What is Chemistry?

Chemistry is the science that tries to

understand how matter behaves by
studying the behavior of atoms and
molecules.
The central science: needed in study of
biology, physics, geology, medicine,
environmental sciences, and engineering
Matter is anything that occupies space
and weighs something ("stuff")
 Other Needed Definitions
n Properties = the characteristics that give
something its unique identity. Examples:
n Water freezes at 32F and boils at 212F (at
sea level)
n Water reacts with iron and O2 to form rust.
n Substance = a form of matter that has a
definite composition and distinct properties
n Composition: The types and amounts of
simpler substances in a sample.
n Example: Water is always 1/9 hydrogen by
mass and 8/9 oxygen by mass
 Metal Atoms
n Aluminum is a substance. The smallest
possible piece of aluminum that has all of the
properties of aluminum is submicroscopic (that
is, extremely small) and is called an atom of
aluminum.
n The smallest possible particle of any pure
metal, such as copper or iron, that has all of the
properties of that metal is an atom of that metal.
n A substance, such as aluminum, that is
composed of only one kind of atom is called an
element.
Air is composed primarily of oxygen gas
and nitrogen gas.
n Oxygen gas has properties that make it
distinctly different from nitrogen gas (for
example: oxygen gas supports life, nitrogen
gas does not).
n A sample of pure oxygen gas can be
subdivided until the smallest possible sample
that remains that has the properties of pure
oxygen gas. In this case, this is a particle
called a molecule of oxygen.
 Atoms vs. Molecules
A molecule of oxygen gas can be split in
half. Two identical particles, with properties
than differ from those of oxygen gas are
formed. These are atoms of oxygen.
Therefore, the formula for oxygen gas is O2,
which is an example of a diatomic molecule.
Hydrogen gas is also diatomic, and so has
the formula H2.
An ozone molecule is composed of three
oxygen atoms, and so has the formula O3.
Ozone has different properties from those of
diatomic oxygen. Both O2 and O3 are forms
of the element oxygen.
Other Properties of Molecules and Atoms
Atoms cannot be split into smaller particles
by ordinary chemical means. Any element
is composed of only one kind of atom.
There are currently 116 known elements, of
which 88 occur naturally.
Oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, along with
aluminum, are all examples of elements.
Water (H2O) is an example of a compound,
a substance composed of two or more
elements (two or more kinds of atoms) in
fixed definite proportions.
 Chemical Reactions
If one molecule of O2 gas reacts with two
molecules of H2 gas, two molecules of H2O
form immediately while producing large
amounts of heat.
H2O (= water) has properties that are very
different from those of either O2 or H2.
A chemical reaction (= chemical change)
has occurred between H2 and O2.
This can be represented by a chemical
equation: 2 H2 + O2 2 H2O
A famous example of this reaction is
shown on the next slide.
John Dalton's Atomic Theory (1808)
n All matter is composed of small,
indestructible particles called atoms.
n All atoms of a given element are
identical in size, mass and chemical
properties.
n Atoms of one element differ from
atoms of all other elements in these
properties.
 Daltons Atomic Theory [continued]
n Chemical reactions involve the
separation, combination or
rearrangement of atoms, not their
creation or destruction or conversion into
atoms of other elements.
n Atoms of different elements combine
only in whole number ratios to form
chemical compounds. There are many
millions of known compounds.
 Electrical Charge
n Electrical charges are responsible for static
electricity and electrical current. There two kinds
of electrical charges: positive and negative.
n Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
Therefore, two negatively charged objects will
repel each other, as will two positively charged
objects.
n A positively charged object and a negatively
charged object will be attracted to each other.
 The Structure of Atoms

Atoms are composed of protons,

neutrons and electrons.
Electrons are negatively charged
(discovered by J. J. Thomson in 1897).
Protons are positively charged.
Electrons are as negatively charged as
protons are positively charged.
Neutrons have no electrical charge
(discovered by James Chadwick in 1936).
 A General Model of the
Atom (Continued)
The protons and neutrons are found only
in a very small region in the center of
the atom called the nucleus (discovered
by Ernest Rutherford in 1910). A cloud of
electrons surrounds the nucleus.
Protons and neutrons weigh about the
same and are almost 2000 times heavier
than electrons.
The nucleus has a diameter that is only
about 1/10,000 that of the atom,
although the nucleus contains nearly all
the mass of the atom.
Analogy; a swarm of bees (electrons)
surrounds a hive (the nucleus).
Relative Size of the Proton and the Electron

If a proton had
the mass of a
baseball, an
electron would
have the mass of
a rice grain.
The proton is
nearly 2000 times
as massive as an
electron.
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 Rutherfords Model of
the Atom McGraw-Hill

atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m

nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m

If the atom is the Houston

Astrodome, then the nucleus is a
marble on the 50-yard line.
 Protons and an Elements Identity
All atoms of a given element have the same
number of protons.
Therefore, all oxygen atoms have 8 protons in
their nuclei. An atom containing 8 protons is, by
definition, an atom of oxygen.
An atom containing only 7 protons is not an
oxygen atom but is, by definition, a nitrogen atom.
To be electrically neutral, any atom must possess
exactly as many electrons as there are protons in
its nucleus.
 Numbers of Neutrons
The number of neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom of a given element can vary from
one atom to the next.
Certain ratios of the number of protons to
the number of neutrons make that atom
radioactive, which means that atom
spontaneously emits radiation and may be
quite harmful to living things.
 Numbers of Electrons
The number of electrons possessed by an
atom of a given element can also vary
from one atom to the next.
For example: an atom of iron, which has
26 protons by definition, can also have 26
electrons (as found in an iron nail) or 24
electrons (as found in foods and in the
blood) or only 23 electrons (as found in
iron rust).
 The Periodic Table
n The number of protons in an atom can be
obtained from the periodic table, (first devised by
the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1870).
n When the elements are arranged in order of
increasing numbers of protons, the properties of
the elements tend to repeat periodically.
n The number of protons possessed by an atom of
a particular element will always be a whole
number in a periodic table. The number of
electrons in a neutral atom will be the same as
the number of protons.
n The number of protons plus the average number
of neutrons in an atom of a given element is
shown on a periodic table as a decimal.
 Ions
l Ions are atoms or groups of atoms in which
the total number of protons does not equal
the total number of electrons. For example:
l The ion H3O+ has a total of 11 protons but
only 10 electrons.
l The ion OH has a total of 9 protons but
has 10 electrons.
l These two ions will play a central role in our
discussion of acids and bases.
Water and the Ions H3O+ and OH-

l Even in pure water, two water molecules

will very occasionally react with each other
to form one ion each of H3O+ and OH- as
follows: H2O + H2O H3O+ + OH-
l The equilibrium sign () is used to indicate
that as soon as these ions form, they react
with each other to reform two water
molecules.
 Expressing the Concentration of Ions
Chemists express the concentration of
these ions in a solution in moles per liter.
The mass of an atom, ion or molecule in
grams is numerically equal to the total
number of protons plus the average
number of neutrons and can be obtained
from the periodic table. This is the mass
of one mole of this substance.
The mass of the electrons present is so
small it can be neglected.
Therefore, one mole of H3O+ ions weighs
19 grams, and one mole of OH- ions
weighs 17 grams. [3 quarters weighs
about 17 grams.]
The Concentration of Ions in Water
l In pure water at room temperature, the
concentration of the H3O+ ions equals that of
the OH- ions and is 0.00000010 moles per
liter. This very small number can be written in
scientific notation as 1.0 10-7 moles per liter.
l A solution in which the concentration of each
of these ions is 1.0 10-7 moles per liter is
called a neutral solution.
l Adding any acidic substance to pure water will
increase the concentration of H3O+ ions and
will decrease the concentration of OH- ions.
l Adding any basic (or alkaline) substance to
pure water will have the opposite effect.
 The pH Scale
l Since most of us do not like to deal with very
small numbers, the pH scale was invented. The
pH of a given solution is defined as the negative
logarithm of the H3O+ concentration. pH values
range from about 0 to about 14.
l On this scale, a neutral solution will have a pH of
7, an acidic solution will have a pH less than 7,
and a basic solution will have a pH greater than 7.
l A decrease of 1 pH unit scale corresponds to an
increase in H3O+ concentration by a factor of 10.
l Example: If the H3O+ concentration is 1.0 10-4
moles per liter, what is the pH?
The pH Scale Is a Logarithmic Scale
A decrease of 1 unit on the pH scale
corresponds to an increase in H3O+
concentration by a factor of 10.

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 The pH and pOH Scales: Ways to
Express Acidity and Basicity
At 25 C:
pH < 7 acidic solution
pH > 7 basic solution
pH = 7 neutral solution

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 Properties and Examples of Acids

n Properties: Acids have a sour taste and

react with many metals to give H2 gas.
n Acids are a source of H+ ions, which react
with water to form hydronium ions, H3O+.
n Formulas for acids usually begin with H.
n Some common examples of acids:
hydrochloric acid, HCl (stomach acid),
acetic acid, HC2H3O2 (present in vinegar),
sulfuric acid, H2SO4 (battery acid)
 Properties and Examples of
Bases
n Properties: Bases have a bitter taste and feel
slippery to the touch.
n Bases are a source of OH- ions in water-based
solutions.
n Bases will react with acids to form ionic
compounds and water.
n Two common bases: sodium hydroxide, NaOH
(present in drain cleaner) and magnesium
hydroxide, Mg(OH)2 (milk of magnesia).
 Strong Acids
o Strong acids dissociate completely when
dissolved in water, and so produce only ions
when dissolved in water. See the diagram in
the laboratory experiment or the next slide.
o Example: HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-
o Therefore, HCl is a strong electrolyte
because it forms ONLY ions when dissolved
in water. No molecules of HCl are present
when dissolved in water.
A Strong Acid
When HCl dissolves in water, it completely ionizes
into H3O+ and Cl ions. The solution contains no
intact HCl.

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 Weak Acids
o Weak acids are weak electrolytes = compounds that
exist mostly as molecules in water-based solutions
but that also exist to a small extent as ions.
o Acetic acid and hydrofluoric acid are weak acids:
they exist 95% to 99% of the time as molecules
when dissolved in water and only 1% to 5% of the
time as ions, depending on concentration.
o This is illustrated by the equation:
HF + H2O H3O+ + F.
 A Weak Acid
When HF dissolves in water, only a fraction of the
dissolved molecules ionize into H3O+ and and F ions.
The solution contains many intact HF molecules.

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 Strong Bases
o Strong Bases: Dissociate completely in
solution to give hydroxide ions.
o Common strong bases: NaOH, Mg(OH)2.
o These exist ONLY as ions in aqueous
solution, NOT as molecules.
o Example when dissolved in water:
Mg(OH)2 Mg2+ + 2 OH
o Note that no molecules of Mg(OH)2 are
present.
 Weak Bases
o Weak Bases exist mostly as molecules in water-
based solution but react with water to a small
extent to form hydroxide ions.
o Ammonia, NH3 (present in Windex) is a weak
base: it exists 98% to 99% of the time as
molecules when dissolved in water and only 1% to
2% of the time as ions, depending on
concentration.
o This is illustrated by the equation:
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH.
A Weak Base
When NH3 dissolves in water, it partially ionizes to
form NH4+ and OH. However, only a fraction of the
molecules ionize. Most molecules remain as NH3.

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 Carbonates and Bicarbonates
o Ionic compounds of CO32- (carbonates)
and HCO3- (bicarbonates) such as
sodium carbonate and sodium
bicarbonate, are also weak bases due to
the following equilibria:
o CO32- + H2O HCO3- + OH-
o HCO3- + H2O H2CO3 + OH-
 Buffer Solutions
l Buffer solutions are solutions that resist changes
in pH as long as not too much acid or base is
added.
l Buffer solutions contain a weak acid and a weak
base in the same solution. BOTH must be present
in comparable amounts in order to have a buffer
solution.
l The pH of human blood must be in the range of
7.0 to 7.8, or the patient will die. It is kept in this
range by a series of buffer solutions.
l The phosphate buffer you will use in lab today
is a solution of a mixture of K2HPO4, which is
weakly basic, and KH2PO4, which is weakly acidic.