HERDSA Review of Higher Education

Vol. 1, www.herdsa.org.au

Constructive alignment in university

teaching
John Biggs*
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong & University of Tasmania, Australia

Constructive alignment (CA) is an outcomes-based approach to teaching in which

the learning outcomes that students are intended to achieve are defined before
teaching takes place. Teaching and assessment methods are then designed to
best achieve those outcomes and to assess the standard at which they have been
achieved. Although the general idea of CA has been around for some time, it is
only recently that it has been implemented on a reasonably large scale. Part of
the reason for this is that the massive expansion in tertiary education involves a
diverse range of students and of teaching subjects so that teaching and
assessment need to be reviewed on an institution-wide basis with emphasis upon
outcomes at institutional, programme and unit levels. CA provides a framework
for adjusting teaching and assessment to address the attainment of those
outcomes and the standards reached. Research indicates that CA is effective in
this but it initially requires time and effort in designing teaching and assessment
and, as a systems approach, it is important that supporting institutional policies
and procedures are in place. CA properly implemented enhances teaching and
learning quality and thus, as a form of quality enhancement, subsumes forms of
quality assurance that can often be counter-productive.

Keywords: outcomes-based; constructive alignment; quality enhancement.

1. Introduction
Constructive alignment (CA) is a design for teaching in which what it is
intended students should learn, and how they should express their learning,
is clearly stated before teaching takes place. Teaching is then designed to
engage students in learning activities that optimise their chances of achieving

*
Email: jbiggs@bigpond.com
John Biggs

those outcomes, and assessment tasks are designed to enable clear

judgments as to how well those outcomes have been attained.
Such a teaching design is assumed in everyday learning. For example, a
mother teaching her child how to tie a shoelace focuses on that outcome,
takes the child through the motions of tying a lace until the act of tying can
be carried out satisfactorily by the child. Likewise, a learner driver learns
through the act of driving itself until the specified standard is reached. In
each case, the target act is at once the intended outcome, the method of
teaching, and the means of assessing whether the desired criterion or
standard of the outcome has been met. This approach to teaching is learner-
centred in that the target is what the learner has to achieve and how the
learner may best be engaged in order to achieve it to the required standard.
The teaching design is outcomes-based and assessment is necessarily
criterion-referenced.
Teaching in institutions on the other hand has traditionally been
conceived in precisely the opposite manner on all counts: teaching is
teacher-centred, the focus being on what content the teacher has to
cover, teaching is largely held constant with lecturing the default method,
and assessment is norm-referenced. Until very recently most universities
adhered to this teacher-centred design.

2. The history of the concept of constructive alignment

The essential ideas underlying constructive alignment were proposed over
sixty years ago. In his best-selling Basic principles of curriculum and instruction,
Ralph Tyler asked four questions:
1) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to
attain these purposes?
3) How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
4) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
(Tyler, 1949: 1)
The most useful way of stating curriculum objectives, he said, is to
express them in terms that identify both the kind of behaviour to be
developed and the context or area of life in which this behaviour is to
operate. He also said famously: Learning takes place through the active
behaviour of the student: it is what he (sic) does that he learns, not what the
teacher does. (op. cit. p. 63).

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Tylers book went to 36 editions and was a basic text in almost every
teaching education institution in the United States. He appeared on
numerous advisory committees in relation to school education, and was
regarded as the father of teaching objectives and undoubtedly influenced his
University of Chicago colleague, Benjamin Bloom, in Blooms notion of
mastery learning (Bloom, Hastings & Madaus, 1971). In retrospect, however,
he appears to have had little enduring influence at school level, and virtually
none at all in higher education, apart perhaps from the Keller Plan, which is
a form of mastery learning (Keller, 1968).
Thomas Shuell later restated Tyler as follows:
If students are to learn desired outcomes in a reasonably
effective manner, then the teachers fundamental task is to
get students to engage in learning activities that are likely
to result in their achieving those outcomes. . . . It is
helpful to remember that what the student does is
actually more important in determining what is learned
than what the teacher does. (Shuell, 1986, p. 429)
This seemingly motherhood statement is exactly that: it reminds us that
in institutional learning and teaching we should go back to the teaching
model that is indeed used by mothers. That is, teachers should focus on
what outcomes students are meant to achieve and help them to do so,
which almost always means something other than talking for an hour while
the learner takes notes.
In my final year of teaching before retiring, I decided to unpack Shuells
statement into a teaching model for an evening unit in a part-time BEd
course. This unit, The nature of teaching and learning, was about how
knowledge of psychology might improve teaching. I had just returned from a
sabbatical in Canada, where I had been impressed with authentic
assessment by portfolio in elementary schools. Previously, I had been
teaching psychology in the usual way: teaching topics within the areas of
learning, motivation, and child development, and then setting assignments
about how well the students had understood the topics and what they saw
the implications to be for teaching practice. I now saw that I had been
teaching and assessing declarative knowledge, which was inauthentic to the
purpose of the unit. The students werent there to learn about psychology,
they were there to learn psychology in order to make better teaching decisions.
These B.Ed. students were teachers during the day, so I decided to
assess them on how well they could demonstrate that psychology had
indeed improved their teaching. The assessment required them to compile a
portfolio of examples of where they thought their teaching had been so

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John Biggs

improved. We negotiated a series of learning activities that were likely to

result in their achieving those outcomes, such as reading set material, raising
questions in class about that material, discussing with other students,
swapping notes with a learning partner and keeping a reflective journal. It
worked. The portfolios surprised me with their high quality, their relevance
to teaching and the student ratings for that course were the best Id ever
obtained.
Reflecting on what had happened, it seemed to me that here was a
generalizable model for teaching virtually any unit (Biggs, 1996, 1999). The
key is to define what students are supposed to be able to do with the
content they have learned, apart from reporting back in their own words
what they had been taught. Almost any content topic in any subject is taught
so that students put that content to work in some way: to solve problems,
to construct hypotheses, to apply to particular situations. This is the clue to
defining the outcomes that it is intended students should learn: we nominate
the actions, the verbs, the student is supposed to put into play, verbs such
as solve problems, hypothesize, apply, design, explain, and so on. The
appropriate learning activities then fall into place: the teaching task is to get
students to engage those same verbs. The summative assessment
determines how well they can perform those verbs in appropriate contexts.
Thus, assessment is about judging the whole performance against
predetermined and public rubrics, not by awarding marks analytically for
aspects of the tasks and then summing them. Analytic assessment is useful
formatively, for alerting the student to weak aspects of their performance,
but the final summative assessment is logically on how well the performance
itself can be carried out.
The operational framework for this teaching design at the unit level is in
its basics:
1) Describe the intended learning outcomes (ILOs) for the unit, using one
verb (or at most two) for each outcome. The ILO denotes how the
content or topics are to be dealt with and in what context.
2) Create a learning environment using teaching/learning activities (TLAs)
that require students to engage each verb. In this way the activity
nominated in the ILO is activated.
3) Use assessment tasks (ATs) that also contain that verb, thus enabling
one with help of predetermined using rubrics to judge how well
students performances meet the criteria.
4) Transform these judgments into final grades.

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The verb in the ILO becomes the common link that establishes alignment
between the ILO, the teaching/learning activities, and the assessment tasks.
Some ILOs would require low level verbs such as describe, enumerate,
list; others middle level, such as explain, analyze, apply to familiar
domains, solve standard problems, while at an advanced level appropriate
verbs would include hypothesize, reflect, apply to unseen domains or
problems. These higher order ILOs require open ended tasks, allowing for
unintended outcomes. The teaching/learning activities and assessment tasks
for that ILO would then address that same verb. For example, an ILO in
educational psychology might read: solve a disciplinary problem in the
classroom by applying expectancy-value theory. The TLA might be a case
study of a particular classroom situation requiring the students to apply the
theory and solve the problem, while the assessment would be in terms of
how well the problem was solved, which is best achieved using rubrics by
which the quality of the solution as a whole may be judged. Typically in a
semester length unit, there would be no more than five or six ILOs, with
some ILOs addressing several topics.
I called this design for teaching constructive alignment (CA). The term
constructive is used because the model is based on the psychology of
constructivism of which there are several kinds (Steffe & Gale, 1995), but
what they have in common is the idea, referred to by both Tyler and Shuell,
that knowledge is constructed through the activities of the learner. The key
to good teaching then is to get the learner to engage those activities that are
most appropriate to the ILO in question.
The term alignment is used because both teaching and assessment
need to be aligned to the intended learning outcomes. The concept of
alignment is familiar from curriculum theory, as in criterion-referenced
assessment (CRA), which Cohen (1987) describes as the magic bullet in
learning, so effective is it in enhancing learning. In constructive alignment we
go one step further than CRA by aligning teaching methods, as well as
assessment, to the intended learning outcomes.
Thus far, CA has been described as used by individual teachers at the
classroom level. From the classroom we move to CA as part of an
institutional system of teaching.

3. Constructive alignment across the institution

Until the nineties, teaching in universities was generally seen as a
departmental responsibility, which in most cases devolved to the discretion
of individual teachers to teach pretty much how and what they wanted to, in

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the name of academic freedom. The result was a huge range in the quality
of teaching and learning, from the irresponsibly bad to the individually
excellent. Although from the 1970s many universities had set up teaching
development centres, any workshops they offered were mostly attended on
a voluntary basis, which meant those who did attend were interested in
their teaching not those who were poor teachers. It was like a pedagogic
freemasonry, making good teachers better, leaving unaddressed the real
issue, which is lifting the quality of teaching across the institution.
In addressing the issue of improving teaching institution-wide, it is useful
to consider teaching as a multi-layered ecosystem (Biggs, 1993). Each
teacher sets up an ongoing set of negotiations with a class that is different
from that set up by a different teacher of the same class. However, each
such subsystem is part of a hopefully supportive wider system comprising
the department and its offerings, which in its turn is part of the faculty or
school, that it in turn is part of the institution. Each of these nested systems
is constrained by the rules set up at each level, which rules are subsumed by
the next higher level. Thus, any innovation, such as CA, is constrained by
this hierarchy of rules and procedures. For example, CA is not possible in an
institution (or faculty or department) that requires students to be graded on
the bell curve: I have seen an attempt to introduce CA in one university fail
precisely because of that requirement. Other rules, for example the
requirement that say 80 per cent of the final assessment must be by
examination, jeopardise alignment between ILOs and assessment because
the range of possible aligned assessment tasks is constrained. Likewise,
requirements as to face-to-face contact hours may make work-based
learning difficult to implement on a sufficiently intensive scale.
For CA to work properly, then, it needs to be embedded in a supportive
culture, at each of departmental, faculty, institutional levels and even national
levels. As to the latter, Biggs and Tang (2011b) describe a training the
trainers model, in which the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education
organised a workshop on CA attended by staff developers from institutions
across the country. After the workshop the trainers returned to their
home institutions to implement CA.
Hong Kong provides another example of bringing about systems wide
change in university teaching. Early this century, the Universities Grants
Committee (UGC), which finances the eight universities in Hong Kong,
lavished large amounts of money on teaching development grants. In 2002
the Head of the Educational Development Centre at the Polytechnic
University, Catherine Tang, was awarded a major grant for The
Constructive Alignment Project, to which I was appointed chief consultant.

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That project supported the implementation of CA in a number of units in

various departments across the Polytechnic University. This project later
formed the basis for an institution-wide approach to teaching innovation
using CA, and was the first institution-wide initiative in implementing CA in
Hong Kong.
In May 15, 2006, the Chairman of UGC circulated a letter to all
universities urging them to move towards implementing outcomes-based
approaches to teaching and learning:
The UGCs goal in promoting outcome-based approaches
is simple and straightforward improvement and
enhancement in student learning and teaching quality.
In 2005, the City University of Hong Kong proposed a five-year plan to
convert all teaching, some 2,000 individual units, to implement an outcomes-
based approach with constructive alignment as the model. Catherine Tang
and I were asked to be general consultants, giving workshops in constructive
alignment and advising on how institutional procedures might need
modifying. Support in different content areas was provided by subject
specific consultants who were attached to the appropriate faculties and
schools. By 2010, most units had been converted to CA in some form or
another. Our work at City University and at other universities resulted in
further refinements and extension to CA (Biggs & Tang, 2007, 2011).
Other Hong Kong universities are proceeding at their own pace and in
their own way in implementing an outcomes-based approach to teaching.

4. Issues arising from this review and the way ahead

There are three major issues that I see arising from this review that have a
bearing on future developments in tertiary teaching. The first is about
constructive alignment itself: does it do what it claims, in terms both of
enhanced learning related outcomes, and as a framework for thinking about
teaching? The second addresses problems in implementing CA, or any
innovation institution-wide, and the need to address the institutional culture.
The third issue concerns quality assurance and quality enhancement. Quality
assurance as originally conceived in education comes from the context of
business, which brings with it a lot of baggage that is counterproductive in
the academic context. Quality enhancement subsumes quality assurance and
is an area where most universities have still some way to go.

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Evaluation of constructive alignment

The first consideration, given the relatively widespread acceptance of CA, is:
Does it do what it claims to do? Some think not. Jervis and Jervis (2005)
claim that constructive alignment is simply a throwback to the bad old days
of behaviourism and behavioural objectives because it articulates
predetermined outcomes. Hil (2012) regards teaching to predetermined
learning outcomes as rigidification of teaching, ensuring conformity to the
prevailing order. So what is the evidence: Does constructively aligned
teaching lead to low level outcomes? Theoretically it shouldnt, unless of
course teachers want their students to achieve low level outcomes.
Outcome statements are designed by the teachers themselves, either alone
or as a member of a unit or course committee, so the level of outcome is
up to them to decide. In the design of ILOs and assessment tasks they are
free to use open ended verbs such as design, create, hypothesise,
reflect and so on. Assessment tasks should also allow for students to
present their own evidence that they have achieved the criteria in open-
ended formats such as portfolios, which allows students considerable
flexibility in demonstrating their learning. Such a design for teaching and
assessment is hardly predetermined or rigid.
Several writers have mentioned the utility of constructive alignment: in
teacher education (Brook, 2006), in computing science (Colvin & Phelan,
2006), in teaching physiology (Ladyshewsky, 2006), in designing e-learning
(Lebrun, 2007), and in overcoming the heavy reliance of exams in
engineering education (Nightingale et al., 2007). Cobham and Jacques (2006)
found that reflective practice using constructive alignment achieved a
philosophical shift in faculty assessment and delivery procedures. Adawi et
al. (2011) report a campus-wide project at Chalmers University where 35
courses were redesigned using constructive alignment as a conceptual tool
that participants found useful. Noel Entwistle used CA as a general
framework for assessing good teaching environments in sixteen UK
universities in his Enhancement of Teaching and Learning Project (Entwistle,
2005).
CA is widely regarded as a key idea on postgraduate certificates in higher
education and is used in many Australian universities for foundation courses
in teaching and learning (Kandlbinder & Peseta, 2009)
The above reports rely on the users judgment in evaluating CA. Several
studies have used empirical data. Hodinott (2000) found that CA produced
higher level outcomes in biology, but it also increased the workload for both
staff and students. Boyle (2007) used an annual reflection process to
improve alignment between unit aims in earth sciences and the delivery and

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assessment of the unit with resulting improvement in student learning.

Morris (2008) taught statistics in a constructively aligned design and found
increases in mean marks in summative assessment, shifts to higher order
cognitive demand in assessment tasks, and strong correlations between
proportions of students reporting confidence in topic learning and exam
performance: the students know what they know and know what they do
not know (p. iii). Raeburn et al. (2009) report that in a study of online units
in health sciences that were redesigned along constructive alignment lines,
there were highly significant increases in student engagement and in positive
learning outcomes. Moulding (2010), in social work, found that there was
increased student satisfaction, but she notes that this seemed to be due
more to the ILOs being related to the real world than to particular learning
strategies per se. Larkin and Richardson (2013) found student evaluations
and grades increased after implementing CA.
Moving from the classroom to the institutional level, McMahon and
Thakore (2006) in a comprehensive review of higher order thinking and
critical thinking in constructively aligned courses at University College
Dublin, found that CA led to:
greater standardisation leading to fairer and more reliable
assessment. When assessment criteria follow from stated
outcomes, decisions on how many marks are awarded are much
easier to compare and defend.
greater transparency leading to (a) easier and more accurate
inter-university and international comparisons. (b) students being
able to focus more effectively on the key learning goals.
more effective evaluation of both modules and courses: given the
outcomes, an evaluator can estimate how well teaching and
learning strategies, content, materials, other resources and
assessment procedures actually support students in achieving
them.
greater coherence in programmes of learning.
an increase in the criticality and depth of student work.
(op. cit., p. 17).
These writers concluded that these benefits are not inherent in the
outcomes-based model itself, but apply when constructive alignment is the
organising principle.
Taylor & Canfield (2007) found that with increasing exposure to
constructively aligned teaching, students ratings along good teaching,

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clear goals and standards and appropriate assessment scales

progressively increased. In our work at City University of Hong Kong,
student focus groups reported that in constructively aligned units they were
much clearer about what they had to learn and that they found the TLAs
helpful and the assessment fairer. In general, grades post-CA were higher
than previously, which led some teachers to complain of grade inflation.
However, as the students had claimed that the TLAs were helpful, it seems
likely that students were indeed learning more effectively thus earning
higher grades. What these higher grades suggest is not grade inflation but
grade deflation prior to implementing CA; in other words, grades based on
the bell curve seemed to have been selling students short.
Wang et al. (2013), in an ongoing project implementing CA, compared
units that had been using CA for at least a year with units that had just
started using CA and found that in the high CA units students were
significantly more likely to adopt deep approaches to learning and less likely
to use surface approaches compared to students in low CA units, and that
this effect was strongest in the most effectively aligned units.
In sum, constructively aligned teaching seems to produce high quality
learning outcomes and student satisfaction. We now require larger scale
controlled studies that directly relate constructively aligned teaching over
several subject areas to a range of outcomes, including lower and higher
order ILOs, student metacognition and independent learning, student
satisfaction, approaches to learning and the extent to which graduate
outcomes are being achieved too. Such studies might best be structured
longitudinally, using pre-implementation measures as the baseline and
relating any changes in these and other parameters to the progressive
implementation of aligned teaching. Other aspects that need systematic
investigation are the resource and other costs that are involved by teachers
and institutions; what works well and what does not under what
circumstances, with a view to deriving more effective implementation
strategies.

Problems in implementing constructive alignment

The most important development since CA was first published (Biggs, 1996)
is its incorporation into institutional teaching policy. This has come about
largely because teaching quality has suddenly become a major concern of
universities, while their statements of graduate attributes and emphasis on
learning outcomes makes a good fit for outcomes-based designs such as CA.
However, the successful implementation of any major teaching reform
requires appropriate institutional support, which in turn may involve a

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thoroughgoing overhaul of institutional procedures and priorities and of the

culture itself. And here lie some difficulties.
One of the greatest problems is finance and attendant staff workloads, a
problem exacerbated by the cuts of $4 billion to the tertiary sector over the
past two years. Prior to the Dawkins reforms, student-to-staff ratios were
of the order of 11:1. Today they are more like 30:1. An academics
workload is estimated as 50 hours a week, including fifteen class contact
hours or more, time outside the classroom assessing student work, setting
up compulsory blogs for student feedback and discussion and in attending
numerous meetings, not including time for research (Hil, 2012). If these
figures are indeed typical, little time (or motivation) is left for teachers to
reflect on their teaching and to innovate. Teaching for quality learning takes
time in preparation, in providing formative feedback to students and in
qualitatively based summative assessment.
Another problem is teacher resistance to change. Some academics (Hil,
2012; Meyer, 2012) feel that teaching has been taken out of their hands and
they resent it; particularly when they see the imposed system as contrary to
their own views of teaching. However, there is now a shift from emphasising
the individual skills of teachers to teaching as an institutional responsibility,
not an individual one. If an institution has to raise standards across the
board, particularly when meeting external agencies and guidelines such as
those required by the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency
(TEQSA), the focus has to be on an institution-wide system of teaching and
assessment: teacher-proofing the system, as it were.
Taylor and Canfield (2007) found that in their faculty-wide
implementation of CA some of the resistant teachers were won over when
they saw the positive results their colleagues were obtaining. The game was
won when a positive teaching culture took over the whole faculty. An
important part of any implementation then is to change the conceptions of
teaching that teachers hold, the most basic change being one from a
teacher-centred view that teachers have to transmit large amounts of
information, to a learner-centred view that the teachers role is to set the
conditions so that students construct knowledge through their own
activities (Kember, 1998). Such a conceptual change comes about from
exposure to different views of teaching and more importantly from teachers
finding out for themselves that the student-centred approach is more
effective, particularly for higher order learning (see below).
Some quality assurance procedures require judging academics on key
performance indicators, which is stressful and bad for morale (Hil, 2012).
One issue is that full-time appointments and promotions are largely

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determined by research productivity rather than by teaching quality. Thus,

all but the most dedicated teachers will devote their energy to building their
research profile in preference to improving their teaching. As in CA itself,
the rhetoric and practical realities of teaching need to be aligned to the
overall priorities of the institution.
Yet despite these problems, what some universities are achieving is
remarkable. Many university-wide procedures for teaching and assessment
are increasingly being based on the scholarship of teaching and learning.
Most, if not all, Australian universities have teaching and learning
development centres that provide support for systems-wide teaching
enhancement, with requirements that new and in some cases continuing
staff undergo training in teaching and assessment strategies.
For all this to work, leadership at all departmental, faculty and
institutional levels is vital, with all leaders at these levels working
cooperatively. In that way a supportive culture can be built up with all the
structures supporting teaching and learning in place at each level working
towards the same goal.

Quality assurance and quality enhancement

Initially, quality assurance comprised managerial assessments that operated

retrospectively and were free of any theory as to what constituted effective
teaching, focusing on such issues as library and other such adjuncts to
teaching rather than on teaching itself (Liston, 1999). Later quality assurance
procedures rely on assessing academics on key performance indicators,
which can have poor consequences essentially because the business model
of using KPIs does not apply to academe (Hil, 2012). The use of key
performance indicators in the quality assurance of teaching plays the man,
not the ball; KPIs take us back to teachers as the focus, not to teaching.
However, some quality assurance agencies are now concerned with
theories of effective teaching. As Rust notes:
Although the term constructive alignment is not used,
this kind of systematic thinking is exactly what the QAA
(UKs Quality Assurance Agency) are looking for when
they refer to: effective and appropriate measurement of
the achievement by students of the intended learning
outcomes (QAA, General principle 6).

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Departments mindful of the QAA requirements, and

seeking to follow Biggs principles, would therefore be
well advised to do two things:
1. Require all course modules or units to follow this
design model, and to ensure that all assessment tasks, and
assessment criteria, clearly and directly relate to the
learning outcomes.
2. Audit all their modules or units learning outcomes and
map them against the subjects programme specifications,
to ensure that all the programme specifications will have
been assessed for any student successfully completing the
course programme. (Rust, 2002, p. 148)
In Australia, national guidelines have been more conservative than in the
UK, focusing on broad institutional and course outcomes, leaving what
happens in the classroom up to each institution. The 2008 Bradley Review of
the higher education sector in Australia led to the establishment of the
Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA), which requires
documentary evidence that standards have been met, in order to provide
industry and the community with assurances of graduate quality. The
Australian Qualifications Framework sets out a taxonomy of learning
outcomes that attempts to define the criteria for learning outcomes for
knowledge, skills and application of knowledge, for ten levels of
postsecondary education: from certificates at level 1, through diploma,
bachelors and masters, to doctoral level at level 10.
The Learning and Teaching Academic Standards (LTAS) Project, now
under the aegis of the Australian Governments Office of Learning and
Teaching, was established in 2011 to facilitate and coordinate definition of
academic standards, with discipline committees setting the standards for
degree levels. These standards are expressed as the minimum learning
outcomes that a graduate of any given discipline must have achieved.
Individual institutions determine the curriculum, resources teaching and
assessment methods leading to the achievement of the minimum learning
outcomes in their institution, leaving it open for them to set standards in
addition to the defined minimum.
Some universities, such as the University of Tasmania, take this a stage
further by focusing on the teaching and learning processes that led to the
achievement of outcomes (Tasmanian Institute for Learning and Teaching,
2013). The UTAS assessment policy requires a clear alignment between
stated learning outcomes, the learning experiences provided for students,
and the assessment tasks (op. cit., p. 21): CA, in other words. Whereas in

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LTAS the focus stops at course or programme learning outcomes (CLOs),

leaving it to the institution to decide how they might try to achieve those
CLOs, the UTAS model focuses also on teaching and assessment and the
students learning activities at the unit level, using constructive alignment as
the model for teaching and assessment. The UTAS model is more in line
with the Hong Kong and the UK QAA system, so that it is not just a matter
of setting external standards, but of also introducing a means of achieving
those standards.
An important issue that needs attention is a more decisive move from
quality assurance to quality enhancement. We have seen a steady
progression in this direction:
from the concern with simply meeting minimal standards
as in LTAS,
to implementing a teaching system, such as CA in UTAS
(with the neat title LTAS@UTAS),
to establishing fully blown quality enhancement systems.
Edstrm (2008) writes: course evaluation should be regarded as a
component of constructive alignment, together with the intended learning
outcomes, learning activities and assessment (p. 95). Such formative
evaluation, using feedback obtained from students, colleagues and from
personal observation, gives information about the clarity of the CLOs, the
effectiveness of the TLAs and assessment methods, in order to determine
where there may be problems in teaching, learning and assessment. If the
results are not as good as is intended, reflective practice or action research
may be used to pinpoint any problems. How those problems may be
rectified is achieved through reflective practice and action research using a
theory of teaching and learning to generate alternative strategies of teaching
or of assessment. Such a quality enhancement mechanism should ideally be
built into the system from the outset (Biggs & Tang, 2011, pp. 284-301).
The quality enhancement (QE) mechanism should also reveal where
there may be obstacles in the institutions administrative structures that
impede CA from working properly. Such obstacles would include such
things as stipulations or even only expectations that grade distributions
should follow the bell curve, stipulations that may restrict choices of TLAs
or assessment conditions, and policies in appointment and promotion that
discourage teachers from spending time in innovating their teaching.
Innovation is time-consuming, especially in the first year or so of design and
implementation, and teachers should be given credit for doing so. Merit

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points for teaching need to be put in place just as much as for research,
given that teaching is what most academics spend most of their time doing.
In short, one issue that universities should be concerned with is the
quality enhancement of teaching, which is an important step beyond the
LTAS Projects aim of simply assuring minimal standards. Under such a
straight quality assurance (QA) system, such as LTAS, what does an
institution do if the standards currently reached in degree programmes do
not meet the external minimal criteria? Without a QE mechanism, it would
seem that the best that can be done is to blame those involved and order
them to do better next time.
Whereas QA is reactive, QE is proactive. Further, QE subsumes QA,
addressing problems as they arise and takes steps to prevent them, ensuring
that teaching will be better in future.

5. Conclusions
The most important development in university teaching over the past few
years has been the shift from teaching seen as an individual responsibility to
one that the institution should assume in matters of assessment practice,
overall teaching design, in accordance with the scholarship of teaching and
learning. Recent institutional concern for benchmarking and defining
outcomes, such as in LTAS and the statements of graduate attributes,
provides an outcomes-based framework into which outcomes-based models
of teaching and assessment readily fit, an unusual and happy coincidence
between the demands of managerialism with constructivist approaches to
student learning and assessment. My concern here has been with one such
development, constructive alignment.
Despite cruel cuts to higher education in Australia, institutions have been
forced to pay attention to the quality of teaching as never before. One very
important step yet to be sufficiently addressed involves building in
mechanisms for the quality enhancement of teaching. Equally, if not more,
important is that institutions assess their priorities and adjust their internal
structures and operational procedures accordingly, for example getting the
reward systems in balance on the question of teaching vs research. However
to pursue what that issue might entail might well involve different kinds of
appointment or even different kinds of institution. I consider that problem,
and more general projections into the future of tertiary education,
elsewhere (Biggs, 2013).

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6. Acknowledgements
I am greatly indebted to Catherine Tang and to Peter Kandlbinder for their
comments and suggestions for this paper.

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