Contents

Chapter 1: Hall-Effect Physics ........................................................... 1

1.1 A Quantitative Examination........................................................................ 3
1.2 Hall Effect in Metals ................................................................................... 5
1.3 The Hall Effect in Semiconductors............................................................. 7
1.4 A Silicon Hall-Effect Transducer................................................................ 9

Chapter 2: Practical Transducers ..................................................... 11

2.1 Key Transducer Characteristics ................................................................ 11
Sensitivity.................................................................................................. 11
Temperature Coefficient of Sensitivity ..................................................... 12
Ohmic Offset ............................................................................................. 13
Temperature Coefficient of Ohmic Offset ................................................ 14
Linearity .................................................................................................... 14
Input and Output Resistances.................................................................... 14
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance ..................................................... 15
Noise ......................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Bulk Transducers ...................................................................................... 16
2.3 Thin-Film Transducers .............................................................................. 17
2.4 Integrated Hall Transducers ...................................................................... 20
2.5 Transducer Geometry ................................................................................ 26
2.6 The Quad Cell ........................................................................................... 27
2.7 Variations on the Basic Hall-Effect Transducer ........................................ 30
2.8 Examples of Hall Effect Transducers ........................................................ 33
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Chapter 3: Transducer Interfacing ..................................................

35
3.1 An Electrical Transducer Model ............................................................... 36
3.2 A Model for Computer Simulation ........................................................... 38
3.3 Voltage-Mode Biasing ............................................................................... 41
3.4 Current-Mode Biasing .............................................................................. 45
3.5 Amplifiers ................................................................................................. 48
3.6 Amplifier Circuits ..................................................................................... 51
3.7 Analog Temperature Compensation .......................................................... 54
3.8 Offset Adjustment ..................................................................................... 57
3.9 Dynamic Offset Cancellation Technique .................................................. 58

Chapter 4: Integrated Sensors: Linear and Digital Devices ..........61

4.1 Linear Sensors ........................................................................................... 62
4.2 Linear Transfer Curve ............................................................................... 65
4.3 Drift ........................................................................................................... 66
4.4 Ratiometry ................................................................................................. 67
4.5 Output Characteristics ............................................................................... 68
4.6 Bandwidth ................................................................................................. 69
4.7 Noise ......................................................................................................... 71
4.8 Power Supply Requirements for Linear Sensors ...................................... 71
4.9 Temperature Range ................................................................................... 72
4.10 Field-Programmable Linear Sensors ......................................................... 72
4.11 Typical Linear Devices ............................................................................ 74
4.12 Switches and Latches ................................................................................ 75
4.13 Definition of Switch vs . Latch .................................................................. 77
4.14 Switchpoint Stability ................................................................................. 78
4.15 Bipolar Switches ....................................................................................... 78
4.16 Power Supply Requirements for Digital Sensors ...................................... 79
4.17 Output Drivers........................................................................................... 80
4.18 Typical Digital Devices ............................................................................. 81

Chapter 5: Interfacing to IntegratedHall-Effect Devices 83 ...............

5.1 Interface Issues-Linear Output Sensors ................................................. 83
5.2 Offset and Gain Adjustment ...................................................................... 84
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5.3 Output Thresholding ................................................................................. 86

5.4 Interfacing to Switches and Latches ......................................................... 88
5.5 The Pull-up Resistor................................................................................. 88
5.6 Interfacing to Standard Logic Devices ..................................................... 90
5.7 Discrete Logic .......................................................................................... 91
Logic NOT Output .................................................................................... 92
Wired OR Output ...................................................................................... 93
AND function............................................................................................ 93
5.8 Driving Loads ........................................................................................... 93
5.9 LED Interfaces.......................................................................................... 93
5.10 Incandescent Lamps .................................................................................. 94
5.11 Relays, Solenoids, and Inductive Loads ................................................... 96
5.12 Wiring-Reduction Schemes ...................................................................... 98
5.13 Encoding and Serialization ....................................................................... 98
5.14 Digital-to-Analog Encoding...................................................................... 99
5.15 Mini-Networks ........................................................................................ 102
5.16 Voltage Regulation and Power Management .......................................... 104

Chapter 6: Proximity-SensingTechniques .................................... 107

6.1 Head-on Sensing .................................................................................... 107
6.2 Slide-By Sensing..................................................................................... 109
6.3 Magnet Null-Point Sensing ..................................................................... 110
6.4 Float-Level Sensing ................................................................................ 114
6.5 Linear Position Sensing .......................................................................... 116
6.6 Rotary Position Sensing .......................................................................... 118
6.7 Vane Switches ......................................................................................... 122
6.8 Some Thoughts on Designing Proximity Sensors .................................. 126

Chapter 7: Current-SensingTechniques ........................................

131
7.1 Resistive Current Sensing ...................................................................... 131
7.2 Free-Space Current Sensing .................................................................... 133
7.3 Free-Space Current Sensors I1 ................................................................ 136
7.4 Toroidal Current Sensors ........................................................................ 140
7.5 Analysis of Slotted Toroid ...................................................................... 142
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7.6 Toroid Material Selection and Issues ...................................................... 143

7.7 Increasing Sensitivity with Multiple Turns ............................................. 144
7.8 An Example Current Sensor ................................................................... 145
7.9 A Digital Current Sensor ........................................................................ 146
7.10 Integrated Current Sensors ...................................................................... 147
7.11 Closed-Loop Current Sensors ................................................................. 148

Chapter 8: Speed and Timing Sensors ...................... 151

8.1 Competitive Technologies ....................................................................... 151
8.2 Magnetic Targets ..................................................................................... 153
8.3 Vane Switches ......................................................................................... 155
8.4 Geartooth Sensing ................................................................................... 157
8.5 Geartooth Sensor Architecture ................................................................ 158
8.6 Single-Point Sensing .............................................................................. 159
8.7 Single-Point/Fixed-ThresholdSchemes .................................................. 161
8.8 Single-PointDynamic-ThresholdSchemes ............................................ 163
8.9 Differential Geartooth Sensors ................................................................ 167
8.10 Differential Fixed-Threshold .................................................................. 169
8.11 Differential Variable-Threshold .............................................................. 170
8.12 Comparison of Hall-Effect Speed Sensing Methods .............................. 171
8.13 Speed and Direction Sensing .................................................................. 171
8.14 How Fast Do Speed Sensors Go? ........................................................... 173

Chapter 9: Application-Specific Sensors ........................................

177
9.1 Micropower Switches ............................................................................. 177
9.2 Two-Wire Switches ................................................................................. 180
9.3 Power Devices ......................................................................................... 182
9.4 Power + Brains = Smart Motor Control .................................................. 183

Chapter 10: Development Tools ...................................................... 187

10.1 Electronic Bench Equipment .................................................................. 187
Power supplies ........................................................................................ 187
Voltmeters and DMMs ............................................................................ 188
Oscilloscope ............................................ 1 ............................................... 189
Frequency Counter .................................................................................. 189
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Clamp-On Current Probes ...................................................................... 189

Solderless Breadboard ............................................................................ 190
10.2 Magnetic Instrumentation ....................................................................... 190
Gaussmeter.............................................................................................. 190
Fluxmeter ................................................................................................ 191
Calibrated Hall-Effect ICs ...................................................................... 192
Polarity probe .......................................................................................... 192
Magnetic View Film ................................................................................ 193
Magnetizers and Magnet Conditioners ................................................... 193
Helmholtz Coil ........................................................................................ 195
10.3 Mechanical Tools .................................................................................... 196
Optical Bench .......................................................................................... 196
Linear Positioning Slides ........................................................................ 196
Rotary Table ............................................................................................ 197
Calipers and Micrometers ....................................................................... 197
Machine Tools ......................................................................................... 198
Environmental Chamber ......................................................................... 199
10.4 Magnetic Simulation Software ............................................................... 199

Appendix A: A Brief Introduction .................................................. 203

A .1 Where Magnetic Fields Come From ....................................................... 203
A.2 Magnetic Materials ................................................................................. 205
A.3 Some Permanent Magnet Materials ........................................................ 210

Appendix B: Supplier List ............................................................... 211

Appendix C: Glossary of Common Terms ..................................... 219
Appendix D: References and Bibliography ................................... 229
About the Author.............................................................................. 231
Index .................................................................................................. 233