Chapter

Learning to Listen
Actively 1
TAKE NOTE
Active listening is a framework for listening awareness that makes the ex-
perience of music richer, deeper, and more rewarding. Using a recurring
repertory of core musical works as examples is a good way to reinforce ones
ability to listen for key elements found in all music.

Music is a rich and varied art form that seems capable of expressing the
inexpressible. It cannot, however, speak for itself. Thats where the craft of listen-
ing comes in. An informed listener soon discovers that music is a powerful form

1
2 Take Note

Chapter of communication on many levels from the emotional to the intellectual. The full
enjoyment of music depends on an appreciation of the shared elements that make
Objectives all music possible.
Discover active listening as Learning to recognize, analyze, and interpret these elements is the basis for
a framework for enhancing the active listening , a framework for improving your listening experience. It enables
enjoyment of music.
you to pay attention to music at multiple levels of complexity, making it richer and
Learn about the core more rewarding.
repertory of music examples Active listening can unlock the secrets of any piece of music, from a short rock song to
that recur throughout the book
and are central to the authors
a jazz suite, a symphony, or even an opera lasting several hours. This is because all music
approach to music originates from a combination of the same basic elements. These include melody, har-
appreciation. mony, texture, rhythm, meter, timbre, and form. Music communicates most effectively
Understand the key if we have some deeper understanding of the way in which this communication takes
elements of music and how place. Knowing how to listen for these elements and understanding their function as a
they work together. tool of musical expression is the key to active listening.
Apply active listening skills By the time you fi nish this chapter, you will recognize how an active listener
to several different works of approaches the basic elements of music and see how they function in a diverse
music. selection of musical works.

Active Listening
Music engages both the heart and the mind. It is no surprise that we associate
music with some of lifes most deeply felt moments. The emotional content of a
Chronology of Music
Discussed in this Chapter piece of music is often the fi rst thing to which we respond. Music can communi-
cate emotional content more directly, more immediately, than any other form of
(16851750) artistic expression.
Johann Sebastian Bach p. xx
Concerto in D minor for An emotional response to music is an important part of the listening experi-
harpsichord and strings, BWV ence, but it is far from the whole picture. The ability to recognize, analyze, and
1052, 1st movement (early
18th century) interpret what you hear beyond the emotional response adds to your appreciation
of music. That is what it means to be an active listener: You use your intellect as
(17561791)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart p. xx well as your emotions. Active listening does not preclude emotional listening ,
Symphony no. 40 in G minor, K. but incorporates it. Knowing more about the fundamental elements that make
550, 1st movement (1788)
up a work, and learning how to listen for these elements, can add immeasurably
(18411904) to your musical IQ. A listener with an educated ear can gain an even stronger ap-
Antonn Dvrork p. xx preciation of music at the emotional level.
Slavonic Dance in E minor, op.
72, no. 10, for piano four-hands
(1886)
The Listening Situation
(b. 1929) We hear music every day. One cannot escape it. It is part of the soundtrack to our
George Crumb p. xx
Black Angels: 13 Images from lives. Yet we rarely make a special effort to listen to music with undivided atten-
the Dark Land for electric string tion. When we are given such an opportunitye.g., going to a concert, attending
quartet, Part I: Departure (1970)
a wedding, downloading a new recording from a favorite artist, happening upon
a gifted street musicianit is often difficult to focus our thoughts solely on the
musical content. One reason for this is that we are not accustomed to listening
actively and overlook opportunities to do so. Once you know how to listen and
what to listen for, active listening becomes easier.
We can become better listeners by using a few simple techniques:
1. Tune out distractions. Create a special time for the musical experience that
allows you to listen intently. Do not try to listen closely to music while driving,
walking, talking, or doing something else.
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 3

2. Give your undivided attention. No matter how short or long the piece of Active listening: A way of
music, sustain your attention to the fullest. If you are using a listening guide paying attention to music at
from this book, follow along closely as you listen. multiple levels of complexity for a
richer, more rewarding
3. Concentrate on the beginning. You may want to listen to the fi rst 15 or experience. The active listener
20 seconds repeatedly because they frequently contain the key to the music builds a framework for listening
that follows. by learning to recognize, analyze,
4. Listen more than once. Be prepared to listen to the entire piece several times; and interpret the fundamental
elements all works of music share.
you will rarely, if ever, hear everything the fi rst time.
Emotional listening: Listening
5. Move from emotional to active listening. On fi rst hearing, its OK to focus
to music primarily for the
on the overall emotional impression created by the music: the mood, the atmo- emotional responses it evokes.
sphere, the associations it evokes. Upon repeated listening, shift your attention Such a listener will be most
to the fundamental musical elements at work in the piece. comfortable with short,
uncomplicated pieces that do not
stretch the limits of the human
A Core Repertory of Works attention span.

Central to this books approach is the use of a recurring or core repertory of music
examples that are revisited throughout the chapters. These are the same works
included on the books online music site. These core works were selected because
they serve as excellent examples of the development of music over the centuries as
well as the individual elements of music and genres discussed in the book.
The value of the core repertory is that it helps those new to the study of music
to isolate, identify, and appreciate the various aspects that constitute an individual
composition. Each piece in this repertory merits, even requires, repeated listen-
ing. The core repertory of the book allows a work to become more than a passing
acquaintance. Listeners can explore new dimensions of an increasingly familiar
piece as they develop an awareness of its complexity and the relationships among
the different elements that contribute to their enjoyment of it. Each work of the
core repertory is accompanied by one or more Learning to Listen guides in the
chapters. These guides provide a running examination of each work. In addition,
many of these works are supported by interactive electronic listening guides on
the books companion website. Each Learning to Listen guide in the text includes
a core repertory connection indicating other places in the book where another
element of the same piece is discussed, giving the listener a guide to examining
many aspects of the same work.
The core repertory is at the heart of the book. By the end of this text, you should
know these works intimately.

Key Elements of Music

Knowing something about the inner workings of music improves active listening
skills. All music is created using a combination of common elements for making
and organizing sound materials. Understanding the fundamental elements of mu-
sic provides a framework and a vocabulary for analyzing, comparing, and con-
trasting different works, regardless of who composed the music and when or how
it is performed.
The fundamental elements of musicform, timbre, rhythm, meter, melody,
harmony, and texture connect all types of musical expression. Music may
4 Take Note

also combine with text or with drama to create an even richer experience. These
elements are the keys to unlocking the meaning and expressive content of music
through active listening.

Form
Form: The way musical material Form is the way musical material is organized. It defi nes a work of music the way
is organized. It is the way in which a blueprint defi nes a building or a map defi nes a city, state, or country. While the
other musical elements such as sounds themselves are made up of the other elements mentioned above, none of
melody, harmony, timbre, and these elements alone normally constitutes a complete work of music. It is the ar-
texture are combined through the
passage of time to create a
rangement of these elements that gives music its form. Form and structure defi ne
complete work of music. the way that a piece of music begins, continues, develops, and ends. Arranging
musical materials is generally accomplished using principles of repetition (AA),
contrast (AB, ABA, AABB, etc.), and variation (AAA, AABB, etc.). You should
listen for audible markers that signal important junctions in the form, such as
changes in instrumentation, tempo, and beat structure.

Active listening exercise: Select a favorite recording. Are there patterns

you can recognize? Does the music repeat itself? Is there much contrast? Do the
answers to these questions change as the music progresses?
Timbre: The distinctive sound
of a particular instrument or
voice. Timbre
Pitch: The highness or lowness Timbre (pronounced TAM-burr) is the distinctive sound of a given instrument
of a sound. It is measured relative or voice. Also known as musical color or tone color, timbre is the quality that dis-
to other pitches and also to tinguishes the sound of one instrument from another. If we set aside the pitch
absolute standards like 440 (the highness or lowness) and volume of a sound, timbre is what is left . To put it
megahertz (the standard another way, the melody may change and become louder, but we can still recog-
orchestral A). nize the difference between the sound quality of a saxophone, a guitar, or a singers
Rhythm: The organization of individual voice. All of this makes timbre one of the most interesting and flexible
music through time. The term aspects of musical expression.
may refer in a general way to the
element of time in music, but
Active listening exercise: Select a recording you enjoy listening to. Use
more specifically to the patterns
of long notes, short notes, and whatever words you want to describe what the music sounds like; recognizing
rests. Rhythm results from the thevoices or instruments is less important than verbalizing what they sound like
interrelationship of note duration toyou.
with beat, meter, accent, and
tempo.
Rhythm and Meter
Beat: The regular pulse of the Rhythm is the organization of music in time. It groups longer and shorter notes
music.
and silences into patterns based on the beat, the regular pulse of the music. Th is
Meter: The repeated pattern of pulse generally comprises a repeated pattern of stronger and weaker beats, called
stronger and weaker beats. meter. The meter of a waltz, for example, is ONE-two-three/ONE-two-three.
Common time: A duple meter The meter of a march is ONE-two-THREE-four/ONE-two-THREE-four, which
consisting of four beats per is known as common time. In musical notation, each instance of this repeated
measure. pattern of strong and weak beats is called a measure.
Measure: One unit of the
regular metrical pattern repeated Active listening exercise: Try tapping your foot, clapping your hands,
throughout a piece of music snapping your fi ngers, or even dancing to the beat as you listen to a piece of music
(three beats, four beats, or six you like. Th is will allow you to embody the metrical patterns, even if you cant
beats, as the case may be). count or recognize them at fi rst.
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 5

FPO
figure 1.1 illustrate beats, meter, measure.

Melody
Melody is a succession of musical notes and rhythms arranged as a recognizable Melody: A succession of musical
unit. Also called a tune, a melody conveys a sense of forward motion and has a notes and rhythms arranged as a
shape in that it uses a succession of high and low notes to form a memorable pattern. recognizable unit.
Harmony: The combination of
Active listening exercise: Select a favorite song or composition. Listen for notes to produce chords, and a
the tune, and see if its one you think you can recognize when you hear it again. way of understanding the
What about the melody makes it easy or difficult to remember? progression of chords throughout
a piece.
Chords: Two or more notes
Harmony sounding simultaneously; the
Harmony is a way of understanding notes that are played or sung together. To foundation of harmony.
harmonize a melody is to play supporting notes that complement the melody.
Harmony may transform the perception of a melody by adding depth that cannot Key: The note (named by letter)
be achieved with a single note at a time. Two or more notes played simultaneously and mode (major or minor) on
which a piece of music is based.
are called chords. All notes and chords are heard in relationship to the key a piece
of music is in. The key centers on a particular note (named by letter) and a major Major: The sound of a melody
or minor sound depending on the series of eight notesknown as the scale based on the eight sung syllables
on which the work is based. do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do, or the
notes sounded by playing only
white keys on the piano between
Active listening exercise one C and the next. It is typically
Select a favorite musical piece. Listen for the notes that play at the same time as thought of as having a brighter,
the melody. Do they form blocks of accompanying sound that have a pattern of happier sound than minor.
their own (e.g., chords)? Or do they form additional melodic lines that parallel Minor: The sound of a melody
the melody? based on the eight sung syllables
la-ti-do-re-mi-fa-sol-la, or the
notes sounded by playing only
white keys on the piano from one
A to the next. It is typically
thought of as having a darker,

FPO
sadder sound than major.
Scale: The series of pitches,
arranged from low to high or high
to low, on which a melody is
based. Major and minor, the most
common scales, have eight.

figure 1.2 illustrate melody and chords.

6 Take Note

Texture
Texture: The relationship Texture is the relationship between melodic and harmonic elements in a piece
between melodic and harmonic of music, especially how many layers of notes are happening at the same time.
elements in a piece of music, The texture may be sparse or dense, depending on the plan of the composer, and
especially how many layers of it may change repeatedly over the course of a piece or section. Conventional ap-
notes occur at the same time.
proaches to texture include single melodies (monophony), chords that accom-
pany a single melody (homophony), and two or more simultaneous melodies
(polyphony).

Active listening exercise: Choose a piece that you enjoy. Listen for the
melody or melodies. Can you identify how many things are going on at once?

FPO
figure 1.3 illustrate textures using a pitch/time graph and consider adding chords to the
same illustration.

Music in Context
Genre: A musical category, such In some musical genres, or categories, music stands alone. In other genres, it is
as concerto, art song, or character combined with words or elements of drama.
piece.

Music and Text

Music can combine with words in a wide variety of ways. In music with text, it is
fascinating to observe how the music and the words mutually support the com-
munication of feelings and ideas.

Active listening exercise: After listening for the fi rst time to an unfamiliar
piece of music with text, read the lyrics separately without the music. Then listen
to the music while following the text. In each case, how does your response to the
music differ? How does your response to the text change when you hear it together
with the music?

Music and Drama

A dramatic work may be accompanied by music, either in whole or in part. A dra-
matic story may be staged with live performers (e.g., opera and musical theater)
or may be presented in an electronic medium with recorded music (e.g., motion
pictures, television, video games). Music may be integrated in many ways into the
telling of a story to provide atmosphere, express moods, influence tension, and
communicate plot.
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 7

Active listening exercise: Watch a recorded scene from a TV show or

movie with the sound turned off . Now watch the same scene again with the sound
turned off but play some music at the same time. Do this several times with
different musical selections. How does your reaction to the scene differ in
each case?

Listening Practice
An excellent way to understand the musical elements is to explore how they work
in selected pieces of music. Some elements, such as texture, are more difficult
to identify than others. But even the simplest musical elements are sometimes
difficult to hear because of the imaginative techniques composers use to orga-
nize their musical materials. Active listening involves concentrating on the many
layers of a piece of music until we can follow its individual elements. The re-
mainder of this chapter provides several examples to sharpen your skills as an
active listener.

An Emotional Response to Music

Your fi rst reaction to new music is typically emotional. Short and engag-
ing, Dvoks Slavonic Dances are a good place to start exploring an emotional
response. Listen now to the Slavonic Dance in E minor by Antonn Dvok Streaming audio XY and
(18411904), op. 72, no. 10. interactive listening guides XY
Th is piece has a haunting, unforgettable melody that bears frequent repetition,
the kind of tune that you are likely to hum or whistle after hearing it.
About two minutes into the piece, the opening tune is followed by a group
of more sprightly melodies. The fi rst melody then returns. The piece concludes
with a fi nal reference to the more sprightly tunes and a slow fade. The contrast-
ing melodies, and their repetition, suggest that the music tells a story. Perhaps it
involves two or three characters and some simple action. Th is implied narrative
helps hold our interest while we listen.
Another compelling element of this music is its strong dance-like rhythms.
We can readily picture traditional Eastern European dancers moving to this
music. It is interesting to note that, although it has a regular beat based on the
styles and rhythms of Czech folk dances, the Slavonic Dances were not intended
for dancing.
Finally, the brevity of this work contributes to the ease with which we
make an emotional connection to it. It clocks in at about fi ve and a half min-
utes, only a litt le longer than todays most popular songs. While a short work
may contain many details not evident on fi rst hearing, a piece of music lasting
fi ve minutes or less may be understood quite clearly on an emotional level.
With longer compositions, our minds may wander and we may lose our initial
interest in the music. Th is is more rare with a short, easy-to-digest piece like
this one.
8 Take Note

LEARNING TO LISTEN

TAKE NOTE OF MELODY AND RHYTHM

What to Listen For: The lively melodies and rhythms and the contrast
between the two main parts of the piece.
Streaming audio XY and
Dvor k: Slavonic Dance in E minor, op. 72, no. 10 interactive listening guides XY
Date: 1886
Instrumentation: Originally for piano four-hands, arranged her for orchestra
Key: E minor
Meter: 3 (three moderately slow beats per measure)
4
Form: Ternary Form (ABA)
Core Repertory Connection: This music will be discussed again in Chapters 7, 8, and 12.

TIME PROGRESSION COMMENT

0:00 Part I The main melody is introduced and repeated.
1:51 Part II The music becomes more upbeat, and a group of contrasting melodies is heard.
3:47 Reprise of Part I The music of the opening section returns, in slightly different form.
4:53 Conclusion There is a brief reference to the music of Part II, and then the piece is over.

Focus on
Antonn Dvork (18411904)
Czech composer. With [Bedr ich] Smetana
[(18241884)], [Zdenek] Fibich [(18501900)],
and [Leo] Jancek [(18541928)] he is
regarded as one of the great nationalist
Czech composers of the 19th century. Long
neglected and dismissed by the German-
speaking musical world as a naive Czech
musician, he is now considered by both Czech and international
musicologists Smetanas true heir. He earned worldwide
admiration and prestige for 19th-century Czech music with his
symphonies, chamber music, oratorios, songs, and, to a lesser
extent, his operas. (Klaus Dge, Grove Music Online)
Much of Dvorks music, like the Slavonic Dance in E minor, uses
Streaming audio XY and
interactive listening guides XY
melodies, rhythms, and harmonies characteristic of his native
country. From 1892 to 1895 he was director of the National
Conservatory of Music in America in New York City. American
composers were interested in learning how to write music with a
distinctively American flavor. Dvork obliged them with works
like his Symphony no. 9 in E minor (From the New World), which
remains one of the most popular symphonies ever written.
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 9

In History
Dvorks Slavonic Dance in E minor, op. 72, no. 10
In the 19th century, if you wanted to hear your time to play it. In 1869 composer Johannes
favorite music at home, you had to play it Brahms (18331897) published his first set of
yourself. In most middle-class European and Hungarian Dances for piano four-hands. These
American homes, this meant going to the works, with their perky rhythms and catchy
piano. Although our recorded example of this tunes, sold in huge numbers and helped to
Slavonic Dance is arranged for an orchestra, make Brahms and his publisher wealthy. This
Dvork first wrote it for piano four-hands, or was a turning point in the development of a
two people playing the same piano. A great large market for popular musica market that
deal of music using this format was written in came of age in the early 20th century.
the 19th century, and even more music By 1878, when the first of Dvorks Slavonic
intended for other instruments was transcribed Dances were written, Dvork was motivated to
so it could be played this way. If you lacked match Brahmss success. So popular were the
confidence, it helped to have a second player to Slavonic Dances that the composer almost
help out; both parts were easier that way. immediately arranged them for orchestra.
Playing and listening to the piano at home was Thus, Dvork was able to appeal both to the
also a popular social activity, and playing four- amateur home musician and to the growing
hand music created a special kind of intimacy audience for symphonic music. This music
between the two players. filled a role that today is often associated with
Publishing sheet music for the home was a jazz, pop, and musical theater rather than with
growing commercial enterprise in the late 19th classical music; it was popular in tone, was
century. A musically literate middle-class broadly performed in public, and could easily
family could afford to own a piano and had free be played and enjoyed at home as well.

From Emotional to Active Listening

While an emotional response is important to the listening experience, many other
aspects of a work can also be explored. The longer a piece of music is, the more im- Movement: A self-contained
portant it is to listen actively. Some musical works are so long that they are divided section of a longer piece. The most
into movements, or self-contained parts. The term movement literally refers to common number of movements is
the tempo (speed) and meter of a piece of music: the way it moves. Originally, a four, although there may be only
piece that contained sections in which the tempo and meter changed was said to two, and in some cases as many
have more than one movement. The term later came to be applied to longer pieces seven, or even more, movements
grouped together to form an even larger work. in a single work.
Tempo: The speed of a piece
Mozart, Symphony no. 40 in G Minor Listen for Form: Listen now ofmusic.
to the fi rst movement of the Symphony no. 40 in G minor, K. 550, by Wolfgang Orchestra: The most common
Amadeus Mozart. instrumental performing
Like the arrangement we heard of the Dvok Slavonic Dance, Mozarts sym- ensemble in Western classical
phony is written for orchestra, still the most familiar instrumental performing music. There is no completely
ensemble in classical music. There is no completely standard configuration for an standard orchestra, although all
orchestra, and the one Mozart used was much smaller than those used by Dvok orchestras have things in
commona preponderance of
and many later composers. Whereas an orchestra consisting of 35 to 40 musi- string instruments, for example
cians is adequate to perform a Mozart symphony, an orchestra containing more that distinguish them from other
than a hundred people is needed to perform a symphony by the late 19thearly large instrumental ensembles like
20th-century composer Gustav Mahler [(18601911)]. the band.
10 Take Note

This music may already be familiar to you through various popular

arrangements of the works memorable melodies; the opening melody used to be
a standard ringtone on many cell phones. The beginning of this work appeals to
the emotional listener. From the fi rst note, the orchestra throbs with a sense of
urgency, and the melody that emerges is rhythmic and impassioned. The full or-
chestra enters with loud, fast-moving chords. The piece is off to an engaging start.
However, things start to get more complicated after this initial burst of energy.
As in the Dvok, there is a transition to a second, contrasting melody. But in this
piece, several other transitions follow. Then the fi rst two minutes of the work are re-
peated, and you get the feeling that Mozart is having fun with you but also helping
you gain your footing again. Past the four-minute mark, the music becomes more
dramatic yet unstable, adding to the sense of confusion. You may also begin to re-
alize by now that you have heard the opening three notes of the piece more than a
hundred times! The music then sett les down, but a lot of what you heard in the fi rst
two minutes is repeated yet again. Why does the composer repeat himself so often?
One possible explanation for this works unusual organization is that Mozart
is using the music to tell a story. Both the contrast and the repetition that we have
noticed are essential elements of good storytelling: contrast to keep you inter-
ested and repetition to keep you from gett ing lost. Every good story has charac-
ters whose adventures and interactions with other characters may be described at
great length. It is reasonable to assume that in this piece, Mozart was attempting
to do something similar in musical terms.
There are some obvious problems, though, with comparing a piece of music to
a story. When we hear a story, we are accustomed to identifying human charac-
ters and character typesPrince Charming, a villain, a damsel in distress, and so
forthand to paying attention to what happens to them. We do this because these
characters interest us, and we may even identify with them and come to care about
them. Their adventures speak to things that we may have experienced ourselves,
or that we may wish to experience. However, most people are not accustomed to
caring about what happens to a musical idea. A musical theme is not a character.
Or is it?
Actually, much classical music can easily be heard as though the musical
themes were participants in a story or drama. A melody is introduced and then
repeated in a variety of ways, suggesting that it is changing and growing. Called
thematic development, this process resembles the development of an idea in an
essay or of a character in a story. It is an important part of what this course will
train you to hear. One reason the Mozart symphony movement is so long, yet so
repetitive, is that the fi rst three notes undergo considerable development.
Why should we care about what happens to these three notes? It might help
Motive: A memorable melodic to think of this motive, or short collection of thematic notes, as a character who
fragment significant to the grows, ages, and accumulates a variety of life experiences. Everyone experiences
structure of a piece of music. tragedy and loss at some point, so this music, with its deeply serious tone, res-
onates with something in our inner being. At the same time, we are not forced
to identify those notes with anything more specificthings such as age, sex, or
professionthat might limit our ability to empathize. Because these notes are
presented as music, rather than as a person with human characteristics, we are free
to interpret them in very personal terms. Music gains access to our very souls in
ways that other art forms often cannot reach.
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 11

After reading the preceding paragraphs, you may wish to listen to the Mozart
example again. In fact, a complex piece such as this needs to be listened to several
times before it can be fully grasped. Th is process is similar to that of reading or
watching a performance of a Shakespeare play. You know that this is great drama,
but many of the wordsand the way Shakespeare used themare unfamiliar.
On the fi rst pass, you may understand only some of what you have read or heard.
By the second time through, you begin to notice things that went over your head
before. You may have to read or watch the play three or four times, though, before
it becomes completely clear. Then you can fi nally understand and enjoy what you
are hearing fully.
One of the goals of this book is to make you more fluent in the multilayered
way that music communicates, so that listening to any music becomes easier.

LEARNING TO LISTEN

TAKE NOTE OF MUSICAL FORM

What to Listen For: The careful construction that makes it possible to
imagine that this music is telling a story.
Streaming audio XY and
Mozart: Symphony no. 40 in G minor, K. 550 interactive listening guides XY

I: Molto Allegro
Date: 1788
Instrumentation: Small orchestra
Key: G minor
Meter: 4, also known as common time (four rapid beats per measure)
4
Core Repertory Connection: This music will be discussed again in Chapters 5 and 9.

TIME PROGRESSION COMMENT

0:00 Beginning We meet the first character.
0:44 Contrast A new character is introduced.
1:08 Arrival An important point in the story seems to have been reached. The first
character is reintroduced.
1:43 Repeat Everything you have heard so far is played again, helping you remember the
characters and the differences among them.
3:27 Continuation The plot thickens as the music you have heard so far is stretched in new
directions.
3:41 Dramatic high point The action seems to have reached some kind of crisis.
4:05 Lessening of tension The music becomes quieter, as though the crisis is past.
4:20 Sudden outburst Things become more agitated again.
4:33 Resolution The music of the opening returns, suggesting that the conflicts of the
previous section have been worked out.
5:36 Contrast The other major character reappears as well.
6:05 Arrival Now it really sounds like the story is almost over.
6:37 Final flourish This music underscores the finality of the ending.
12 Take Note

Focus on
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
(17561791)
Austrian composer, son of Leopold Mozart
[(17191787)]. His style essentially repre-
sents a synthesis of many different ele-
ments, which coalesced in his Viennese
years, from 1781 on, into an idiom now
regarded as a peak of Viennese Classicism.
The mature music, distinguished by its melodic beauty, its formal
elegance, and its richness of harmony and texture, is deeply colored
by Italian opera though also rooted in Austrian and south German
instrumental traditions. Unlike [Joseph] Haydn
[(17321809)], his senior by 24 years, and [Ludwig van] Beethoven
[(17701827)], his junior by 15, he excelled in every medium current
in his time. He may thus be regarded as the most universal com-
poser in the history of Western music. (Cliff Eisen and Stanley
Streaming audio XY and
interactive listening guides XY
Sadie, Grove Music Online)
Like all great cultural figures, Mozart has been portrayed in
ways he could hardly have expected. The sublimely gifted genius,
the eternal child, the epitome of classical poise and balance
these are just a few of the popular images of this famous musician.
Mozart is still best known to many listeners through his fictional
portrayal in the film Amadeus. When the movie appeared in 1984,
yet another image was addedan obscene, immature prankster
with an abrasive laugh who composed using a kind of divinely
guided remote control.
Although this film stimulated interest in the composer and his
music, it is important to understand that it did not attempt to
portray Mozart realistically. Instead, it focused on a largely
imaginary conflict between the divinely gifted genius and a self-
confessed patron saint of mediocrity, his contemporary Antonio
Salieri (17501825). In the film, Mozart can be seen tuning in to a
kind of celestial radio, which tells him what to write. The clear
implication is that Mozarts life and his music occupied different
worlds, with little connection to each other.
The reality is much more complex. Mozart, we know,
workedhard on his music. Furthermore, despite the musics often
placid surface, it shows an amazingly deep understanding of
human psychology and character. Mozarts feeling for shifting
musical sonorities was uniquely his own; listen to the way he
plays with the sounds of his relatively small orchestra in the
Symphony no. 40.
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 13

If You Liked This Music

Other Music of Interest
If you enjoyed these first two examples, here is
some music that you may also want to hear.
Dvork wrote 16 Slavonic Dances in all, years before his death. All three have been
published as op. 46 and op. 72. Both sets were widely recorded. Symphony no. 39, in E-flat
originally written for piano four-hands, but major, is lyrical, playful and dramatic by
they are more widely available in the turns: an ideal classical symphony.
orchestral versions, also by the composer. Symphony no. 41 in C major, the so-called
Johannes Brahms wrote Hungarian Dances Jupiter symphony, ends with one of the
21 in allwhich are often heard in orchestral most stunning final movements ever written,
arrangements. Brahms and Dvork were in which five different motives are combined
friends, and the popular success of these in various ways and, at the end, played
works by Brahms inspired Dvork to write simultaneously. The last 12 symphonies of
his own. All of these pieces feature catchy Joseph Haydn (17321809), known as the
melodies and lively rhythms, and most are London symphonies, since they were
only a few minutes long. written for public performance in that
Mozarts Symphony no. 40 is one of three city, also epitomize the style of the late
symphonies that Mozart wrote in 1788, three 18th-century symphony at its best.

Bach, Concerto in D minor Listen for Timbre: Listen now to the fi rst
movement of the Concerto in D minor, BWV 1052, for harpsichord and strings,
by Johann Sebastian Bach (16851750). Though slightly shorter than the Mozart,
this piece poses even greater challenges for a novice listener.
These begin with the choice of instrument. Bach wrote this piece for a harpsi-
chord, widely used in his time but much less familiar today. Although it resembles a
small piano, the harpsichord is actually a completely different kind of instrument.
In a piano, the strings are struck by hammers and the amount of force applied
to the keys determines how loud or soft the sound will be. A harpsichord plays
a note by plucking a string when a key is depressed. The strings are plucked by a
litt le wedge, or plectrum, made of quill or leather in older instruments. The sounds
produced are not as loud as those of the piano and fade more quickly. Moreover,
the force of the plucking action does not vary much, no matter how hard a key is
pressed. The volume of the harpsichord is, therefore, relatively even. Thus, in writ-
ing for harpsichord, composers focus on other aspects of the harpsichords sound.
Bachs Concerto in D minor is performed by a harpsichord and an ensemble
of historical string instruments. Like most, but not all, pieces titled concerto, it is Concerto: A genre built on the
built on the contrast between a solo instrument (in this case, the harpsichord) and contrast between a solo
an orchestra (in this case, only strings). Sometimes only the orchestra is heard, instrument or group of
sometimes only the harpsichord. Most often, though, they are heard together and instruments and a larger
ensemble.
play off of each other. Indeed, the opposition between the rich sound of the strings
and the clear, britt le sound of the harpsichord is a large part of what makes this
music interesting.
14 Take Note

Compared to the Mozart, this piece presents litt le melodic variety; only one
real melody is heard. The beat is extremely steady. The sounds of the instruments,
though, are masterfully exploited by the composer. The entire range of the harp-
Register: A specific range of low, sichord is used, from its sonorous low notes to its relatively tinny upper register
medium, or high pitches on an (this word refers to a specific range of low, medium, or high pitches on an instru-
instrument or in a voice. ment or in a voice). The harpsichordists part is also quite virtuosic: a flurry of
rapid-fi re notes grabs our attention, even when the harpsichord is nearly drowned
out by the full orchestra. At times, the orchestra comes in briefly to punctuate a
harpsichord solo, adding an extra rhythmic punch. The orchestra also serves re-
peatedly to reintroduce the theme with which the movement began; these restate-
ments are an important features of the musics form. Meanwhile, the harpsichord
frequently takes off in its own direction.
Despite the limited means the composer has allowed himself, this is a rich and
complex piece. Because musical contrast is so minimal, you are forced to concen-
trate and become hyper-aware of the contrasts that are present. Thus, listening
to this music is a rewarding and challenging experience. For most listeners, the
strong emotional impact of the beginning of this piece fades in less than a minute.
After that, you are virtually forced to become an active listener.
Thus, when you fi rst listen to this selection, you should plan to minimize any
and all distractions. Listening to this music will consume your full attention, and
you still may have to listen several times before you are fully aware of all that is
going on. So be patient, and spread the listening out over several days if necessary.
It will be worth it.

LEARNING TO LISTEN

TAKE NOTE OF TIMBRE

What to Listen For: The wide variety of sounds that Bach produces
with just a harpsichord and a small orchestra.
Streaming audio XY and
interactive listening guides XY
Bach: Concerto in D minor for harpsichord and strings, BWV 1052
I: Allegro
Date: Early 18th century
Instrumentation: Harpsichord and string orchestra
Key: D minor
Meter: 4, also known as common time (four rapid beats per measure)
4
Core Repertory Connection: This music will be discussed again in Chapter 7.

TIME PROGRESSION COMMENT

0:00 Opening The orchestra begins the piece; the harpsichord is heard in the background.
0:14 Harpsichord solo The harpsichord now comes to the fore. This is not a solo in the literal sense, but the harpsichord gets the
lions share of the attention.
0:28 Orchestral passage The orchestra returns to prominence.
0:49 Second harpsichord solo Here the harpsichord interacts with the orchestra, playing continual fast notes as the orchestra repeats
portions of the opening theme.
2:07 Orchestral passage The orchestra once again emerges in its own right.
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 15

2:21 Third harpsichord solo We now hear a greater range of sounds from the harpsichord. The orchestral accompaniment is reduced at
times to long, sustained notes, only to break forth again with portions of the main theme.
3:53 Orchestral passage The orchestra powerfully repeats the music heard at the beginning.
4:06 Fourth harpsichord solo This time the orchestra briefly goes silent.
4:21 Dialogue The harpsichord and orchestra then carry on a lengthy and varied exchange.
7:03 Orchestral passage The orchestra concludes the piece in the same way that it began.

Focus on
Original Instruments
Bachs harpsichord music is often played on the piano.
In recent years, however, there has been an increasing
tendency among classical performers to play older
music on the actual instruments for which it was
written, or at least on modern copies of such
instruments. Performances and recordings made this
way are often designated as being on original,
historical, or period instruments. If you compare
these performances to ones made on more traditional
instruments, you are likely to be able to hear the
difference. The sound of the instruments is generally
lighter and less sustained. Performers often minimize
the dynamic contrasts. These performances are
rewarding, but they also pose challenges to listeners
unaccustomed to their sounds. They may also help
experienced listeners hear familiar music in new ways.
Hearing the distinct sounds of the different
instruments, called timbre, or tone color, is another
important part of active listening, and we will study it
more fully in Chapter 6.

Crumb, Black Angels Listen for Harmony and Texture: The pieces
we have examined so far all come from times and places quite distant from our
own19th-century Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) and 18th-century
Austria and Germany. The fi nal example in this chapter originated much closer
to home.
American composer George Crumb was born in West Virginia in 1929.
Like many Americans during the 1960s, he had strong feelings about Americas
involvement in the war in Vietnam. His string quartet Black Angels, subtitled
13 Images from the Dark Land , is a musical commentary on that controver-
sial war. But it is also much more. It deals with the subjects of the fall and
redemption of mankind, life and death, God and the devil. These images are
conveyed on the surface of the music: The beginning, for example, is meant to
16 Take Note

sound terrifying. The images are also conveyed symbolically in terms of nu-
merical relationships pertaining to the numbers 13 and 7 that are embedded
in the music but nearly impossible to hear. As we will see in Chapters 2 and 12,
Crumb is not the only composer to have included this kind of symbolic mean-
ing in his music.
Black Angels challenges the listener in some extraordinary ways. It is written
for string quartetan ensemble of two violins, viola, and celloa standard small
group used by classical composers since the 1700s. A string quartet is an example
Chamber music: Music written of chamber music, written for a small ensemble and intended for performance
for a small ensemble. In modern in a small, private space. When Crumb wrote this piece, there was a very large
usage, it usually refers only to repertory of works for string quartet. People who came to hear a performance
instrumental music. Historically, by a string quartet had certain defi nite expectations about how the music would
it indicated music meant to be
performed in chambers: i.e., in
sound. However, Black Angels was dramatically different from what they had
private homes. learned to expect.
The difference is most evident in the timbres of this work, the most unusu-
al and varied you have heard so far. For one thing, Crumb called for electronic
amplification. While most contemporary audiences are accustomed to hearing
amplified instruments, classical music performers do not usually employ ampli-
fication and often pride themselves on not requiring it. In this case, though, the
explicit purpose of the amplification is to make the instruments sound strange,
frightening, and unfamiliar.
Th is strangeness is augmented by a variety of unusual playing techniques.
The players are often asked to play sul ponticello (close to the bridge, which
Glissando: A series of very rapid holds the strings apart from the body of the instrument) and glissando (sliding
notes sliding up or down. On a their fi ngers up and down the strings). They may play their instruments using
keyboard, it is produced by sliding thimbles, paper clips, and glass rods. They are also asked to play maracas (a
the thumb or forefi nger along the kind of ratt le) and tam-tams (a kind of gong). They even click their tongues and
keys, and on a string instrument,
it is produced by sliding the fi nger
whisper and shout numbers in Hungarian, Japanese, Russian, German, and
up or down the string on the fret Swahili. All players but the cellist are also asked to play on crystal glasses tuned
board or fi ngerboard. Glissandos to various pitches by being partially fi lled with water. Many of the sounds may
may also be played on the harp by strike you as abrasive and unpleasant. The harmony, unlike that in the previous
sweeping across the strings. pieces we listened to, is often highly dissonant , with notes that clash in a way
Dissonant/dissonance: The you will easily hear. The texture is complicated by the wide variety of unusual
result of a combination of notes sound effects.
with strongly clashing overtones, The fi rst section of the piece, titled Departure, describes mankinds fall
as when two adjacent notes on a from grace. It consists of five short sections, titled Th renody I: Night of the
keyboard are played Electric Insects, Sounds of Bones and Flutes, Lost Bells, Devil-Music, and
simultaneously. (Contrast Danse Macabre. The fi rst of these was inspired by soldiers stories of swarms
Consonant/consonance.)
of insects they had encountered in the jungles and swamps of Vietnam. Devil-
Music refers to the Devils Trill, an influential violin sonata by Giuseppe
Tartini (16921770), while the title of Danse Macabre recalls a familiar piece
by Camille Saint-Sans (18351921). Devil-Music and Danse Macabrealso
quote the Dies irae, a medieval chant from the Requiem, or Mass for the Dead.
Taken together, these references suggest that the work is about death and the
human confrontation with evil, in Vietnam and perhaps in many other times and
places as well.
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 17

In short, this piece is both deeply challenging and rich in meaningful

associations. On an emotional level, it suggests feelings that are often extreme
and may be disagreeable. Black Angels is also challenging because of the wide
range of impressions it communicates, from the vividness of the insects at
the beginning to the obscurity of the numbers and the foreign languages heard
at the end. It goes without saying that a single hearing will not suffice for full
comprehension of this music.

LEARNING TO LISTEN

TAKE NOTE OF HARMONY, TEXTURE, AND TIMBRE

What to Listen For: The unusual sounds and harsh combinations
produced by electronic amplification and unorthodox playing
Streaming audio XY and
techniques. interactive listening guides XY

Crumb: Black Angels

Date: 1970
Instrumentation: Electronically amplified string quartet
Key: Largely undefined
Meter: Irregular
Core Repertory Connection: This music will be discussed again in Chapters 6 and 9.

TIME PROGRESSION COMMENT

I: Departure
0:00 1. Threnody I: Night of the Amplified sounds from all the instruments evoke the image of buzzing
Electric Insects insects in the swamps of Vietnam. Unusual timbral effects intensify the
dissonant harmonies resulting from highly unusual combinations of notes.
1:22 2. Sounds of Bones and Flutes Clucking sounds are introduced, produced both by the performers mouths
and by plucking their instruments. Unusual playing techniques also
produce the flute-like sounds heard in this section. The texture increases in
complexity compared to the previous section; there is a great deal going on
at once.
2:04 3. Lost Bells The eerie, bell-like sounds here are also produced by unusual playing
techniques. The harmonies are simpler and reinforce the impression of
bells sounding in the distance.
2:56 4. Devil-Music This section is an abrupt contrast that features percussion instruments as
well as the strings. Some of the sounds here are quite uncomfortable to
listen to.
4:34 5. Danse Macabre The conclusion of the Departure section is much more audibly rhythmic
than anything heard so farindeed, a macabre take on the dance. Spoken
syllables are included.
18 Take Note

Focus on
George Crumb (b. 1929)
American composer. Born to accomplished
musical parents, he participated in domestic
music-making from an early age, an experi-
ence that instilled in him a lifelong empathy
with the Classical and Romantic repertory.
He studied at Mason College (194750), the
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
(MM 1953), the Berlin Hochschule fr Musik
(Fulbright Fellow, 19556), where he was a
student of Boris Blacher, and the University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor (DMA 1959), where his
teachers included Ross Lee Finney. In 1959 he accepted a teaching
position at the University of Colorado, Boulder. After receiving a
Rockefeller grant in 1964, he became composer-in-residence at the
Buffalo Center for the Creative and Performing Arts. His first mature
works, composed during these years, include Five Pieces for Piano
(1962), Night Music I (1963), and Four Nocturnes (1964), in which delicate
timbral effects combine with a Webernesque pointillism and echoes of
a Virginian folk heritage to create the atmospheric chiaroscuro that
became a trademark of his style. (Richard Steinitz, Grove Music Online)
Streaming audio XY and
interactive listening guides XY
Though his is hardly a household name, Crumb has attracted
almost a cult following among devotees of contemporary
American art music. His fame is based largely on his imaginative
use of novel sound effects, often derived from traditional
instruments. Crumbs piano works, for example, frequently call for
the performer to pluck or strum the strings, and even to sing into
the instrument. Black Angels is probably his best-known work.

Active Listening
We will return to this piece and to the other examples discussed in this chapter at
various points in this book, each time looking at them from a different perspective.
Being an active listener means being as aware as possible of what is going on in
the music on different levels. How is the music put together? What kinds of sound
are used? How does a work draw upon the basic elements of music discussed in
this chapter: form, timbre, rhythm, meter, melody, harmony, texture, and the
combination of music with text or drama?
Being an active listener also means paying attention to the meaning or mean-
ings that may be embodied in the music: how it plays on your emotions, how it
elicits certain kinds of responses, how it provides unique perspectives on poems,
dramas, and even pictures. Being aware of these things will deepen and enrich
your experience of music in surprising ways, often allowing you to respond to it in
very personal terms. Whatever your reaction to Black Angels, for example, you are
probably not indifferent to it, even after a single hearing.
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 19

SUMMARY
Active listening is a framework for improving your The ability to recognize, analyze, and interpret what
awareness of the listening experience. you hear adds further dimensions to your apprecia-
Active listening enables you to pay attention to music tion of music.
at multiple levels of complexity by examining the The fi rst step in learning to listen actively is to provide
common elements that comprise music: form, timbre, a situation in which to listen intently by tuning out
rhythm, meter, melody, harmony, texture, and the distractions, giving the music your undivided atten-
combination of music with text or drama. tion, listening carefully to the beginning of a work,
Active listening does not preclude emotional listen- and listening repeatedly to the entire work.
ing. An emotional response to music is an important An excellent way to understand the musical elements
part of the listening experience, but it is far from the described above is to explore how they work in se-
whole picture. lected pieces of music.

KEY TERMS
Active listening p. xx Glissando p. xx Orchestra p. xx
Beat p. xx Harmony p. xx Pitch p. xx
Chamber music p. xx Key p. xx Register p. xx
Chords p. xx Major p. xx Rhythm p. xx
Common time p. xx Measure p. xx Scale p. xx
Concerto p. xx Melody p. xx Tempo p. xx
Dissonant p. xx Meter p. xx Texture p. xx
Emotional listening p. xx Minor p. xx Timbre p. xx
Form p. xx Motive p. xx
Genre p. xx Movement p. xx

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between emotional listening 3. Why are the Mozart symphony and the Bach harpsi-
and active listening? Do you listen differently at dif- chord concerto more challenging to listen to than the
ferent times? previous two examples?
2. Why is the Dvok Slavonic Dance easy to listen to? 4. Why is Crumbs Black Angels the most challenging
What are its most memorable features? example in this chapter?

REVIEW CONCEPTS
1. In what way(s) could the main thematic motive of 3. What are some of the ways in which George Crumb
Mozarts Symphony no. 40 be said to resemble a char- challenges his listeners expectations about what
acter in a story? How does a musical theme differ from music for a string quartet should sound like?
a human character?
2. What features of Bachs concerto for harpsichord help
to maintain your interest, compensating for the small
amount of thematic material?
20 Part 1 From Human Origins to Early Agricultural Centers

LISTENING EXERCISES
1. Listen to some of the other Dvok Slavonic Dances or the classical repertory. Does this music appeal to
to the Brahms Hungarian Dances, either in the origi- emotional or active listening skills, or both? Give
nal piano four-hand version or in the later orchestral some reasons for your answer.
version. Do these pieces also lend themselves to emo- 4. Listen to the fi rst movement of Haydns String Quartet
tional listening? Why or why not? in B-flat major, op. 64, no. 3, from your listening list.
2. Listen to Mozarts Symphony no. 40 in its entirety. How does the sound of the string quartet in Crumbs
Is it clear why Mozart joined these four movements Black Angels differ from the more traditional sonori-
together as a single composition? Why or why not? ties used by Haydn? What means does Crumb use to
3. Listen to one or more of the Brandenburg Concertos produce these unusual sounds?
by Bach, which are among the most popular works in
Guide to the Instruments of the
Orchestra
The major vehicle for the performance of classical music is the modern symphony
orchestra. Th is guide introduces you to the major instruments of the orchestra
and others that youll be hearing throughout this book.

TABLE 1.1: Instruments of the Orchestra

Stringed Bowed Stringed Instruments Keyboards Organ

Instruments Violin Clavichord

Viola Harpsichord
Cello Piano

Double-bass Celesta

Plucked Stringed Instruments Synthesizer

Harp Percussion Non-pitched

Guitar Snare drum

Woodwinds Flute Bass drum
Single-reed Tom-tom

Clarinet Cymbals
Saxophone Triangle

Double-reed Gong (tam-tam)

Oboe Pitched

Bassoon Timpani

Brass Cornet Xylophone
Trumpet Marimba

Piccolo trumpet Vibraphone
Horn Glockenspiel

Tuba Chimes
Trombone

Stringed Instruments
Instruments that create their sound through the vibration of a string (such as a
metal wire or a stretched piece of gut) are classified as stringed instruments. The
very simplest such instrument is called a monochord; it consists literally of a
stretched piece of twine, animal material, or metal that is att ached at either end to
a stick. If you pluck a full length of a string, you will hear one tone; if you cut that
string exactly in half, the pitch produced will be an octave higher.

21
22 Take Note

The Violin and Other Bowed Stringed

Instruments
The violin is one of the key melody instruments in the Western
classical orchestra. It is part of a family of related instruments, from
violin (soprano) to viola (alto), cello (tenor), and double bass (bass).
Note that the division of these instruments mirrors the division of
vocal ranges commonly found in choirs. One of the most popular of
THE VIOLIN all classical music forms, the string quartet, is performed by a group
of two violins, a viola, and a cello.

CORE LISTENING: Haydns Quartet in B-flat, Op. 64, no. 3, is a

great example of a classical string quartet. Listen to how the violins,
viola, and cello interact in this piece. Youll hear how the melody
is divided between the violins, with the viola and cello providing
harmonic support. Contrast this with George Crumbs Black
Angels, a modern string quartet. Here the division of melody and
accompaniment is less clear as Crumb is not tied to the classical
division of instrumental roles that Haydn and others had perfected.
divisio
( See Video xx)
Violins developed from earlier stringed instruments that were
played with a bow, such as the Renaissance viol. The modern
THE VIOLA
violin is a favorite solo instrument, whether played alone, in a string

THE CELLO THE DOUBLE-BASS

 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 23

quartet, or as part of a full orchestra. In the 19th century, great

performers such as Nicolo Paganini (17821840) were the rock
stars of their day; they toured Europe drawing standing-room only
crowds who were in awe of their instrumental skills. In the 1990s,
violinists like Nigel Kennedy (b. 1956) revived the crowd-pleasing
performance style of pop performers, dressing more like a punk
rocker than a concert hall star.

CORE LISTENING: Charles Ivess (18741954) Violin Sonata

no. 4, 2nd movement, is just one example of how the violin is used
as an expressive melodic instrument in classical music. Mozarts
Symphony no. 40, 1st movement, and Beethovens Symphony no. 5
give examples of how the great classical composers employed a full
string section
s in the orchestra to create complex musical textures.
( See Video xx)

The Harp and OtherPlucked Stringed

Instruments
Like the violin, the concert harp (or double-action harp) is the
latest development in a long line of instruments that feature strings
stretched across a wooden or metal frame. Folk harps are known
all around the world and form the basis for the modern instrument.
These harps have a C-shaped body, with the strings anchored to the
top and bottom branches, which are separated by a hollow, reso-
nating chamber. The modern harp features a strong metal frame to
support its range of strings, and also adds pedals that can be used
to change the pitch of individual strings. Traditionally, harpists
played either with their fi ngers or more typically with their fi nger
nails, plucking individual or groups of notes to play melodies and
harmonies. Composers of orchestral music sometimes call for as
many as six harps for special effects. The harp also has a large solo
repertory.

CORE LISTENING: The sound of the harp can be heard clearly

in Claude Debussys(18621918) Sonata for flute, viola, and harp.
Th is piece offers us the opportunity to distinguish between a bowed THE HARP
string (the viola) and a plucked one (the he harp),
harp and contrast both
with a woodwind (the flute; see below). ( See Video xx)
The guitar is familiar to listeners of classical and popular music.
The traditional acoustic guitar has a hollow wooden body, fretted
fi ngerboard, and six nylon or metal strings. Electric guitars replace
the hollow body with a solid one and magnetic pickups for amplify-
ing the sound of the resonating strings. The guitar, in its acoustic
(non-electric) form, has a distinguished history, but has only come
to be regarded as a medium for classical performers during the past
hundred years, largely due to the influence of the guitar virtuoso
Andrs Segovia (18931987). Classical guitarists often play tran-
scriptions of music originally written for other instruments. THE GUITAR
24 Take Note

The sitar is an Indian long-necked plucked stringed instrument

that has become familiar to listeners outside of India since the
1950s. The sitar is related to an ancient three-stringed instrument
found in India and Persia. The modern sitar took shape in the
18th century typically includes 18 to 20 strings, six or seven of
which are plucked for melody. The remaining strings, called sym-
pathetic strings, resonate to produce the droning effect that is
characteristic of the instrument. The neck of the sitar has 18 move-
able frets and its resonating body is made of a gourd. It is played
with a plectrum or with the fi ngernails. The sitar is used primarily
THE SITAR in Indian classical music, although it has sometimes been adapted
by Western musicians playing classical and popular music.

CORE LISTENING: The sound of the sitar is featured in the

work Raga Bhankar, played by virtuoso Ustad Vilayat Khan (1928
2004). Notice the way in which the pitches of the melody are dra-
matically
lly bent and sustained to produce a mesmerizing flow to the
music. ( See Video xx)

Woodwinds
Woodwinds are instruments that produce their distinctive sound
through the vibration of a column of air. In the simplest woodwind
instrumentsuch as a whistlethe player blows through the
end of a hollow tube, sett ing the air into motion, which produces a
sound. By shortening the overall length of the tube through add-
ing holes that can be stopped (covered up) by the players fi ngers
THE FLUTE but also uncovered selectivelythe pitch can be raised. Th rough
the addition of specialized mouthpieces and/or reeds, woodwinds
have evolved into a variety of expressive instruments.
The wind, or woodwind, section of the orchestra includes at least
three different types of instruments: flutes; single-reed; anddouble-
reed instruments. The flute features an oval mouthpiece that has
a sharp edge; when the player blows across it, the column of air is
broken into jagged bursts, creating the unique breathy flute sound.
On reed instruments, the mouthpiece is covered by a thin piece of
cane that is set into motion by the players breath. These reeds are
attached to the top of the instrument either singly, as on the clari-
net, or doubled over, as on the oboe and bassoon.
The basic design of the flute is so simple that versions of it are
found in cultures from around the world. Western flutes are blown
from a mouthpiece on the side of one end of the instrument. Blow-
ing the flute requires fi nding exactly the right angle from which to
blow, the right intensity, and also the right spacing between your
lips. Wind players call this fi nding an embouchure (OM-boo-shur).
The flute player can also raise the pitch by overblowingblowing
harder in order to produce a higher pitch.
THE CLARINET
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 25

CORE LISTENING: As mentioned above, the Debussy sonata

for flute, viola, and harp prominently features a flute, heard in
contrast with the two stringed instruments. The opening of the
second movement of Igor Stravinskys (18821971) Symphony mphony of
Psalms prominently features both the flute and the oboe. ( See
Video xx)
The clarinet is the most common single-reed instrument in mod-
ern orchestras, and also the one with the shortest history; it origi-
nated in the 18th century, and its only real predecessor appeared THE OBOE
less than a century earlier. There is a family of clarinets just like the
family of violins, although the standard soprano is most often
heard. The bass clarinet is occasionally used in the orchestra for
special effects.
The orchestral woodwind section is completed by the oboe and
the bassoon, which are double-reed instruments in the soprano and
bass ranges, respectively. They are both blown from the end. Instead
of the clarinet mouthpiece, these instruments feature a double reed
that is attached to a tube leading into the body of the instrument.
Unlike the clarinet, the oboe descends from an ancient design
that is present in many cultures throughout the world. In Medieval/
Renaissance Europe, this instrument was known as a shawm. Most
shawms, though, are very loud instruments intended for outdoor
performance. 17th-century French musicians redesigned the in-
strument to make it more supple and expressive, and the result
was the direct ancestor of the modern oboe. The oboe is regarded as
particularly eloquent and lyrical, and this has influenced the ways
that composers have written for it. THE BASSOON
The bassoon has a somewhat different ancestry than the oboe.
Th is instrument is distinguished from the oboe family by its double-
bore construction; it consists not of a single tube in which an air
column vibrates, but of two separate tubes connected at the bottom.
Th is gives the instrument a richer but less penetrating sound than
that of the oboe. The contrabassoon , or double bassoon , is a larger
version of the instrument that extends to an even lower range. Like
the bass clarinet, it is used primarily in this low register.

CORE LISTENING: Mozarts Gran Partita, K. 361 gives us the

opportunity to hear a number of these woodwind instruments in
action. The piece is scored for two oboes, two clarinets, two basset
horns (a single-reed instrument that is similar to the clarinet but in-
stead of having a long, straight body it is bent at the mouthpiece),
four horns, two bassoons, and bass. The primary melody instrument
are the clarinets and oboes, which frequently
uently trade off melodic state-
ments to produce contrasts of timbre. ( See Video xx)
The saxophone, well known to band musicians and to fans of
jazz, is also classified as a woodwind. Its body is made of metal
and it has a single-reed mouthpiece and holes covered by keys. THE TENOR SAXOPHONE
26 Take Note

It was invented by Antoine-Joseph (Adolphe) Sax (18141894) in

the early 1840s. As with the clarinet, Sax introduced various instru-
ments in different ranges, with the tenor and alto being the most
often played today.

CORE LISTENING: The saxophone can be heard in orchestral

sett ings, but is most commonly heard in jazz. Well be studying a
classic jazz composition, Lester Leaps In, named for one of the
greatest
st saxophonists
saxop of the 20th century, Lester Young (1909
1959). ( See Video xx)

Brass Instruments
Brass instruments are played by blowing air through a cup-shaped
mouthpiece connected to a length of metal tubing with a bell-like
flare at the end. The action of the lips is important for vibrating
the air inside the instrument and also for modulating its tone. In a
simple horn, the player blows through a mouthpiece at one end of
THE TRUMPET
the instrument; the basic pitch is determined by the horns length.
A modern bugle is played in this way.
A major change in horn design came in the late 18th-early 19th
century with the invention of valves that allowed brass instruments
to play all notes in the musical scale. Valves played by the fi ngers
can either open or close additional lengths of tubing built into the
instrument, enabling the player to access a wider range of notes.
The modern trumpet has three valves, which, used either sepa-
rately or in combination, can yield a surprisingly large variety of
pitches. The piccolo trumpet is a small, high-pitched trumpet often
used to play baroque music, although it is actually a recent inven-
tion. The tone of the trumpet may be modified by placing an object
called a mute in its bell. A variant of the trumpet played in the 19th
and early 20th centuries in bands was the cornet, featuring a slightly
mellower tone due to differences in the shape and construction of its
body. Louis Armstrong and other early jazz musicians began their
careers playing the cornet before switching to the louder trumpet.

CORE LISTENING: Instruments from the trumpet family of

brass instruments can be heard in several of our core listening selec-
tions. The trumpet can be heard in a lively jazz sett ing both as an
THE HORN (FRENCH HORN)
accompanying and solo instrument in Lester Leaps In by Count
Basie (19041984). The cornet can be heard prominently in Morton
Goulds (19131996) An American Salute. Gould selected the in-
strument because of its widespread use in American town bands at
the turn of the twentieth century. The piccolo
ccolo trumpet
tr can be heard
in Igor Stravinskys Symphony of Psalms. ( See Video xx)
The horn (often called the French horn) is descended from
outdoor instruments used in hunting; the resonant tone of the
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 27

natural horn could be heard up to five miles away. The French horn
has three rotary valves to change notes. It is played with the right
hand in the bell, and can be muted with the hand to change the tone
of the sound.

CORE LISTENING: The French horn is a popular instrument

used in the orchestra to add color and a unique melodic voice.
Mozart prominently featured it about 16 seconds into his Sym-
phony No. 40, when he abruptly switched from a very soft overall
sound ( piano) to a loud one ( forte). Berlioz also used French horns
ore for Romeo et Juliet in the opening measures
prominently in his score
of the Scne damour. ( See Video xx)
The trombone uses a slide instead of valves to change notes, al-
lowing the player more flexibility of pitch. Trombones used in to-
days orchestras are most commonly in the tenor range, although
the bass and alto trombone are occasionally heard as well. Thus, the
trombone essentially occupies the high end of what is often called
the "low brass" section of the orchestra.
The very lowest brass instrument is the tuba. In its most common
form, it provides the bass component of the brass section. There is
also a tenor version of the tuba commonly called the euphonium.
The tuba is a relatively recent instrument; its earliest predecessors
are less than two hundred years old. One familiar variation of the
tuba is the sousaphone, a curled version of the instrument frequently
used in marching bands and developed by famed band leader John
Philip Sousa. The tuba is played using valves.

THE TROMBONE THE TUBA

28 Take Note

CORE LISTENING: The trombone and tuba can be clearly

heard at the ending of Smetanas Sarka, from M Vlast, beginning
at about 8:58. Their deep voices are used to portray the desperate
efforts of the men as they struggle to ward off their attackers.
( See Video xx)

Keyboard Instruments
Keyboard instruments fulfi ll many functions in music, from play-
ing melodies and solos to providing rhythm or chords to accompa-
ny other players. Keyboards are played by both hands using a set of
mechanical keys covering several octaves of pitches of a fi xed scale.
The most common keyboard instruments are the organ, harpsi-
chord, piano and celesta. Electronic keyboards and synthesizers are
also widely used to imitate traditional keyboard sounds or to play
unique electronic sounds.
Historically, the earliest keyboard is the organ, often called a pipe
organ because it features a group of pipes or tubes, each tuned to a
single note, that are controlled by a keyboard, also called a manual.
Organs give players a great range of sounds and can be combined in
inventive ways. Pressing a key triggers a mechanism that blows air
through the selected pipes. Pipes are often identified by their length,
such as 2, 4, and 8, the shorter pipes being for higher pitch ranges.
Modern organs have from two to seven manuals, plus pedals that
THE HARPSICHORD are operated by the players feet. Organs also come in modern, fully
electronic versions, some emulating the sounds of the pipe organ,
even using pipe length designations to identify preset pitch ranges.
Various instrument makers experimented over the centuries
with ways to create a versatile keyboard-controlled stringed in-
strument. The clavichord was an early design popular in the 17th-
18th centuries that featured metal picks or tangents that plucked
the strings. Unfortunately, it was a very quiet instrument, making
it most suitable for being played on its own rather than with other
instruments.
More successful was the harpsichord, on which a lever con-
nected to a jack plucks the string with a quill (recent harpsichords
generally use plastic) when a key is depressed. Many harpsichords
have two manuals, allowing performers to execute complex hand
crossings or to change registrations quickly.

CORE LISTENING: The harpsichord player often served as the

informal conductor of larger ensembles in the Baroque era, sett ing
the beat and indicating when the instruments were to play. A great
examplee from this period is Bachs Harpsichord Concerto in D
minor. ( See Video xx)
Unlike the harpsichord, the piano(originally named the piano-
forte)can play both soft ly (piano) and loudly ( forte). The piano is
THE GRAND PIANO technically a percussion instrument, since its notes are produced by
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 29

hammers striking a set of tuned strings. When the player releases a

key, a felt damper descends on the string, stopping the vibration.
Modern pianos have 88 keys giving them a wide range.

CORE LISTENING: The piano can be heard in many of our core

listening examples as an accompanying instrument for vocal music.
Dallapiccola (19041975)uses two pianos in inventive ways in his-
Canti di Prigonia. Janika Vanderveldes (b. 1955) Genesis II also
features the piano played in an unusual manner; towards the end of THE SYNTHESIZER
the piece, the pianist is instructed to percussively play blocks of
notes by usin
using his or her forearm to press down on several keys at
once. ( See Video xx)
The celesta is a specialty keyboard instrument that has a sound
reminiscent of a toy piano. It looks like a small upright piano. The
sound of the celesta is made by pressing a key that in turn hammers
a metal plate suspended over a wooden resonator. Its distinct, bell-
like sounds are familiar to many listeners from its use in the Dance of
the Sugarplum Fairy from Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovskys (18401893)
ballet The Nutcracker.
A key development in the evolution of modern instruments was
the invention of the electronic music synthesizer. Its versatility lies
SNARE (SIDE) DRUM
in the ability to use many preset instrumental sounds, to program
patterns of sounds, and even create new sounds that will be unique
to a given composition or performance. A synthesizer may also be
programmed for different scales, other than the standard chromatic
scale built-into pianos and organs.

Percussion Instruments
The percussion section includes instruments from all around the
world.. Every percussion instrument contains something that is
struck or hit, either by the players hand or by sticks or mallets.
Some percussion instruments produce a sound that is not perceived
as having a specific pitch. Others can produce a wide range of pitch-
es, and are thus capable of performing melodic as well as rhythmic BASS DRUM

music. Some are made of metal, some of wood, and some use sheets
of animal hide, plastic, or other materials as the main resonating
surface. Percussion players are versatile musicians because they
must know how to play not just one but several instruments, often
moving between them in the course of a performance.

Indefinitely-Pitched Percussion
Instruments
Percussion instruments with indefi nite pitch are used to add
rhythm, a variety of textures, and effects ranging from the explo-
sive roar of artificial thunder to the knocking of a wood block. Most
members of the drum family are classified as indefi nitely-pitched TOM TOM
30 Take Note

percussion. They are joined by several metallic instruments that are

also played by striking them.
Common types of percussion instruments in this category
include:
Snare drum (or side drum): A drum with two heads, or resonating
surfaces. The top head is played with two drumsticks or brushes.
The bottom surface is fitted with taut metal snares (wires) that
CYMBALS
vibrate and ratt le slightly to add to the complexity of the sound.
Bass drum: A large, two-sided drum with a deep, bellowing
sound. Th is is also the kind of drum that a player in a marching
band wears across their stomach.
Tom-toms: Two-sided drums that are not fitted with snares,
available in many sizes and played with sticks, mallets and
brushes.
Cymbals: Two metal discs that are clapped together to make a
variety of crashing sounds.
Triangle: A metal rod bent into the shape of a triangle, which
rings brightly when struck with a metal beater.
Gong (or tam-tam): A large metal disc suspended from its rim
THE TRIANGLE and and struck with a heavy wool- or felt-padded mallet.

Pitched Percussion Instruments

There are several varieties of percussion instruments that play a
defi nite pitch, each with its own role in a musical ensemble.
The timpani, or kett ledrum, are a kind of drum that can play
identifiable pitches. There are always at least two timpani, and of-
ten three, four, or more, each tuned to a defi nite pitch. Timpani
are tuned by pedals and played with soft or hard mallets. Timpani
THE GONG parts can be quite challenging, because the players are frequently
required to retune their instruments while the rest of the orchestra
is playing.
Some tuned percussion instruments are designed to play melodies
and chords. The most familiar are the xylophone and the marimba.
Antecedents of these mallet instruments are known from Asia,
Africa, and South America. The xylophone and marimba each use
tuned wooden bars arranged roughly in the format of the black and
white keys on a piano. The marimba, in addition to having tuned
TIMPANI
wooden bars, includes hollow metal tubes suspended beneath the
bars to amplify the tone. Both instruments
trumen may be played with up
to four mallets, two in each hand. ( See Video xx)
The vibraphone uses tuned aluminum bars and is built in the
same configuration as the xylophone and marimba. The instru-
ment has pedals for adding vibrato to the tone or sustaining
its notes, features that are enhanced by motors and electronic
amplification, adding remarkable nuances to the tonalities of the
THE XYLOPHONE instrument.
 Chapter 1 Learning to Listen Actively 31

CORE LISTENING: The vibraphone, or vibes, is a popular in-

strument in jazz ensembles. Our selection from Count Basies Lester
Leaps In features an extended vibraphone solo. ( See Video xx)
The glockenspiel might be likened to a laptop version of the
xylophone. It has two rows of metal tone bars. Its bell-like sounds
are produced by striking it with hard mallets.

CORE LISTENING: The xylophone and marimba have promi-

nent roles in Canti di Prigonia by Luigi Dallapiccola. A variety of
other indefi nitely-pitched and pitched percussive instruments
including bells, tam-tams, triangle, snare drum, bass drum, and
THE VIBRAPHONE
timpanican
timpan be heard used in creative ways throughout the piece.
( See Video xx)
Chimes consists of a set of tuned, metal tubes suspended in a
frame and played with mallets. They produce a strikingly bell-like
tone and are often used to create the effect of church bells.
Indonesia is known for its small chamber ensemble of the type
collectively known as gamelan. The gamelan ensemble uses a vari-
ety of instruments such as tuned gongs, drums, flutes, and single-
and multi-octave metallophones (metal-keyed vibraphones). The
latter are mallet-struck instruments tuned to specific pitches, in
principle like the vibraphone, but using non-Western scales. Metal-
lophones are often paired with one instrument being tuned slightly THE GLOCKENSPIEL
higher than the other to produce the distinctive reverberating
sound of this music.

CORE LISTENING: Sukawati, performed by a gender wayang

ensemble, is a classic example of a gamelan performance. Listen to
how the various percussive
ercussi instruments blend to form an overall
sonic atmosphere. ( See Video xx)

The Orchestra CHIMES

Just as musical instruments developed over time, the modern

orchestra grew out of many earlier experiments in forming larger
musical ensembles. In Bachs time, for example, a group would be
formed based on whatever musicians were available, either through
employment by a member of the aristocracy or by the church. the
18th century, as newer instruments became availablesuch as the
clarinet in Mozarts timecomposers began experimenting with
adding them to their larger works. The modern orchestra grew out
of the 19th-century interest in composing symphonic works to
be performed by increasingly large ensembles. Beethovens Ninth
Symphony featured a large orchestra and choir became a model
for many that followed, with composers like Mahler famous for
composing for ensembles larger than army brigades! GAMELAN ENSEMBLE
32 Take Note

Figure 1.4 illustrates the standard layout of the modern orches-

tra and its instrumental groupings. The placement of instrumental
groups is functional in that it arranges the quieter instruments in
the front and the loudest instruments on the perimeter. The ar-
rangement also emphasizes the instruments of priority in Western
music, notably with the string section front and center. The fi rst
violin player is called the concertmaster, and usually receives a
separate round of applause before the concert begins. Note that
when the piece being performed features an instrument other
than a member of the string familythe piano, for instancethis
instrument is usually given a place at the center of the stage in close
proximity to the conductor.

FPO
figure 1.4 Layout of the Orchestra.