Section 2.

Predicate Logic

Discussion:

In Maths we use variables (usually ranging over numbers)

in various ways.

How does x differ in what it represents in the following

statements? x is real.

x2 = 0 x represents one value, x = 0

x>2 x represents some, but not all values
x+0 = x x represents all values
x2 +1 = 0 x represents no values

Definition: Predicate

A predicate is a sentence that contains one or more

variables and becomes a statement when specific values are
substituted for the variables.

Definition: Domain

The domain of a predicate variable consists of all values

that may be substituted in place of the variable

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Definition: Truth Set

If P(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the truth set of

P(x) is the set of all elements of D that make P(x) true. The
truth set is denoted { x D : P( x )} and is read the set of all
x in D such that P(x).

Examples:

Let P(x) be the predicate x 2 > x with x i.e.

domain the set of real numbers .
Write down P( 2), P(1), P( 2) and indicate which are true
and which are false.
Determine the truth set of P(x)

P( 2) : 2 2 > 2 or 4 > 2 True

P(1) : (1)2 > 1 or 1 > 1 False
P( 2) : ( 2)2 > ( 2) or 4 > ( 2) True

{ x : x 2 > x} = { x : x < 0 x > 1}

Let Q(n) be the predicate n is factor of 8.

Determine the truth set of Q(n) if n +

8 = 1 8, 8 = 2 4
{n + :" n is a factor of 8"} = {1, 2, 4, 8}

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Exercises:

Let P(x) be the predicate x > x with x i.e.

3

domain the set of integers, .

Write down P(2), P(0), P( 2) and indicate which are true
and which are false.
Determine the truth set of P(x)

Let Q(n) be the predicate n is factor of 6.

Determine the truth set of Q(n) if n

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2.1. Quantifiers

A way to obtain statements from predicates is to add

quantifiers. Quantifiers are words that refer to quantities
such as all, every, or some and tell for how many
elements a given predicate is true.

2.1.1. Universal Quantifier

The symbol denotes for all and is called the universal

quantifier.

Definition: Universal Statement

Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. A universal

statement is a statement of the form x D, P( x ) . It is
defined to be true if, and only if, P(x) is true for every x in
D. It is defined to be false if, and only if, P(x) is false for at
least one x in D. A value of x for which P(x) is false is
called a counterexample to the universal statement.

Examples:

Write the sentence All human beings are mortal

using the universal quantifier.
Let H be the set of human beings.
h H ,h is mortal

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 Consider A = { x1 , x2 , x3 } . With x A, P( x ) , the

following must hold: P( x1 ) P( x2 ) P( x3 )

Thus there will be 3 predicates which must hold.

Exercises:

Write the following statements using the universal

quantifier. Determine whether each statement is true or
false.

All dogs are animals

The square of any real number is positive.

Every integer is a rational number.

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Exercises:

Write the following statements in words. Determine

whether each statement is true or false.

x , x

x , x 2 1.

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2.1.2. Existential Quantifier

The symbol denotes there exists and is called the

existential quantifier.

Definition: Existential Statement

Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x.

An existential statement is a statement of the form
x D, P( x ) .
It is defined to be true if, and only if, P(x) is true for at least
one x in D.
It is defined to be false if, and only if, P(x) is false for all x
in D.

Examples:

Write the sentence Some people are vegetarians

using the existential quantifier.
Let H be the set of human beings.
h H , h is a vegetarian

Consider A = { x1 , x2 , x3 }. With x A, P( x ) , the

following must hold: P( x1 ) P( x2 ) P( x3 )

Thus there will be 1 predicate which must hold.

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Exercises:

Write the following statements using the existential

quantifier. Determine whether each statement is true or
false.

Some cats are black

There is a real number whose square is negative.

Some programs are structured.

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Exercises:

Write the following statements in words. Determine

whether each statement is true or false.

m , m 2 = m

x , x 2 = 1.

1
x ,
x

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2.1.3. Negation of Universal Statements

Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. The

negation of a universal statement of the form:
x D, P( x ) is logically equivalent to x D, ~ P( x )

Symbolically ~ (x D, P( x )) x D, ~ P( x )

Example:

Write down the negation of the following statement.

x , x 2 + 1 2 x
Negation:

~ (x , x 2 + 1 2 x )
x , ~ ( x 2 + 1 2 x )
x , x 2 + 1 < 2 x
False.

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Exercises:

Write down the negation of the following statement.

x , x 2 0

Write down the negation of the following statement.

y +1
y , y 0 < 1
y

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Example:

Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

its negation and determine whether the statement or its
negation is true, giving a brief reason..
Every real number is either positive or negative.
Statement:
x , x < 0 x > 0
Negation:
~ (x , x < 0 x > 0)
x , ~ ( x < 0 x > 0)
x , ~ ( x < 0) ~ ( x > 0)
x , ( x 0) ( x 0)
x , x = 0
The true statement is the negation because x = 0 is neither
positive nor negative.

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Exercises:

Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

the negation.
The square of any integer is positive.

Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

the negation.
All computer programs are finite.

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2.1.4. Negation of Existential Quantifiers

Let P(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. The

negation of an existential statement of the form:
x D, P( x ) is logically equivalent to x D , ~ P( x )

Symbolically ~ (x D, P( x )) x D , ~ P( x )

Example:

Write down the negation of the following statement.

x , x 2 = 2
Negation:

~ (x , x 2 = 2)
x , ~ ( x 2 = 2)
x , x 2 2
The negation is true.

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Exercises:

Write down the negation of the following statement.

z , ( z is odd ) ( z is even)

Write down the negation of the following statement.

n , ( n is even) ( n is prime)

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Example:

Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

its negation
Some dogs are vegetarians.
Let D be the set of dogs.
Statement: d D , d is vegetarian
Negation:
~ (d D, d is vegetarian)
d D , ~ ( d is vegetarian)
d D , d is not vegetarian
All dogs are not vegetarian

Exercises:

Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

the negation.
There is a real number that is rational.

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 Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find
the negation.
Some computer hackers are over 40.

Write the following statement using quantifiers. Find

the negation.
Some animals are dogs.

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2.1.5. Multiple Quantifiers

When a statement contains multiple quantifiers their order

must be applied as written and will produce different
results for the truth set.

Examples:

Write the following statements using quantifiers:

Everybody loves somebody.

Let H be the set of people.
Statement: x H , y H , x loves y.

Somebody loves everyone.

Let H be the set of people.
Statement: x H , y H , x loves y.

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Exercises:

Write the following statements using quantifiers:

Everybody loves everybody.

The Commutative Law of Addition for

Everyone had a mother.

There is an oldest person.

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Examples:

Write the following statements without using quantifiers:

x ,, y , x + y = 0
Statement: Given any real number, you can find a real
number so that the sum of the two is zero. Alternatively:
Every real number has an additive inverse.

x ,, y , x + y = y
Statement: There is a real number, which added to any
other real number results in the other number.
Alternatively: Every real number has an additive identity.

Exercises:

Write the following statements without using quantifiers:

c colours, a animals, a is coloured c

b books, p people, p has read b

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2.1.6. Interpreting Statements with Multiple
Quantifiers

To establish the truth of a statement with more than one

quantifier, take the action suggested by the quantifiers as
being performed in the order in which the quantifiers occur.

Consider A = { x1 , x 2 , x3 }, B = { y1 , y 2 } and the

predicate P( x, y ) .

There will be 6 possible predicates:

P( x1 , y1 ) , P( x1 , y 2 ),
P( x2 , y1 ), P( x2 , y 2 ),
P( x3 , y1 ) , P( x3 , y 2 ).

For x A, y B, P( x, y ) to be true the following

must hold:
P( x1 , y1 ) P( x1 , y 2 )
P( x2 , y1 ) P( x2 , y 2 )
P( x3 , y1 ) P( x3 , y 2 )

Thus there will be 6 predicates which must all be true. That

is for all pairs (x, y), P(x, y) must be true. It will be false if
there is one pair (x, y), for which P(x, y) is false.

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 For x A, y B, P( x, y ) to be true, the following
must hold:
P( x1 , y1 ) P( x1 , y 2 )
P( x 2 , y1 ) P( x 2 , y 2 )
P( x3 , y1 ) P( x3 , y 2 )

Thus there will be 3 predicates which must be true. That is

for every x there must be at least one y so that P(x, y) is
true. Given any element x in A you can find an element y in
B, so that P(x, y) is true. It will be false if there is one x in A
for which P(x, y) is false for every y in B.

For x A, y B, P( x, y ) to be true, the following

must hold:
P( x1 , y1 ) P( x1 , y 2 )
P( x 2 , y1 ) P( x 2 , y 2 )
P( x3 , y1 ) P( x3 , y 2 )

Thus there will be 2 predicates which must be true. That is

there is one x that when paired with any y, P(x, y) is true.
You can find one element x in A that with all elements y in
B, P(x, y) is true. It will be false if for every x in A, there is
a y in B for which P(x, y) is false.

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 For x A, y B, P( x, y ) to be true, the following
must hold:
P( x1 , y1 ) P( x1 , y 2 )
P( x 2 , y1 ) P( x 2 , y 2 )
P( x3 , y1 ) P( x3 , y 2 )

Thus there will be 1 predicate which must be true. That is

there is one x that when paired with one y, P(x, y) is true.
You can find one element x in A and one element y in B,
P(x, y) is true. It will be false if for all pairs (x, y), P(x, y) is
false.

Summary:

Statement When true? When false?

x, y , P( x, y ) P(x, y) is true for There is a pair
all pairs (x, y) (x, y) for which P(x,
y) is false
x, y , P( x, y ) For every x, there There is an x such
is a y for which that P(x, y) is false
P(x, y) is true for every y
x, y , P( x, y ) There is an x such For every x, there is
that P(x, y) is true a y for which P(x, y)
for every y is false
x, y , P( x, y ) There is a pair P(x, y) is false for
(x, y) for which all pairs (x, y)
P(x, y) is true

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2.1.7. Negation of Statements with Multiple
Quantifiers.

To negate statements with multiple quantifiers, each

quantifier is negated and the predicate must be negated.

To negate x A, y B, P( x, y )
~ (x A, y B, P( x, y ) ) x A, y B, ~ P( x, y )

To negate x A, y B, P( x, y )
~ (x A, y B, P( x, y ) ) x A, y B, ~ P( x, y )

To negate x A, y B, P( x, y )
~ (x A, y B, P( x, y ) ) x A, y B, ~ P( x, y )

To negate x A, y B, P( x, y )
~ (x A, y B, P( x, y ) ) x A, y B, ~ P( x, y )

Examples:

Write the negation of the following:

Statement: x ,, y , x + y = 0
Negation:
~ (x ,, y , x + y = 0 )
x ,, y , x + y 0
False: Take y = x , then x + y = x x = 0

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 Statement: x ,, y , xy = 1
Negation:
~ (x ,, y , xy = 1)
x ,, y , xy 1
True : Take y = x, then xy = x 2 1

Exercises:

Write the negation of the following:

Statement: c colours, a animals, a is coloured c

Statement: b books, p people, p has read b

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