Abstract.

Every time a company

goes international, it could
confront the complex
conglomerate of various
conditions and trends of the
environment and its own status. MODELS FOR THE
This paper aims to propose a INTERNATIONALIZATION
systematic analysis of different OF THE BUSINESS: A DIVERSITY-
problems of the
internationalization of the BASED APPROACH
company and based on the
results, it suggests a new solution.
Various aspects of the
internationalization are to be Victor DANCIU
found in the numerous models
Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest
included in the specialized
literature. These models could be 6 Roman Square, 1st district, Bucharest,
grouped in progressive models, Romania
contingency models and Email: dvictorsambotin@yahoo.com
interactive models depending on
the main criterion of each
category. The results of this
analysis represent reference
points for those who are
interested in the topic concerning Management & Marketing
the internationalization of the Challenges for the Knowledge Society
company because they offer (2012) Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 29-42
solutions.

Keywords: company
internationalization,
internationalization model,
progressive model, contingency
model, interactive model.
Management & Marketing

1. Introduction

The international environment and the company are conglomerates that show
various conditions and situations. The internationalization of the company is a
reflection of this extraordinary diversity that could be revealed and systematized only
with the help of models. They are dealing with both the main components and
particular mechanisms of the international activities the companies should take at one
moment.
Frank Bradley (1995) has suggested that the main models of
internationalization are the life cycle of the product, the foreign direct investment and
the transaction costs. In his turn, Sorensen (1997) has proposed a comprehensive
classification of the internationalization models in four groups, as follows:
internationalization modes (progressive models), contingency models, business
network (interactive models) and social construction. Svend Hollensen (2004, 2008)
has recommended the product life cycle, the Uppsala model, the transaction cost, the
international business network and the globalization as models for internationalization.
More recently, Rubaeva (2010) has dealt with Uppsala model, international network,
REM and eclectic models.
This paper is proposing a systematic approach on the models for the
internationalization of the company, which is classifying them in progressive,
contingency and interactive models. The scientific dimensions of these three groups
are included in Table 1.

Table 1
The main characteristics of the internationalization models
Groups of models/
Progressive models Contingency models Interactive models
Scientific dimensions
Objective vision vs. Objective Objective Subjective
subjective vision
Static perspective vs. Comparative Static Dynamic
dynamic perspective Static
Planned orientation vs. Planned Planned Interaction
action
Source: Sorensen, 1997, pp. 4-5.

2. Progressive Models of the Internationalization of the Company

This type of model is assuming that internationalization is a progressive

process having several successive stages.
The Uppsala model, named after the business school of the Swedish city, is
the internationalization model relying on learning and knowledge. It is assuming that
the lack of knowledge of the company is an important obstacle for the development of

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 Models for the internationalization of the business: a diversity - based approach

the international operations. As the company is receiving more knowledge and is

learning more from the international activities, these obstacles could be gradually
overtaken (Forsgren, Hogstrom, 2004; Lakomaa, 2009). This hypothesis implicitly
suggests too that big companies that have considerable resources could overlap some
stages and internationalize in one single step. This statement paves the way for
globalization when the born global company targets the global market in spite of the
fact that it has not yet the necessary knowledge and learning. Also, the utilization of
the stored knowledge about significant markets could be not critical for the success of
the internationalization if the foreign market conditions are stable and homogenous.
At the same time, if the company has obtained knowledge on similar markets, it could
need only one stage to entering analogous markets (Etemad and Ala-Mukta, 2009).
The process of progressive internationalization is built on four stages that are
sporadic export, export via independent representatives, foreign sales subsidiaries and
production and manufacturing units in foreign markets (Rubaeva, 2010).
The progressive model is known as the Uppsala model and has as first scope
to explain how companies succeed in learning and receiving knowledge during their
internationalization operations (Pignatti). The international activities request and
allow at the same time gaining two categories of knowledge, objective or general
knowledge and market specific knowledge (Hollensen, 2008; Pignatti). Market-
specific knowledge is assumed to be gained mainly through experience in the market
whereas knowledge of operations can be transferred from one country to another.
The general knowledge can be easily obtained and facilitates geographic
diversification. The knowledge generates business opportunities and is an impulse
for the internationalization, this being a slow process.
Another scope of the Uppsala model is aiming to show how the knowledge of
the company exercises an influence over its investing behavior. The companys lack
of knowledge on new markets constraints the company to follow a gradual process of
international commitment. More knowledge the company has about market lower the
risk and stronger its commitment in foreign markets.
The third scope of the Uppsala model is trying to explain the significant
factors for the selection of the target-market. Since the companies are aiming to reduce
the incertitude and risk they start the internationalization process in the nearest
countries both psychological and geographical, before they venture into far markets.
The experience is showing that the psychic distance is sometimes larger that it really is
and it is not a constant one and can change as a result of the development of the
international trade, communications and other factors (Sorensen, 1997). The
increasing new markets commitment is a progressive one both as commitment degree
and geographic dimension as Figure 1 is showing.
The combination among commitment of the company, geographic
diversification and time allows a reorganization of the internationalization process as
follows (Popa, 2001):
First landing, when the company capitalizes its specific advantages using
those capabilities and competences which allow its success in domestic

31
Management & Marketing

market; such advantages could be technological, marketing or financial

strength.
Go native, if the company capitalizes the relocation advantages following
the shift of the production and sale capacities into various markets. The
company is adapting the strategy and operating modes according to the
characteristics of each market, thus becoming a multinational.
Globalization, as the company has and capitalizes global advantages
using a global strategy.

Entry mode Alliances, Foreign

Foreign Export partnerships, direct
market cooperation investment
Market A Increasing market commitment

Market B
Increasing
Market C (progressive)
internationalization
diversification

geographic

Market N
Increasing

Source: Adapted by the author, according to Hollensen, 2008, p. 57.

Figure 1. The progressive internationalization

The globalization is the attribute of born-global which are companies that

from their birth globalizes rapidly without any preceding long term
internationalization period. The increasing number and importance of born-global
companies is the result of many tendencies as market globalization, increasing role of
market niches, industries globalization, particular of the technological ones,
improvement and advance of new technologies, global networks, advance and high

32
 Models for the internationalization of the business: a diversity - based approach

speed of IT which have major influences on the communication technology. Contrary

to the progressive process, globalization assumes internationalization in one stage
only. The progressive internationalization is the outcome of the decision of individual
company, while globalization requests various types of alliances, partnerships and
cooperation with other companies already possessing supplementary competences, in
order to facilitate the rapid growth (Hollensen, 2008).
The model of the product life cycle
The hypothesis of the model is that the successive modes of
internationalization are closely related with the product life cycle and it was
introduced by Vernon in 1966. It is assuming that producers in advanced countries are
closer to markets than producers from other countries. As a result, first production
facilities will be in advanced countries. As the demand expands an increasing degree
of standardization takes place allowing economies of scale through mass production.
The costs become more important than product adaptation. In its turn product
standardizations allows that less developed countries offer competitive advantages as
production location.
The life cycle hypothesis suggests that the internationalization of the company
could be divided in three stages (Sorensen, 1997).
The stage of the new product
The new products are developed and marketed in domestic market first but
soon they begin to be exported toward other advanced countries.
The stage of the mature product
The growing markets, the intensive competition and the product
standardization support the product relocation in the largest foreign markets and better
competitive advantages. Other countries may not be served from foreign and domestic
bases of production depending on production and market costs.
The stage of the standardized product
It appears in the maturity and decline stage of the product. The production can
be now located in developing countries and than transported back in the developed
countries and other countries.
The transition from one stage to the other stage of the life cycle of the product
offers two advantages that are knowledge and cost reduction. These two advantages
explain the differences between the developed and developing countries. The
knowledge gap between developed countries and other countries is very much
diminished. The idea of cost gap will continue since the reality shows that cost
differences exist in many cases. Thus, many companies particularly emerging from
developed countries use subcontracting, licensing, franchising, acquisitions even in
countries where there are cost differential that allows cost advantages no matter their
development level.
The progressive models of internationalization are highly appreciated but they
are open to criticism too. Many companies have not always a consolidation stage in
the domestic market before they internationalize and this could affect their initiative.
The company sometimes surpasses some stages of the process or they decide to

33
Management & Marketing

reverse the trend by passing from the high commitment to low commitment. Many
times there are companies that cant overpass a certain stage of internationalization.

3. Contingency models for internationalization

These models have REM as factors of influence which in fact are stages of
decision of the company (Rubaeva, 2010).
Reasons for internationalization or R factor are about external and internal
motives of the company. They are proactive and reactive as in Table 2.

Table 2
The main proactive and reactive reasons
of the internationalization of the company
Proactive reasons Reactive reasons
Profit and growth goals Competitive pressures in the domestic market
Technology competence/unique product Domestic market small and saturated; lowering
Economies of scale; cost reduction sales
Foreign market opportunities / market information Overproduction/excess capacities
Managerial urge Unsolicited foreign market orders
Access to resources Extend sales of seasonal products
Proximity to international customers/
psychological distance
Source: Hollensen, 2008, p. 35; Popa, 2001, pp. 14-16.

Environment or E factor
The companies chose to enter nearby markets during the initial stages of the
internationalization process due to the concept of psychological distance. By acting
this way they keep working in a familiar environment and reduce the risk and
uncertainty. The particular features of the location are due to the differences between
the markets. These differences could be as follows (Rubaeva, 2010):
Differences between the level of economic development of domestic and
foreign market;
Differences between the business and local language;
Differences between the culture of the company and the culture of the
foreign country;
Differences between the level of education in the market of the company
and that of the foreign target- market.
Mode of entry or M factor
The selection of the mode of internationalization is subject of influence of many
variables. Some of the main factors of influence are cost, profit, degree of commitment,
necessary control, future benefits of investment, risk potential of investment, potential

34
 Models for the internationalization of the business: a diversity - based approach

experience acquired in the foreign market and other such variables, the general strategy
of the company included.
The contingency models sustain that the internationalization of the company
depends on the environment factors particularly those of the foreign market. These
factors are dynamic and because of this characteristic there is not only one way of
internationalization. The process of internationalization could be separated in the case
of each individual company due to the differences between the actual and future
conditions of the environment (Sorensen, 1997).
The contingency models imply for the management that the company is an
open system and it could find more solutions of internationalization. The mission of
the management is to meet the exigencies of the environment using the strength of the
company. The capacity of analysis becomes a critical condition for the planning of the
internationalization that demands a process including situational analysis, definition of
the decision criteria, alternatives evaluation and optimal alternative selection.
The contingency models could be found in two categories that are if than
approach and conceptual framework approach. The if than approach stipulates
the conditions which are followed by action if the necessary conditions are fulfilled.
The most known approaches are the transaction cost model and the eclectic model.
The transaction cost model is assuming that the company internationalizes
until the transaction cost inside balances the cost of the same transaction which is
market-based (Hollensen, 2008). The transaction cost has as source the divergent
interests and opportunistic behavior of the exporters. The decision about the
internationalization alternative is taken following a pertinent analysis of the
transaction costs. When this analysis states that the foreign market-based transactions
have a lower cost the company will externalize. It has business relationship with
foreign partners using various modes of entry as export, licensing, subcontracting,
joint-ventures. When the partners may be integrated in the internal structure of the
organization at lower costs the company will internalize, mostly via mergers and
acquisitions (Hollensen, 2008; Sorensen, 1997; Bradley, 1995).
The main purpose of internalization using the cost transaction approach has to
be the minimizing of the transaction costs as a whole.
The eclectic model has been proposed by Dunning. It explains the conditions
for the internationalization of the company when using foreign direct investment
instead of export. According to Dunning the propensity of a company to engage itself
in international production increases if it has the OLI advantages that is ownership
advantages, location advantages and internalization advantages (Hollensen, 2008;
Buckley and Hashai, 2009; Rubaeva, 2010). The eclectic model explains the
emergence of the multinational companies by using the three already mentioned
advantages.
Ownership advantages (O) is a characteristic of the company. The company
has to have ownership advantages compared to companies that already are present in
different foreign markets. These advantages could be bigger resources and

35
Management & Marketing

technological assets of the company. Ownership advantages could be found in two

groups namely asset advantages and transaction advantages. The asset advantages
include product innovations, property rights, employees experience, organizational
and marketing system, production management, know how and others. The transaction
advantages may result from economies of scale, economies of scope, supply of mixed
sources, better resources for capacities and utilization, availability of inputs at favorite
terms, availability resources of mother-company and marginal costs. The
multinational companies may have access to better knowledge of foreign market with
regard to its various components as labor, finance, dimensions, structure, growth,
capacity to resist to different risks. These advantages provide more opportunities and
benefits following manufacture abroad.
Location advantages (L) is a market characteristic that explains their
immobility at international scale. The location advantages emerge as a result of the
economic gap between countries with a benefit for the host country for foreign direct
investment.
The resources of location advantages are due to the following:
Inputs depending on their prices, quality and efficiency (materials, labor,
material resources, energy).
Outputs that depend on the actual conditions of the infrastructure and
market (cost of international transport and communications, legal,
educational and business environment and psychic distance which is a
result of differences in language, customs, culture and business).
Structure due to the economic system and government policies,
investment incentives, institutional framework and resource allocation.
Internalization advantages (I) is a transaction attribute. They emerge as the
ownership advantages become private property when they are transferred outside the
company. The internalization advantages spring up when the company prefers to
capitalize its ownership advantage inside by investing and minimize the transaction
cost of the inter-companies transfer of the knowledge and competences of the owner.
The process of the investment evolution is a dynamic element of the eclectic
model. It depends on the five stages development process. The pre-industrial stage is
the first one and it has the lack of foreign direct investment as main characteristic.
Some small L advantages for investment attraction may exist but the internal O
advantages of the national companies are not enough for the input and output of the
direct investment. Since the domestic market depends on low incomes, the absence or
insufficient infrastructure and authority and the lack of economic and political
stability, the L advantages are small. The second stage is tied to the first one because
the role of the governments in the attraction of foreign direct investment is still
insignificant. In this stage a reasonable legal system and business infrastructure are
created, the development of transport and communication systems are developed and a
favorable business environment is secured. The flows of foreign direct investment

36
 Models for the internationalization of the business: a diversity - based approach

intensify and the focuses particularly in industries with resources, production

industries with intensive labor, in sales and distribution, transports and constructions.
The middle stage of the development process has the replace of cheap foreign
investment as main vehicle due to the fact that location advantages emerge from
created assets at a larger extend. In the last two stages the investment outputs appear
and develop since the economy of the country gets a certain degree of maturity. The
foreign companies intend to use O advantages and add them to by getting new assets
and markets.
The foreign direct investment is useful when the company has OLI
advantages. If it hasnt L advantages the export is more advantageous and the best
decision is licensing without I advantages. The company has to have all three
advantages in order to utilize all modes of entry.

4. Interactive models for the internationalization of the company

The interactive models have the market formed from a set of anonymous
actors which interact on a continuous basis and have long term business relationships
as the essential hypothesis. The result of this approach is a long term business
network.
The model of business network emphasizes the value of commercial, personal
and cognitive relationships between its members. This model assumes that the
organizational network of the company is a major incentive for internationalization
and the companies produce their resources by interacting with other partners. The
companies of the network can be both individually independent and dependent on the
resources controlled by other companies. The degree of dependence gradually
increases and that means the resources of one company become more dependent on
the ones of other companies for the benefit of all parties (Hollensen, 2008; Rubaeva,
2010; Cescu and Dumitru, 2011). The business networks work throughout exchange
relationships and their needs and capacities are mediated by the interactions during
those relationships.
The position of a company inside a network is a key concept of the network
model. This position defines the present control of the company and its access to the
network resources. The business network allows the company to internationalize
following three strategies (Sorensen, 1997; Rubaeva, 2010):
Extension, when the company has relationships with companies and
networks in new markets.
Penetration, if the company deepens its relationships as part of existing
international networks.
Coordination, by improving its existing relationships inside different
networks in various markets.

37
Management & Marketing

The internationalization of the company depends on its own position inside

the network and on the general framework of the internationalization of the industry or
market. A four field matrix of the company inside the network may be obtained by
combining the two dimensions mentioned above (Sorensen, 1997; Danciu, 2001) as in
Figure 2.

Degree of internationalization
Of the market
Degree of internationalization of the

Low High
Low

The early The late

starter starter
company

High
The lonely The international
international among others

Source: Sorensen, 1997, p. 15; Danciu, 2001, p.179; Hollensen, 2004, p. 62.
Figure 2. The position of the company depending on the internationalization degree

The early starter. The company has not business relationships with foreign
companies. It has to be a pioneer since no other company within the industry has such
relationships. The company may follow a gradual and slow involvement in the
foreign markets via an agent, leading to a sales subsidiary and then a manufacturing
subsidiary.
The lonely international. The company already has experience of relationships
with others in foreign countries, but its competitors and customers are less
internationalized. It may establish new relationships or to deepen the existing ones.
The late starter. The company is still domestically focused, while the other
industry companies already have long term relationships with foreign partners.
Compared to early starter the late starter often finds it difficult to discover free
partners and to establish new positions in a tightly structured market.

38
 Models for the internationalization of the business: a diversity - based approach

The international among others

In this situation, the company has the chance of using positions in one
network to bridge over to other networks and partners with regard to both extension
and penetration. The success of such moves depends on the coordination of the
international activities along the value chain.
The international business networks seem to evolve and change easier and
faster. Thus, they may be more flexible and find faster answers to the change of
market and business conditions As a result, international business networks emerge in
industries and markets where the coordination of interested parties gets important
additional revenues.

5. Reasons for an improved internationalization model

The internationalization is a major strategic project of the company as the

existence of various models shows. Each model has a particular approach about
internationalization. None of them has succeeded in covering and clarifying the
phenomenon. Therefore we think that a different approach could have a greater
significance and importance for the theory and practice of the internationalization.

Resources for internationalization

External Proactive

Object

Target markets Objective Motives

Methods Competitive
advantages

Internal Reactive

Degree of international commitment

Source: Authors design and elaboration
Source: Designed and elaborated by the author.
Figure 3. The proposed model of internationalization

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Management & Marketing

Such an attempt could have the model proposed by Welch and Loustarinen as
a support. This model focuses on the object of internationalization, target markets,
entry modes, organizational structure and resources. These components could be
completed with other such motives, objectives, competitive advantages and degree of
commitment. All these elements could be combined in a new multidimensional model
which is more completely catching the project of internationalization. Its graphic form
is presented in Figure 3. The competitive advantages could be created in the resources
area, property rights, diminished costs, and more competent, experienced and efficient
employees.
The degree of international commitment of the company, selection of target
market and allocated resources for the internationalization project and the creation and
maintenance of the adequate competitive advantages are depending on the objectives
and entry modes the management of the company chooses.

6. Conclusions

The internationalization is an important component of the growth and

development strategy of the company. It is a mainly extensive strategy with intensive
valences at the same time that has the diversification as final outcome. The strategic
character of the internationalization calls for the fulfillment of three essential
conditions, in order to successfully be started and carried on. The first condition
requires the company to commit itself in the long term internationalization project.
The second one assumes that the company allocates the necessary resources for the
project and the third one forces the company to create and capitalize the advantages
which could allow an advantageous evolution in the foreign markets.
Every time the company has as option an internationalization project, it will
find itself in a different situation and position. This dynamic creates a great diversity
of entry modes. They could be found in the internationalization models which are the
result of various relationships between the appropriate selected variables and factors.
The theoretical elements of the models are to be found in many companies common
and different practices of internationalization. These practices depend on motives of
internationalization, opportunities and conditions of the environment, particular
advantages of the company, product life cycle, transaction cost or entry modes. All
these criteria are used in the internationalization process that could be more rapid or
slower as in the case of progressive internationalization, or rapid in all markets at the
time as in the case of globalization.
The strategic project of internationalization could be an individual effort of
the company or of a business network. The internationalization models have common
points although they have various visions and perspectives and show different entry
modes. The progressive and contingency models are objective and static while the
interaction models are subjective and dynamic. The entry modes are the same

40
 Models for the internationalization of the business: a diversity - based approach

irrespective of the model while the order of priority is different. The progressive
models recommend export as starting mode while the eclectic model sees the foreign
direct investment as priority. In their turn, the business networks and globalization
accept the most appropriate combination between the situation of the environment, the
position of the company and the particularity of internalization project as starting entry
mode.
The large variety of models cannot entirely cover all the problems of the
internationalization. For that reason we are proposing a multidimensional model
which has the significant elements of the existing models and introduces new ones.
This model is conceived from the perspective of the management of the company.

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