems due to friction, and ultimately the
accuracy is less.
4. The instrument may become sensitive to vibration due to high inertia.

Mechanical - Optical Comparator

Principle: In mechanical optical comparator, small variation in the plunger movement is magnified:
first by mechanical system and then by optical system.

It uses fundamental optical law and instead of pointer, the edge of the shadow is projected on to a
curved graduated scale to indicate comparison measurement. The mirror is tilted by measuring
plunger movement and the movement of the reflected light is recorded as an image on a screen.

Construction:
The movement of the plunger is magnified by the mechanical system using a pivoted lever. From the
figure, the mechanical magnification = x 2 / x 1 . High optical magnification is possible with a small
movement of the mirror. The important factor is that the mirror used is of front reflection type only.
The back reflection type mirror will give two reflected images as shown in figure, hence the exact
reflected image cannot be identified.

Mechanical amplification = x 2 /x 1 (by lever principle)

Now, if the movement of the plunger causes the mirror to tilt by an angle , image will be tilted by
2
Therefore, optical amplification = 2(x 4 /x 3 )
Overall magnification = 2 (x 2 /x 1 ) (x 4 /x 3 )

Zeiss Ultra-optimeter

The optical system of this instrument involves double reflection of light and thus gives higher degree of
magnification. A lamp sends light rays to green filter, which filters all but green light, which is less
fatiguing to the eye. The green light then passes to a condenser which via an index mark projects it on to a
movable mirror Mi, whence it is reflected to another fixed mirror M2, and then back again to the first
moveable mirror. The second objective lens brings the reflected beam from the first mirror to a focus at a
transparent graticule containing a precise scale which is viewed by the eye-piece. The projected image of
index line on the graticule can be adjusted by means of screw in order to set the zero. When correctly
adjusted, the image of the index line is seen against that of the graticule scale. The special end of the
contact plunger rests against the outer end of the first movable mirror so that any vertical movement of
the plunger will tilt the mirror. The extreme sensitivity of this instrument necessitates special precautions
in its operation to avoid temperature effects.

If the distance from the plunger centre line to the first mirror pivot is x and the plunger moves a height h
then the angular movement of the mirror = h/x.
If f be the focal length of the lens, then movement of the scale is 2f. i.e. 2f(h/x)
Magnification = 2(fh)/(xh) = 2f/x
Overall magnification = (2f/x)eye magnification

Advantages:
1. These Comparators are almost weightless and have less number of moving parts, due to
this there is less wear and hence less friction.
2. Higher range even at high magnification is possible as the scale moves past the index.
3. The scale can be made to move past a datum line and without having any parallax errors.
4. They are used to magnify parts of very small size and of complex configuration such as
intricate grooves, radii or steps.
Disadvantages:
1. The accuracy of measurement is limited to 0.001 mm
2. They have their own built in illuminating device which tends to heat the instrument.
3. Electrical supply is required.
4. Eyepiece type instrument may cause strain on the operator.
5. Projection type instruments occupy large space and they are expensive.
6. When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to take the instrument to a dark
room in order to take the readings easily.

Electrical Comparators:

Electrical comparators give a wide range of advantages. As we know, components like levers, gears,
racks and pinions, activate mechanical devices. The accuracy and life of the instruments are affected
as they are subjected to wear and friction Electrical comparators have no moving parts. Thus a high
degree of reliability is expected from these instruments. Generally there are two important
applications of electrical comparators: 1.Used as measuring heads 2.Used for electrical gauging
heads, to provide usual indication to check the dimensions within the limits laid down. The first
application is very important when there is a requirement for precise measurement for e.g. Checking
or comparison of workshop slip gauges against inspection slip gauges. The second application is used
to indicate with a green light if a dimension is within the limits. A red lamp indicates an undersize
dimension; a yellow lamp indicates an oversize dimension. So the operator is not required to be
aware of the actual tolerances on the dimension. After setting the instrument correctly, all that needs
to be done is to place the component under the plunger of the gauging head. The signal lamps
provide in standard positive indication of the acceptability of the dimension under test

LVDT
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is the most popular electro-mechanical device used to
convert mechanical displacement into electrical signal. It, in effect, is a transformer consisting of three
symmetrically spaced coils carefully wound on an insulated bobbin. It works on mutual inductance
principle and consists of a primary coil wound on an insulating form (bobbin) and two identical
secondaries symmetrically spaced from the primary. AC carried excitation is applied to the primary and
two secondaries are connected externally in a series opposition circuit. The lead wires exit through an
opening in the outer shield, usually in the end-cover washers. A cylindrical shield of ferromagnetic
material is spun over the metallic end-washer after the windings have been vacuum- impregnated with a
potting compound suitable for the application environment. The finished transformer there- after becomes
quite impervious to humidity or ordinary magnetic influences. The device thus also becomes extremely
rugged and reliable. There is a non-contacting magnetic core, made from a uniformly dense cylinder of
nickel-iron alloy, carefully annealed to improve and homogenize its magnetic permeability, which moves
in the centre of these coils wound on the insulating form and the motion of this core varies the mutual
inductance of each secondary to the primary, which determines the voltage induced from the primary to
each secondary. If the core is centered in the middle of the two secondary windings, then voltage induced
in each secondary winding will be identical and 180 out-of-phase, and the net output will be zero. If the
core is moved off middle position, then the mutual inductance of the primary with secondary will be
greater than the other, and a differential voltage will appear across the secondaries in series. For off centre
displacements within linear range of operation, the output is essentially a linear

Advantages:
1. Measuring units can be remote from indicating units.
2. Variable sensitivity which can be adjusted as per requirement.
3. No moving parts, hence it can retain accuracy over long periods.
4. Higher magnification is possible as compared to mechanical comparator.
5. Compact sizes of probes arc available.

Disadvantages:
1. The accuracy of working of these comparators is likely to be affect due to temperature and
humidity.
2. It is not a self-contained unit; it needs stabilized power supply for its operation.
3. Heating of coils can cause zero drifts and it may alter calibration.
4. It is more expensive than mechanical comparator

Electronic Gauging: The electronic Gauging System is designed to fulfill the increasing demand for
equipment particularly suited to the accuracy and versatility required by up-to-date engineering practice.
The movement at the probe tip actuates inductance transducer which is supplied with an alternating
current from the oscillator.

The transducer converts this movement into an electrical signal which is then amplified and fed via an
oscillator to the demodulator. The current in D.C. form, then passes to the meter and the probe tip
movement is displayed as a linear measurement. Various measuring and control units can be incorporated
which provide for an extremely wide range of single or multiple measurements to be made
simultaneously.
Pneumatic Comparator (Solex Gauge):

It works on the principle of pressure difference generated by the air flow. Air is supplied at constant
pressure through the orifice and the air escapes in the form of jets through a restricted space which
exerts a back pressure. The variation in the back pressure is then used to find the dimensions of a
component.

Working:
As shown in Figure (a) the air is compressed in the compressor at high pressure which is equal to
Water head H. The excess air escapes in the form of bubbles. Then the metric amount of air is passed
through the orifice at the constant pressure. Due to restricted area, at A1 position, the back pressure is
generated by the head of water displaced in the manometer tube. To determine the roundness of the
job, the job is rotated along the jet axis, if no variation in the pressure reading is obtained then we can
say that the job is perfectly circular at position A1. Then the same procedure is repeated at various
positions A2, A3, A4, position and variation in the pressure reading is found out. Also the diameter is
measured at position A1 corresponding to the portion against two jets and diameter is also measured
at various position along the length of the bore

Any variation in the dimension changes the value of h, e.g. Change in dimension of 0.002 mm
changes the value of h from 3 to 20 mm. Moderate and constant supply pressure is required to have
the high sensitivity of the instrument.

Advantages:
1. It is cheaper, simple to operate and the cost is low.
2. It is free from mechanical hysteresis and wear.
3. The magnification can be obtained as high as 10,000 X.
4. The gauging member is not in direct contact with the work.
5. Indicating and measuring is done at two different places.
6. Tapers and ovality can be easily detected.
7. The method is self cleaning due to continuous flow of air through the jets and this makes the
method ideal to be used on shop floor for online controls.

Disadvantages:
1. They are very sensitive to temperature and humidity changes.
2. The accuracy may be influenced by the surface roughness of the component being checked.
3. Different gauging heads are needed for different jobs.
4. Auxiliary equipment such as air filters, pressure gauges and regulators are needed.
5. Non-uniformity of scale is a peculiar aspect of air gauging as the variation of back pressure is
linear, over only a small range of the orifice size variation.

## Differential Unit

The differential gauge unit is used with two probes to show the combination of two readings and
by selection of the appropriate probe input sockets, may add or subtract the readings obtained by
the two probes. The sum, or difference of the two readings is amplified and displayed on the unit
as a single scale reading. The magnification and output are exactly same as in the standard gauge
unit, but an additional feature of this unit is a switch which enables one of the two probes to be
isolated. Differential units have many applications, including the measurement of tapers
irrespective of changes in diameter of the component; diameters, regardless of eccentricity and
also for the normal measurement of both diameter and run-out as shown in Fig.

(a) Taper measurement. (b) True diameter measurement (c) Measurement of length
independent of datum. irrespective of positional tolerances.