Progress in Mathematical Physics

70

Bertrand Eynard

Counting
Surfaces
CRM Aisenstadt Chair lectures
Progress in Mathematical Physics

Volume 70

Editors-in-chief
Anne Boutet de Monvel, Universit Paris VII UFR de Mathematiques,
Paris CX 05, France
Gerald Kaiser, Center for Signals and Waves, Portland, Oregon, USA

Editorial Board
Sir M. Berry, University of Bristol, UK
P. Blanchard, University of Bielefeld, Germany
M. Eastwood, University of Adelaide, Australia
A.S. Fokas, University of Cambridge, UK
F.W. Hehl, University of Cologne, Germany
and University of Missouri-Columbia, USA
D. Sternheimer, Universit de Bourgogne, Dijon, France
C. Tracy, University of California, Davis, USA

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4813

Bertrand Eynard

Counting Surfaces
CRM Aisenstadt Chair lectures
Bertrand Eynard
CEA Saclay Institut de Physique Thorique (IPHT)
Gif sur Yvette, France

ISSN 1544-9998 ISSN 2197-1846 (electronic)

Progress in Mathematical Physics
ISBN 978-3-7643-8796-9 ISBN 978-3-7643-8797-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7643-8797-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016934704

Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): 05C10, 05C80, 14H60, 37K, 15B52

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

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To my wife Sandra
To my children, Mave, Salom, Thibault.
Preface

This book is based on several lectures that I gave at various places over the
time, including IPHT CEA Saclay, CRM Montral, Les Houches summer school,
Barcelona (2007 school organized by the European Network on Random Geome-
try), Geneva University, and Chebyshev Laboratory in St Petersbourg, Russia.
The largest part of the research presented in this book was pursued at the Institut
de Physique Thorique CEA Saclay that hired me in 1995. A large part was also
conducted at the Centre de Recherche Mathmatiques de Montral, QC, Canada, of
which I became full member in 2013. In fact the idea of topological recursion first
occurred as I was CRM visitor in 2002.

The CRM and Aisenstadt Chair

The final stage of writing of this book corresponds to the CRM Aisenstadt chair that
I occupied in the fall of 2015, during the thematic semester AdS-CFT, Holography,
Integrability, and corresponds to a series of lectures given there in October 2015.
This is why this book is part of the CRM series of lectures and part of the Aisenstadt
chair lectures.

vii
viii Preface

The Centre de Recherches Mathmatiques (CRM) was created in 1968 to

promote research in pure and applied mathematics and related disciplines. Among
its activities are special theme years, summer schools, workshops, postdoctoral
programs, and publishing. The CRM receives funding from the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council (Canada), the FRQNT (Quebec), the NSF (USA),
and its partner universities (Universit de Montral, McGill, UQAM, Concordia,
Universit Laval, Universit de Sherbrooke, and University of Ottawa).
Two or three Aisenstadt chairs are awarded by CRM each year to prominent
mathematicians chosen because of their relevance and impact, within the thematic
program. The recipients of the chair give a series of conferences, the first of which,
in compliance to the donor Andr Aisenstadts wish, must be accessible to a large
public. They are also invited to write a monograph.
Extract from the CRMs presentation.

Acknowledgments

I wish to thank a number of people and institutions without whom it would have
been hard to finish this book. First, I was initiated to random surfaces and random
matrices by my advisor Jean Zinn-Justin and Francois David. I also learned a
lot from colleagues who were the inventors of many notions presented in this
book V. Kazakov, I. Kostov, L. Chekhov, J. Ambjorn, C. Kristjansen, J. B. Zuber,
E. Brzin, M.L. Mehta, M. Mulase, and G. Akemann. I also thank colleagues who
have read early versions and made comments and helped pointing out misprints or
improve presentation, in particular G. Borot, G. Schaeffer, and G. Chapuis.
I thank the IPHT of which I was a member all those years, and in particular the
stimulating coffee room atmosphere in which many discussions have started. I thank
the CRM and also the places at which I have given those lectures, in particular Les
Houches school, Geneva University, and St Petersbourgs Chebyshev Laboratory,
and I thank S. Smirnov for his invitation to give lectures on those topics in Geneva
and St Petersbourg.
I thank my colleagues and research collaborators on topics contained in this
book M. Bergre, M. Bertola, G. Bonnet, L. Chekhov, F. David, P. Di Francesco,
E. Guitter, J. Harnad, C. Kristjansen, A. PrattsFerrer, and J. B. Zuber and my
former students N. Orantin, O. Marchal, G. Borot, and R. Belliard.
I thank my physics professor Marc Serrero in undergraduate class, who was
always pushing to look beyond the school programs towards the horizon of research
and communicated his passion.
I thank my parents, my sister, and my grandfather who encouraged developing
my taste to mathematics and physics.
And before everyone, I thank my wife and my children for their moral help, their
love, and accompanying and encouraging, and their continued support all this time.
Preface ix

Topic of the Book

A map is a discrete surface, built by gluing polygonslike countries on a world.

This book aims at presenting to mathematicians, the so-called random matrix
approach to 2D quantum gravity developed by physicists mostly in the 1980s and
1990s of the twentieth century.
The random matrix method started with Nobel Prize awardee Gerard tHoofts
discovery in 1974, from the study of strong nuclear interactions, that matrix integrals
are naturally related to graphs drawn on surfaces, weighted by their topology.
tHoofts first example was then turned into a general paradigm for enumerating
maps, by physicists E. Brezin, C. Itzykson, G. Parisi, and J.B. Zuber in 1978:
enumerating maps with random matrices. By their method, they recovered some
results due to the Canadian mathematician William Tutte in the early 1960s, about
counting the numbers of triangulations or quadrangulations of the sphere. And
beyond that, their work triggered a major new trend in quantum gravity, in string
theory, in random matrices and in enumerative geometry and had an enormous
influence on modern physics and mathematics.
For instance, this approach of quantum gravity is what motivated Edward Witten
to formulate his famous Wittens conjectures, about the geometry of moduli
spaces of Riemann surfaces, later proved by Maxim Kontsevich, and which gave
rise to an incredible amount of beautiful geometry, still going on nowadays.
Also, over the years, it was understood how to go from planar surfaces and planar
graphs to higher topologies. The topological recursion method was discovered in
2004 and was promoted to a mathematical theory of geometric invariants in 2007.
It gives a formula for counting maps of a certain topology, only in terms of planar
maps enumeration; somehow it consists in gluing planar pieces to make surfaces of
higher topology.
Here in this book, we explain the relationship between matrix models and
enumeration of maps, and we formulate in a precise mathematical language what
is a formal matrix integral. After Brezin, Itzykson, Parisi, and Zuber, a precise
definition of a formal matrix integral was never written explicitly in the physics
literature, but it was always implicitly assumed; indeed, all integrals in physics after
Feynmans works were always treated as formal integrals, and it was so deeply
impregnated in physicists culture that most physics article didnt care of mentioning
it. This was of course confusing and sometimes led to misunderstandings and wrong
statements.
At first, in the 1980s and 1990s, it was believed that using matrix integrals to
count maps was a huge progress:
Replacing the rather difficult problem of counting graphs on surfaces, by a
problem of finding the large N expansion of a N  N matrix integral. It replaced
combinatorics by analysis and algebra. This may look simpler. However, it
was then realized that computing the large N behavior of an integral with N 2
x Preface

variables, is in fact a very difficult problem. Making heuristic guesses about the
asymptotic expansions was often easy, but proving them was often very difficult.
During many years, in the 1980s and 1990s, there was a confusion between
genuine convergent matrix integrals and formal matrix integrals. Formal matrix
integrals are a mere rewriting of the combinatorial sum over graphs they are just
a nice mnemotechnic way of writing generating series for graphs. These have a
large N expansion by their very definition. On the other side, convergent matrix
integrals belong to the realm of analysis and probabilities. The issue of their large
N expansion is considered a very difficult and challenging problem in asymptotic
analysis.
In the late 1990s, some people started to realize that convergent matrix integrals
and formal matrix integrals are in fact not the same thing. For instance,
Brzin and Deo in 1996 [19] raised a puzzling paradox: they computed the
(apparently) same expectation value by two different methods: one combinatorial
(loop equations) and one based on asymptotic analysis (orthogonal polynomials
method, the method of Bleher, Its, Deift, and coworkers [16, 25]), and they didnt
find the same result! This puzzled the community for a few years before it was
clearly understood that the two kinds of matrix integrals were different.
From the 2000s, the point of view changed. The new point of view is that
formal matrix integrals are just a nice way to write the combinatorics of maps;
they are identical to generating functions of maps. Manipulating them is just
combinatorics. Tuttes equations (recursively deleting or contracting edges) are
identical to loop equations (integration by parts). However, writing a formal
matrix integral remains very useful because: it is much easier and faster to
integrate by parts than finding bijections among sets of maps.
The large N expansion of convergent matrix integrals is a very difficult problem,
much more difficult than the combinatorics of maps. So we have reversed the BIPZ
point of view: nowadays, it is considered that:
counting maps is the easy side, it helps computing large N asymptotics of N  N
matrix integrals (the difficult side).
William Tutte was a combinatorist, whose goal was to enumerate discrete
objects: maps. For physicists, maps were supposed to be only an intermediate step; it
was supposed to be a discretization of the set of surfaces, more precisely of Riemann
surfaces. The ultimate goal was to be able to do quantum gravity, i.e., counting the
numbers of Riemann surfaces, i.e., measure the volumes of the set of Riemann
surfaces weighted by various kinds of weights. This is string theory.
An important issue was thus to understand the continuum limit: maps, i.e.,
discrete surfaces made of polygons, are an approximation of continuous smooth
Riemann surfaces. Going to the limit means sending the number of polygons to
infinity while sending the size of polygons (the mesh size) to zero. Physicists called
it the double scaling limit in the 1990s.
Most of the physicists derivations in the 1990s about the double scaling limit
were based on a heuristic link between formal matrix integrals and genuine
convergent matrix integrals and were not mathematically proved. However, this
Preface xi

led to a lot of understanding about the geometry of the moduli space of Riemann
surfaces. For example, it led Witten in 1991 to formulate his conjecture:
the generating function enumerating asymptotically large maps, is equal to the Korteweg de
Vries (KdV) Tau function

This was later proved by Kontsevich. Kontsevich also used a set of graphs on
surfaces, but rather different from those of BIPZ. Instead of approximating the space
of Riemann surfaces by a discrete subset, he cut the full space of Riemann surfaces
into cells, each cell labeled by a graph. In this way, no information is lost, and there
is no need to take any limit.
Kontsevich graphs are also studied in this book, with a proof of Wittens
conjecture based on topological recursion.

Another approach to 2D quantum gravity had also been introduced by Polyakov

in 1981 [76]; it is called Liouville quantum gravity or Liouville CFT (conformal
field theory). Instead of summing over surfaces, Polyakov was summing over
metrics on a surface. Modulo changing of coordinates, any metric tensor in 2
dimensions can be brought to a conformal metric, characterized by a scalar, called
the Liouville field on the surface. The Jacobian of the change of variable from an
arbitrary metric to a conformal one, i.e., from metric tensor to Liouville field, is the
Liouville action. It is called the Liouville action, because its extremum is reached
at the constant curvature metric, called the Liouville metric. The Liouville action
has the property of being conformally invariant, i.e., invariant under all conformal
transformations.
Conformal invariance implies huge constraints and relationships among expec-
tation values. It implies that all expectation values are algebraic combinations
of building blocks labeled by representations of the conformal group. Those
representations have been deeply studied in conformal field theory. In particular
finite representations have been classified in Kacs table [41]. Also, the exponents
appearing in asymptotic formulae are dictated by the theory of representations of
the conformal group they are classified.
In particular, the famous KPZ (Knizhnik, Polyakov, Zamolodchikov) formula
gives, for instance, the Hausdorf dimensions and various other exponents on
surfaces with random metrics [55].
Using heuristic asymptotics of matrix integrals, it was found in the 1990s,
that continuum limits of large maps should indeed coincide with the results of
Polyakovs approach, in particular with the so-called minimal models, the finite
representations of the conformal group, and indeed satisfy KPZ relations.
The physicists derivations of the 1990s were based on heuristic asymptotics,
which have been mathematically proved in the 2000s. A complete derivation is
presented in this book.
xii Preface

What Is Not Done in This Book

The goal of this book is just to perform the enumeration of maps, not to analyze
geometric properties of most probable maps; for instance, we dont consider the
statistical properties of geodesic distance on maps.
We focus only on the link between formal matrix integrals and enumeration
of maps. We dont look at other approaches, like the relationships between maps
and trees, the so-called Schaeffers bijections, or Bouttier, DiFrancesco, Guitter
bijections, and all the subsequent continuum limit notions of Brownian maps. We
also dont look at the approach from SLE (SchrammLoewner evolution) and the
Gaussian free field approaches. Books and review articles exist about these notions
and we refer the reader to them.

Gif-sur-Yvette, France B. Eynard

Contents

1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Gluing Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Intuitive Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Formal Definition.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Topology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.4 Symmetry Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 Generating Functions for Counting Maps . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.1 Maps with Fixed Number of Vertices . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.2 Fixed Boundary Lengths .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.3 Redundancy of the Parameters.. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.4 All Genus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.5 Non Connected Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.6 Rooted Maps: One Boundary .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3 Tuttes Equations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.1 Planar Case: The Disk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.2 Higher Genus Tutte Equations .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4 Exercises.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Formal Matrix Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1 Definition of a Formal Matrix Integral .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.1 Introductory Example: 1-Matrix Model
and Quartic Potential .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.2 Comparison with Convergent Integrals.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.3 Formal Integrals, General Case . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Wicks Theorem and Combinatorics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.1 Generalities About Wicks Theorem . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.2 Matrix Gaussian Integrals .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Generating Functions of Maps and Matrix Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.1 Generating Functions for Closed Maps . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

xiii
xiv Contents

2.4 Maps with Boundaries or Marked Faces . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.4.1 One Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.2 Several Boundaries .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4.3 Topological Expansion for Bounded Maps
of Given Genus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4.4 Resolvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5 Loop Equations = Tutte Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.6 Loop Equations and Virasoro Constraints .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.1 Virasoro-Witt Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6.2 Generating Series of Virasoro-Witt Generators .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.6.3 Maps and Virasoro Constraints . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.7 Summary Maps and Matrix Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.8 Exercises.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1 Disk Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.1.1 Solving Tuttes Equation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.1.2 A Useful Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.3 1-Cut Solution, Zhukovskys Variable.. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1.4 EvenBipartite Maps .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.1.5 Generating Functions of Disks of Fixed Perimeter . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.1.6 Derivatives of the Disk Amplitude . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1.7 Example: Planar Rooted Quadrangulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.1.8 Example: Planar Rooted Triangulations... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.1.9 Example: Gaussian Matrix Integral, Catalan Numbers .. . . . . 79
3.2 Cylinders/Annulus Amplitude .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2.1 Universality and Fundamental Second Kind Kernel .. . . . . . . . 83
3.2.2 Cylinders of Fixed Perimeter Lengths .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.3 Higher Topology and Topological Recursion .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.1 Preliminary Results: Analytical Properties.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.2 The Topological Recursion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
.g/
3.3.3 Topological Recursion for Wk s,
and the Method of Moments .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.3.4 Examples of Maps of Higher Topology . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.4 Closed Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.4.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.4.2 The Generating Function of Stable Maps
of Genus  2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.4.3 Planar Maps.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.4.4 Genus 1 Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.4.5 Derivatives of Fg s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.4.6 Summary Closed Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.5 Structure Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.5.1 Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.5.2 Examples.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Contents xv

3.6 Examples of Higher Topologies Computations .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

3.6.1 Quadrangulations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.7 Summary, Generating Functions of Maps . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.8 Exercises.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4 Multicut Case .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.1 Formal Integrals and Extrema of V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.1.1 A Digression on Convergent Normal Matrix Integrals . . . . . . 147
4.1.2 Definition of Formal Cubic Integrals .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.1.3 General Definition of Formal Multicut Integrals.. . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.2 What Are Multicut Formal Integrals Counting? .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.2.1 Discrete Surfaces Made of Di-polygons .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.2.2 Formal Multicut Matrix Integrals and Nodal Surfaces . . . . . . 155
4.3 Solution of Loop Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.3.1 Multicut Lemma and Cycle Integrals.. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.3.2 Disc Generating Function .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.3.3 Higher Genus Algebraic Equations.. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.3.4 Geometry of the Spectral Curve . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.3.5 Cylinder Generating Function . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.3.6 Higher Topologies .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.4 Maps Without Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
4.5 Exercises.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5 Counting Large Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.1 Introduction to Large Maps and Double Scaling Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.1.1 Large Size Asymptotics and Singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.1.2 Example: Quadrangulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.1.3 About Double Scaling Limits and Liouville
Quantum Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.2 Critical Spectral Curve .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.2.1 Spectral Curves with Cusps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.2.2 Multicritical Points .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
.g/
5.3 Computation of the Asymptotic Wn s . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.3.1 Double Scaling Limit of Fg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.3.2 Critical Exponents and KPZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.3.3 Example: Triangulations and Pure Gravity.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.4 Minimal Models.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.4.1 Introduction to Minimal Models .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.4.2 String Equation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.4.3 Lax Pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.4.4 Lax Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.4.5 The Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.4.6 Kernel and Correlators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.4.7 Example: (1,2) Minimal Model, the Airy Kernel .. . . . . . . . . . . 211
5.4.8 Tau Function .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.4.9 Large N Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
xvi Contents

5.4.10 Topological Expansion .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

5.4.11 WKB Expansion.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.4.12 Link with Symplectic Invariants .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.4.13 Tau Function .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.4.14 Large N and Large s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.4.15 Example: Pure Gravity Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.5 Summary: Large Maps and Liouville Gravity . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.6 Exercises.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
6 Counting Riemann Surfaces .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.1 Moduli Spaces of Riemann Surfaces .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.1.1 Examples of Moduli Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
6.1.2 Stability and Unstability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.1.3 Compactification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.2 Informal Introduction to Intersection Numbers.. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.2.1 Informal Introduction to Chern Classes . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.2.2 Intersection Numbers of Cotangent Bundles .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.3.1 Teichmller Hyperbolic Foliation . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.3.2 Strebel Foliation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.3.3 Chern Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.3.4 Computing Intersection Numbers . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6.3.5 Generating Function for Intersection Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.3.6 Generating Function and Kontsevich Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
6.3.7 Generating Functions with Marked Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
6.4.1 Edge Removal and Tuttes Equations . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.4.2 Disc Amplitude (Rooted Planar Strebel Graphs) . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
6.4.3 Cylinder Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
6.4.4 The Pair of Pants (0,3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
6.4.5 The Lid (1,1).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
6.4.6 Stable Topologies.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
6.4.7 Topological Recursion for Intersection Numbers .. . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.4.8 Examples.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
6.4.9 Computation of Fg D !g;0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
6.5 Large Maps, Liouville Gravity and Topological Gravity.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
6.6 Weil-Petersson Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
6.7 Summary: Riemann Surfaces and Topological Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
6.8 Exercises.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
7.1 Symplectic Invariants of Spectral Curves .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
7.1.1 Spectral Curves .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
7.1.2 Geometry of the Spectral Curve . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
7.2 Main Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Contents xvii

7.3 Deformations of Symplectic Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

7.3.1 Spectral Curve Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
7.3.2 Form-Cycle Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
.g/
7.3.3 Variation of !n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
7.4 Diagrammatic Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
7.4.1 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
.2/
7.4.2 Example of G1 . p/. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
7.4.3 Weight of a Graph .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
7.4.4 Examples.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
7.4.5 Remark: Pants Gluings .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.5 Exercises.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
8 Ising Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
8.1 Bicolored Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
8.1.1 Reformulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
8.2 Tutte-Like Equations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
8.2.1 Equation for Generating Functions .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
8.3 Solution of Loop Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
8.3.1 The Disc: Spectral Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
8.3.2 Example: Ising Model on Quadrangulations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
8.3.3 All Topologies Generating Functions . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
8.4.1 Maps with Mixed Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
8.4.2 Planar Discs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
8.5 Summary: Ising Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
8.6 Exercises.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Chapter 1
Maps and Discrete Surfaces

In this chapter we introduce definitions of maps, which are discrete surfaces

obtained by gluing polygons along their sides, and we define generating functions to
count them. We also derive Tuttes equations, which are recursive equations satisfied
by the generating functions.
We will also rederive Tuttes equations in the matrix model language in Chap. 2,
and we will give their solution for any topology in Chap. 3.
Several classical books exist about maps, for instance: Berge [9], Tutte [84, 85],
Gross and Tucker [43], as well as [46, 50, 61, 66].

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

B. Eynard, Counting Surfaces, Progress in Mathematical Physics 70,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7643-8797-6_1
2 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

1.1 Gluing Polygons

The idea of a map, is a collection of countries and seas on a world. However, in

our case, the world is not a sphere or a plane, but a surface with an almost arbitrary
topology, and the countries are polygons. Maps are also called discrete surfaces.
From now on, we shall consider only orientable surfaces, the case of maps on
non-orientable surfaces can be treated in a similar approach, and satisfies the same
topological recursion, but this subject is under development at the time this book is
being written.

1.1.1 Intuitive Definition

Here, we give an intuitive and informal definition of a map. A formal definition

is given in the next subsection, or can be found in many books [9, 43, 46, 61, 66,
85], and examples can be found in [50]. The idea is a collection of polygons glued
together side by side. We consider two kinds of polygons: some unmarked ones, and
some marked ones.
Definition 1.1.1 (Intuitive Definition) A map, with n3 unmarked triangles, n4
unmarked quadrangles, n5 unmarked pentagons, : : : , nd unmarked d-gons, and with
k labeled boundaries of lengths l1 ; : : : ; lk (a boundary of length l is a marked
polygon with l sides, and with one marked clockwise oriented side, boundaries are
labeled from 1 to k), is an oriented connected gluing of those polygonal pieces along
their edges:

n3

n4

n5

nd

l1 l2 l3 lk
1.1 Gluing Polygons 3

or more precisely, it is the equivalence class of such gluings under graph isomor-
phisms (i.e. composition of permutations and rotations of the unmarked i-gons,
which preserve the oriented marked edges).
The polygons are called faces, and the number of edges of a face, is sometimes
called its degree, its size, its length, its perimeter.
Moreover, we require that unmarked polygons have at least three sides, and
marked polygons have length at least li  1.
Remark 1.1.1 As mentioned above, this is only an intuitive definition. The actual
definition is given in Definition 1.1.2 below, or in many books or works [9, 43, 46,
50, 61, 66, 85].
Remark 1.1.2 Notice that nothing in the definition prevents from gluing a side of
a polygon to another side of the same polygon, in particular to an adjacent side.
This means that the corresponding surfaces can be rather singular. In the following
example we glue a 10-gon to a quadrangle (a 4-gon), the 10-gon has two of its sides
glued together.

There exists standard combinatorial methods to relate the counting of singular

maps to non-singular ones.
Remark 1.1.3 We recall that we consider oriented polygons, which means that
each polygon has a recto and a verso, that can be imagined with two different colors,
and polygons must be glued by their sides together, matching the colors, as in the
following figure:

The boundaries have a marked edge on their side, and by convention, we represent
the marked edge with an arrow, in such a way that the boundarys face sits on the
right side of the marked edge.
4 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

Remark 1.1.4 A gluing of polygons means a set of incidence relations, i.e. which
edge is glued to which edge. For example, twists will be irrelevant in this book.

Remark 1.1.5 Let us emphasize again that we assume that each unmarked polygo-
nal face (which is not a boundary) has a degree  3, and  d:

3  degree of unmarked faces  d

whereas for the boundaries we only require that the length of the ith boundary is:

li  1

The union of all faces of the map, is a surface, and the map can be seen as an
embedding of a graph into a surface. We may consider a marked point at the center
of each boundary face, and thus a map with k boundaries is naturally embedded into
a surface with k-marked points.
The intuitive way of thinking about a boundary would be to exclude the
boundaries from the surface, and thus a map with k boundaries would be naturally
embedded into a surface with k holes, however one should be careful with that too
simple picture. Indeed, one should notice that those surfaces can be rather singular,
because nothing in our definition prevents from gluing a polygon, and in particular
a boundary, to itself or to another boundary. This means that, although the interior
of the boundary is an open disk, the boundary with its border might not be a disk, it
might be not simply connected. Therefore, if we remove the interior of boundaries,
the remaining surface may be singular, and if we remove the boundaries together
with their borders, the removed parts are not necessarily disks removed from the
surface.
Examples Maps with no boundary (k D 0) are called closed maps, and maps with
boundaries are called open maps or bordered maps.
Maps with k D 1 boundary, i.e. with only one marked oriented edge, are also
called rooted maps. The knowledge of the marked edge is sufficient to recover the
marked face, it is the face sitting to the right of the marked edge. We shall see below
that they play an important role.
1.1 Gluing Polygons 5

A map made of only triangles is called a triangulation, a map made with

quadrangles is a quadrangulation.
Even Maps A map with only even polygons is called even. Planar even maps are
also called bipartite (indeed a planar map whose faces have even side, can have
its vertices bicolored so that adjacent vertices have different colors). This is not true
for non-planar maps, even non-planar maps are in general not bipartite.
Example of a triangulation with n3 D 4 triangles (the exterior face is a triangle),
drawn on the plane, i.e. on the Riemann sphere:

Example of a triangulation with n3 D 3 triangles (one is the exterior one), and one
boundary k D 1 of length l1 D 3, drawn on the plane, i.e. on the Riemann sphere:

Example of a map with n3 D 2 triangles, and with k D 1 boundary of length

l1 D 8. Notice that the octogon is glued with itself along the marked edge.

Example of a planar map with n3 D 22 triangles, and one boundary (the exterior)
of length l1 D 10:
6 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

1.1.2 Formal Definition

There exists several equivalent definitions of maps. Let us give the following ones,
and refer the reader to the literature [9, 50, 61, 66, 84, 85] for other ones (for instance
in terms of fatgraphs, or trees,. . . ).

1.1.2.1 Definition with Permutations

A polygon can be seen as a set of edges, together with a cyclic permutation which
encodes which edge is next to which along the oriented polygons side. In a dual
manner, an edge of the polygon can be seen as an half edge from the center of the
polygon to the edge. We call this halfedge a dart.

Then, gluing edges together means gluing darts by pairs. The gluing can be
encoded into an involutive application from the set of darts to itself, and with no
fixed point (a dart cant be glued to itself).
Definition 1.1.2 A labeled map G D .B; 1 ; 2 / is the data of a finite ensemble
B (whose elements are called darts or half-edges) of even cardinal, and two
permutations 1 and 2 , such that 2 is an involution without fixed points. The cycles
of 1 are called faces (or polygons), the cycles of 2 are called edges, and the cycles
of 1 2 are called vertices.

Two labeled maps .B; 1 ; 2 / and .B0 ; 10 ; 20 / are isomorphic iff there exists a
bijection  W B ! B0 , such that 10 D  1  1 and 20 D  2  1 .
A map is an equivalence class of labeled maps modulo isomorphisms.
The map is said connected if 1 and 2 act transitively, i.e. if any two elements
of B can be related by a sequence of applications of 1 and 2 .
1.1 Gluing Polygons 7

The Euler characteristics of a map is  D #faces  #edges C #vertices.

The Automorphism group of a labeled map, is the set of bijections  W B ! B,
such that 1 D  1  1 and 2 D  2  1 . If two labeled maps are
isomorphic, their automorphism groups are isomorphic, and in particular the number
of automorphisms of a map is well defined (it depends only on the map, not on a
labeled map).
Example: the following two permutations encode a labeled map with one
hexagon and two triangles

1 D .2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 1; 8; 9; 7; 12; 11; 10/ D .2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 1/ .8; 9; 7/ .10; 12; 11/

2 D .10; 9; 4; 3; 8; 12; 11; 5; 2; 1; 7; 6/ D .10; 1/ .9; 2/ .4; 3/ .8; 5/ .12; 6/ .11; 7/
1 2 D .12; 7; 5; 4; 9; 11; 10; 6; 3; 2; 8; 1/ D .1; 12/ .2; 7; 10/ .3; 5; 9/ .4/ .6; 11; 8/

This definition can be modified in order to have boundaries, i.e. marked faces.
Definition 1.1.3 A labeled map G D .B ; B; 1 ; 2 / is the data of two finite
ensembles B and B (whose elements are called darts or half-edges), such that
B [ B has even cardinal, and two permutations 1 and 2 of elements of B [ B ,
such that 2 is an involution without fixed points, and every cycle of 1 contains at
most one element of B . The cycles of 1 are called faces, the cycles of 2 are called
edges, and the cycles of 1 2 are called vertices. The cycles of 1 which contain
one element of B are called marked faces, and the elements of B are marked edges.
Each marked face has exactly one marked edge.
Two labeled maps .B; B ; 1 ; 2 / and .B0 ; B0 ; 10 ; 20 / are isomorphic iff there
exists a bijection  W B[B ! B0 [B0 , such that .B / D B0 and 10 D 1  1
and 20 D  2  1 .
A map is an equivalence class of labeled maps modulo isomorphisms.
The map is said connected if 1 and 2 act transitively, i.e. if any two elements
of B [ B can be related by a sequence of applications of 1 and 2 .
The Euler characteristics of a map is  D #faces  #edges C #vertices  #B (we
dont count marked faces).
8 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

The Automorphism group of a labeled map, is the set of bijections  W B [ B !

B [ B , such that the restriction of  to B is the identity, and 1 D  1  1 and
2 D  2  1 . The number of automorphisms depends only on the map.
Here is another equivalent definition of maps, closer to our intuitive definition:
maps are graphs embedded on a surface:

1.1.2.2 Definition with Embedded Graphs on Surfaces

Definition 1.1.4 A cellular embedded graph .S; G; f /, is the data of a topological

connected oriented closed surface S, a graph G, and an injective continuous map
f W G ! S, such that f .G/ is a union of Jordan arcs, and such that S n f .G/ is a finite
union of simply connected open subsets of S.
Two cellular embedded graphs .S; G; f / and .S0 ; G0 ; f 0 / are said isomorphic, iff
there exists a graph homeomorphism W G ! G0 and a surface homeomorphism
 W S ! S0 , preserving the orientation, and such that f 0 D  f .
Maps are equivalence classes of cellular embedded graphs modulo isomor-
phisms.
This definition can be modified in order to accommodate boundaries, i.e. marked
faces (a marked face is a face with a marked point in its interior and a marked
oriented edge on its boundary), and we require that isomorphisms map marked faces
to themselves and marked edges to themselves.
Also, we require that each boundary face has only one marked edge on its
boundary such that the boundary is on the right of the marked edge. This means
that there can be several marked edges on the border of a polygon, but at most one
of them must be oriented such that the polygon is on the right.
And in addition, we require that unmarked faces are at least triangles and at most
d-gons. The boundaries are of length at least li  1.
Remark 1.1.6 One can check that those two definitions of maps are equivalent.
Indeed, start from the Definition 1.1.2. For each face (each c cycle of 1 ) consider a
polygon in the Euclidian plane, whose edges are labeled by the elements of B in the
cycle c, ordered along the face according to the cycle c. It is easy to define a surface
by gluing those polygons together along their edges, and at their vertices, by defining
an atlas of charts, whose transition maps are obtained from the two permutations.
That leads to an embedded graph on the surface in the sense of Definition 1.1.4.
Conversely, start from an embedded graph on a surface. Each face has the
topology of a disk, and can be continuously mapped to a polygon in the Euclidian
plane, whose vertices are the vertices incident to the face, and the edges are the
edges incident to the face. For each such Euclidian polygon, choose a point in the
interior, call it the center of the face. Then, for each edge of the Euclidian polygon,
define a dart as an oriented arc going from the center of the face to a point on the
edge. label all darts by distinct elements of a finite set B. Incidence relations define
three permutations, corresponding to gluing darts along edges (2 ), and sequence of
1.1 Gluing Polygons 9

darts around a face (1 ), and sequence of darts around a vertex (3 ). Smoothness of
the surface implies that 3 D 1 2 . This defines a labeled map in the sense of
Definition 1.1.2.

1.1.3 Topology

The topology of a map, is the topology of the surface with the interior of marked
faces removed, i.e. with k disks removed, it is entirely characterized by its Euler
characteristics:

 D #vertices  #edges C #unmarked faces:

It is a classical result, due to Euler, that the Euler characteristics is a topological

invariant, related to the genus of the surface. We admit it here:
Theorem 1.1.1 (Euler) For a connected surface of genus g, the Euler characteris-
tic is worth:

 D 2  2g  k

where g is the genus, i.e. the number of handles, and for non closed surfaces, k is
the number of boundaries.
If g D 0, i.e. if the surface has the topology of a sphere (with k disks removed),
we say that it is a planar map.
Example of a map with no boundary (k D 0) and only one hexagon (n6 D 1),
whose opposite sides are glued together. There is one face, three edges, and two
vertices (one black and one white in the picture below), i.e.  D 0, i.e. g D 1. This
map cannot be drawn on the plane, it can be drawn on a torus:

Other example: the following map has genus g D 2, and k D 1 boundary, i.e.
 D 3.
10 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

1.1.4 Symmetry Factor

An automorphism of a map defined as in Definition 1.1.2 by a set of darts B [ B

and two permutations 1 ; 2 , is a bijective map  W B [ B ! B [ B , such that
jB D Id and

1 D  1  1 ; 2 D  2  1 :

Since B [ B is a finite set, there can be only a finite number of automorphisms

for each map. There is always an obvious automorphism which is the identity,
and automorphisms always have a group structure, subgroup of the group of
permutations of B [ B .
Definition 1.1.5 The symmetry factor # Aut of a map is the number of its automor-
phisms:

# Aut

For generic maps, there is only one automorphism (identity), and #Aut D 1.
Proposition 1.1.1 For open graphs with k  1 boundaries, the group of automor-
phisms is always trivial

k1 ) #Aut D 1:

Proof Since B is not empty, and since jB D Id, there is at least one element for
which .x/ D x. This implies that 1 .x/ and 2 .x/ are also fixed by , and by an
easy recursion, since the map is connected, i.e. since 1 and 2 act transitively,
every element of B can be linked to x by 1 and 2 and thus is a fixed point
of . This implies that  D Id, and thus the only possible automorphism is the
identity. 
There is another way of computing the symmetry factor.
Definition 1.1.6 For a given map m D .B; B ; 1 ; 2 /, let Gm be the group of
relabelings of unmarked darts leaving faces invariants, i.e. the group of bijections
 W B [ B ! B [ B such that jB D Id and 1 D  1  1

Gm D f j 1 D  1  1 g:
1.1 Gluing Polygons 11

The group Gm acts on the set of permutation of darts by conjugation, and in

particular, Aut.m/ is the stabilizer of 2 under the Gm action, i.e. the subgroup of
Gm which fixes 2 :

Aut.m/ D f 2 Gm j 2 D  2  1 g:

We define the set of gluings as the orbit of 2 under the Gm action, i.e.

Gluings.m/ D f 2  1 j  2 Gm g:

The following is a classical result of group theory

Lemma 1.1.1 (Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem) Let G be a group of permutations,
acting on set X, and let x 2 X.
The orbit of x is G:x D fg:x j g 2 Gg. The stabilizer of x is Gx D fg 2 G j g:x D
xg. The quotient G=Gx is the set of equivalence classes of G modulo Gx , i.e. an
element of G=Gx can be written g:Gx D fg:h j h 2 Gx g.
The orbit-stabilizer theorem says that

G:x  G=Gx

and thus

jGj D jG:xj:jGx j:

Proof The bijection G:x ! G=Gx is g:x 7! g:Gx . This map is well defined, because
if there exists g and g0 such that g:x D g0 :x, this means that g1 g0 belongs to
Gx and thus g:Gx D g0 :Gx . The inverse map is also well defined for the same
reason. 
The orbit-stabilizer theorem implies
Proposition 1.1.2 (Symmetry Factor and Gluing Number) Let m be a map with
n3 triangles, n4 quadrangles,. . . nd d-gons,. . . We have:

Y
d
#Aut  #gluings D jnj nj (1.1.1)
jD3

where #gluings is the number of ways of obtaining the map m by gluing together the
n3 triangles, n4 quadrangles,. . . nd d-gons, and k marked faces of length l1 ; : : : ; lk
with marked edges.
Proof Gluings.m/ is the orbit of 2 under Gm , while Aut.m/ is the stabilizer of 2 ,
therefore the orbit-stabilizer theorem implies that

#Aut  #gluings D #Gm :

12 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

Gm is the conjugacy class of 1 , it depends only on its cycles, i.e. the faces of the
map. There are nj faces of size j. Each cycle of length j can be conjugated by j
possible cyclic permutations, and cycles of same length can be permuted together,
therefore

Y
d
#Gm D jnj nj
jD3


Example of a closed planar map with no marked edge (k D 0, g D 0,  D 2)
with two triangles and three quadrangles (including the exterior one), drawn on the
sphere. It has six vertices, nine edges, and five faces. Its symmetry factor is 6.

Indeed, Aut D Z2  Z3 , where Z2 is generated by the automorphism which

exchanges the two triangles (central symmetry on the figure), and Z3 is generated
by the simultaneous rotation of the triangles (which permutes cyclically the three
quadrangles).
How many gluings of two triangles and three quadrangles correspond to that
map ? Chose one of the triangles, and label its three sides 1, 2, 3. There is 6 D 3
ways of gluing the three quadrangles to its three sides, and each quadrangle can be
glued to the triangle along any of its four edges. Then, there is only three possibilities
to glue the last triangle. Therefore:

#gluings D 3  43  3 D 27  32 :

And thus we verify Eq. (1.1.1) on that example:

32 2  43 3
6D :
27  32

1.2 Generating Functions for Counting Maps

Our goal is to count the number of maps having a fixed topology, and fixed numbers
of polygons of given sizes, fixed number of boundaries,. . . Those numbers of maps
can be collectively encoded in some generating functions. Let us define them.
1.2 Generating Functions for Counting Maps 13

1.2.1 Maps with Fixed Number of Vertices

.g/
Definition 1.2.1 Let Mk .v/, be the set of connected maps of genus g, (with
unmarked faces of degree  3 and  d), and k boundaries (marked faces of degree
 1 with one marked edge), and such that the total number of vertices is v. In
.0/
addition we define M1 .1/ D f:g i.e. we have defined a virtual planar rooted map
with 1-vertex to be a point, it has no faces, and its unique boundary has length
l1 D 0.
.g/
Theorem 1.2.1 Mk .v/ is a finite set.
.g/
Proof Indeed, for any map m 2 Mk .v/, write its Euler characteristics:

# of faces

X
d
2  2g D k C ni .m/ e.m/ C v
iD3

where ni .m/ is the number of unmarked faces of degree i, and where e.m/ is the
number of edges of m, that is, half the number of half-edges:

X
k X
d
2 e.m/ D li .m/ C i ni .m/
iD1 iD3

thus we have:

1X 1X
k d
v C 2g  2 C k D li .m/ C .i  2/ni .m/ (1.2.1)
2 iD1 2 iD3

and since i  3 in the last sum we have i2  1 and therefore we find the inequality:

1X 1X
k d
v C 2g  2 C k  li .m/ C ni .m/
2 iD1 2 iD3

in particular, this inequality implies that ni and li are bounded, and therefore there is
a finite number of such maps. 
Examples
planar maps with no marked faces and three vertices:

#Aut = 6 #Aut = 2
(0) #Aut = 2
M0 (3) =
14 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

genus 1 maps with no marked faces and one vertex

#Aut = 6 #Aut = 4
(1)
M0 (1) =

planar maps with one marked face (the marked face is on the right of the marked
edge, i.e. on the exterior):

(0)
M1 (1) =

(0)
M1 (2) =

(0)
M1 (3) =

Definition 1.2.2 We define the generating function of maps of genus g with k

boundaries as the formal power series in t:

.g/
Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I t3 ; : : : ; td I t/
1
X X n .m/ n4 .m/ n .m/
t33
t4 : : : tdd 1
D tv 1Cl .m/ 1Cl .m/ 1Cl .m/
:
vD1 x 1 x2 2 : : : xk k #Aut.m/
m2Mk .v/ 1
.g/

.g/
Wk is a formal series of t whose coefficients are rational polynomials of the tj s
and 1=xj s:

.g/
Wk 2 Q1=x1 ; : : : ; 1=xk ; t3 ; t4 ; : : :  t:

Notational remark: In the rest of this book, we shall write only the dependence in
the xi s explicitly, whereas the dependence in t; t3 ; : : : ; td , will be implicitly assumed,
1.2 Generating Functions for Counting Maps 15

by convention we write:

.g/ .g/
Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I t3 ; : : : ; td I t/  Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk /:

By convention we also denote:

.g/
Fg  W0 :

Examples (See the Pictures Just Before Definition 1.2.2)

   
.0/ t 1 t3 2 4t3 t32 2t4 2t5 2t3 t4
W1 .x/ D C t2 3
C 2 C t3
5
C 4
C 3
C 3 C 2 C 2 C O.t4 /
x x x x x x x x x
   
.0/ 1 1 1 2
F0 D W0 D t 3 t4 C C t C O.t4 /
2 6 2 3
 
.1/ 1 2 1
F1 D W0 D t t3 C t4 C O.t2 /:
6 4

.g/
Remark 1.2.1 As usual in combinatorics, Wk is a generating function, that is a
formal power series in t, or also called an asymptotic series. It is meaningful
even when it is not convergent. It is nothing but a convenient short hand notation for
the collection of all coefficients. However, it turns out (proved in Chap. 3) that each
.g/
Wk happens to be an algebraic function of t, and therefore it has a finite radius
of convergency. The behaviour in the vicinity of non-analytical points (i.e. at the
boundary of the convergency disk) can be used to find the asymptotic numbers of
large maps (see Chap. 5).
.g/
Remark 1.2.2 Notice that for each v, the sum over m 2 Mk .v/ is finite, and
.g/
therefore the coefficient of tv in Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk / is a polynomial in the 1=xi s.

1.2.2 Fixed Boundary Lengths

If we wish to compute generating functions for maps with fixed boundary lengths
li , we simply pick the coefficient of 1=x1Cl
i
i
by taking a residue. We define:
Definition 1.2.3 The following is the generating function counting maps of genus
g, and with k boundaries of respective lengths l1 ; : : : ; lk :

.g/ .g/
Tl1 ;:::;lk D .1/k Res : : : Res xl11 : : : xlkk Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk / dx1 : : : dxk
x1 !1 xk !1

1
X X n .m/ n4 .m/ n .m/ Y
k
t33 t4 : : : tdd
D tv li ;li .m/ : (1.2.2)
vD1 .g/
#Aut.m/ iD1
m2Mk .v/
16 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

They belong to

.g/
Tl1 ;:::;lk 2 Qt3 ; t4 ; : : : ; td t:

Remark 1.2.3 (Residues) The residue at x D of a function f , picks the coefficient

of the simple pole at x D , that is the coefficient of .x  /1 in the Laurent
expansion of f in the vicinity of . For instance the residue at x D 0 of a Laurent
series f .x/ is
X
f .x/ D fk xk ) Res f D f1 :
x!0
k

The Residue can also be computed by Cauchys theorem: a contour integral along
a small circle C encircling the pole counterclockwise (small circle means small
enough so that it doesnt encircle any other singularity of the integrand):
I
1
Res f D f .x/ dx :
x! 2i C

This shows that a Residue is an integral. The proper notation for residues should
include the integration measure dx:

Res f .x/ dx:

x!

The notion of Residue applies to differential forms, not functions. In the literature,
one often writes Res f .x/, omitting the dx. This abuse of notation can be done only
when there is no ambiguity on the integration variable, and the dx is implicitly
assumed. It is particularly important to write the dx, when one wants to use changes
of variables x ! z, and thus dx D dx dz
dz. Since changes of variables will play an
important role in this book, we shall always write residues of differential forms.
Remark 1.2.4 (Residue at 1) When changing variable x ! 1=x, we have d.1=x/ D
 dx=x2 , and thus residues at 1 come with a  sign:
1
Res dx D 1:
x!1 x
This is why we have the coefficients .1/k in Eq. (1.2.2).
Remark 1.2.5 (Differential Forms) One sees, for example from Eq. (1.2.2), that
.g/
Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk / will always be used to compute residues, i.e. integrals, and in fact,
.g/
it will always appear together with dx1 : : : dxk as in Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk / dx1 : : : dxk . The
.g/
true nature of Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk /, is to be a differential form, andanticipating on
Chap. 7we define the fundamental intrinsic object :

.g/ .g/
!k D Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk / dx1 : : : dxk :
1.2 Generating Functions for Counting Maps 17

In this notation, dx1 : : : dxk is the tensor product of 1-forms dx1    dxk , it must
not be confused with an exterior product dx1 ^    ^ dxk . It is symmetric in all dxi s,
.g/
not antisymmetric. In other words, !k is a linear combination of 1-form of x1 ,
whose coefficients are linear combinations of 1-form of x2 , whose coefficient is a
1-form of x3 , : : : .
Examples
.g/
If we choose all tj D 0 except t4 0, we count only quadrangulations, and T4
is the number of rooted quadrangulations of genus g, where all faces (including
the one on the right of the marked edge) are quadrangles. The total number of
faces is n D n4 C 1, and [thanks to Eq. (1.2.1)] the number of vertices is v D
nC22g. In the 60s, Tutte (this is the famous Tuttes formula [84, 85]) computed
that (and we shall prove it in Chap. 3):
1
X
.0/ 2 .2n/ 3n
T4 D t3 .tt4 /n1 D 2t3 C 9t4 t4 C 54t5 t42 C : : :
nD1
n .n C 2/

In this formula, the coefficient of t40 t3 is 2. The two maps of genus 0 with one
marked quadrangle, three vertices and no unmarked quadrangles contributing to
the term 2t3 , are

The nine maps of genus 0 with one marked quadrangle, four vertices and one
unmarked quadrangle, contributing to the term 9t4 t4 , are (where one face is the
exterior face, and the marked face is the one on the right of the oriented marked
edge):

Similarly, if we choose all tj D 0 except t3 0, we count only triangulations,

.g/
and T3 is the number of rooted triangulations of genus g, where all faces
(including the one on the right of the marked edge) are triangles. According
18 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

to Eq. (1.2.1) with k D 1 and l1 D 3, the total number of faces is n3 C 1 D

2.v C 2g  2/ which is always even, and which we denote

n3 C 1
nD D v C 2g  2:
2
In Chap. 3 for genus g D 0, we shall find:
1
X
.0/ p . 3n
2 C 1/
T3 D t5=2 .t3 t/2n1 23nC1 D 4t3 t3 C 32t4 t32 C : : : :
nD1
.n C 2/ . n2 C 1/

which was also computed by Tutte [84, 85]. The four maps of genus 0 with one
marked triangle, three vertices and one unmarked triangle, contributing to the
term 4t3 t3 , are (where one face is the exterior face, and the marked face is the one
on the right of the oriented marked edge):

1.2.3 Redundancy of the Parameters

One can remark that the number of vertices is redundant, because at fixed genus
and boundary lengths, the number of vertices can be deduced from the numbers of
polygonal faces. In other words the parameter t is redundant with the tj s and xj s.
P P
Indeed, using Eq. 1.2.1: v  .2  2g  k/ D 12 kiD1 li C 12 diD3 .i  2/ni , we may
rewrite:
.g/
t2g2Ck Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk /dx1 : : : dxk
1 Qd
X X i
2 1 /ni .m/ Yk
iD3 .ti t 1 dxi
D Qk p l .m/ :
vD1 .g/ iD1 i .x = t/ i #Aut.m/ x
iD1 i
m2Mk .v/

This means that we can redefine:

p
ti ! ti t 2 1
i
; xi ! xi = t ; t!1

and work with t D 1.

.g/
In other words, Wk was defined as a formal power series in a single variable t
(coupled to the number of vertices v), but we may also view it as a formal multiple
power series in each ti and xi , coupled to the number of polygons ni and degrees of
1.2 Generating Functions for Counting Maps 19

boundaries li . We could chose to define:

.g/
Wk 2 Q1=x1 ; : : : ; 1=xk ; t3 ; t4 ; : : : :

However, although t is a redundant parameter, we find more convenient to work with

formal series in only one formal variable t than with multiple formal variables, and
we shall keep t as the sole formal variable throughout this book.

1.2.4 All Genus

It is convenient to define the generating function of maps regardless of their genus.

Thanks to Eq. (1.2.1), the number of vertices of a map is always such that v C 2g 
2 C k  0, and this allows to define the following formal power series of t:
1  22gk
X N .g/
Wk D Wk : (1.2.3)
gD0
t

We emphasize that the meaning of this definition, is an equality between formal

power series of t, i.e. an equality between the coefficients of terms with equal powers
of t. To any order in t, the sum over g is finite. Therefore the sum over g is NOT a
large N expansion, it is a small t expansion.
.g/
Moreover, since any Mk .v/ is a finite set, there is a maximal genus g  gmax.v/
for each v, and the coefficients of Wk in powers of t are polynomials in 1=N:

Wk 2 Q1=x1 ; : : : ; 1=xk ; t3 ; t4 ; : : : ; 1=N t:

.g/
Similarly, for closed maps k D 0, we note W0 D Fg , and we can define the all
genus generating function of closed maps:
1  22g
X N
FD Fg : (1.2.4)
gD0
t

.g/
Remark 1.2.6 We will see later in this book, that each series Wk has a finite radius
of convergency, and is in fact an algebraic function of t. But the all genus generating
function Wk is not algebraic, and may have a vanishing radius of convergency.
20 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

1.2.5 Non Connected Maps

When we have a formal generating series counting disconnected objects multiplica-

tively, it is well known that the log is the generating function which counts only the
connected objects, see [46]. If we denote ZN .t3 ; : : : ; td I t/ the generating function for
closed maps not necessarily connected
1
X X n .m/ n4 .m/ n .m/
t33 t4 : : : tdd
ZN .t3 ; t4 ; : : : ; td I t/ D 1 C tv .N=t/.m/
vD1 mDmap with v vertices
#Aut.m/

where .m/ D #vertices  #edges C #faces, we have:

ln .ZN .t3 ; t4 ; : : : ; td I t// D F.t3 ; : : : ; td I tI N/ (1.2.5)

where again this equality is to be taken as an equality between formal series

in Qt3 ; : : : ; td ; N; 1=Nt, i.e. equality between the coefficients in the small t
expansion.
For open maps with k  1 boundaries, there are several ways of obtaining dis-
connected surfaces, because each disconnected piece may carry either no boundary,
or subsets of the set of boundaries. The generating functions of connected objects
are cumulants of the non-connected ones.
Let Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk / be the generating function of not-necessarily connected maps
of all genus. We have:

W1 .x1 / D ZN W1 .x1 /

W2 .x1 ; x2 / D ZN .W2 .x1 ; x2 / C W1 .x1 / W1 .x2 //

W3 .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / D ZN .W3 .x1 ; x2 / C W1 .x1 / W2 .x2 ; x3 / C W1 .x2 / W2 .x1 ; x3 /

CW1 .x3 / W2 .x1 ; x2 / C W1 .x1 / W1 .x2 / W1 .x3 //

and so on, if we note K D fx1 ; : : : ; xk g:

X Y
n
Wk .K/ D ZN W#Ji .Ji /
 `K; D.J1 ;J2 ;:::;Jn / iD1

where we sum over all possible partitions  of K.

The converse is called cumulants, or sometimes connected parts:

1
W1 .x1 / D W  .x1 /
ZN 1
W2 .x1 ; x2 / W1 .x1 / W1 .x2 /
W2 .x1 ; x2 / D 
ZN ZN ZN
1.3 Tuttes Equations 21

W3 .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / W1 .x1 / W2 .x2 ; x3 / W1 .x2 / W2 .x1 ; x3 /
W3 .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / D  
ZN ZN ZN ZN ZN
W1 .x3 / W2 .x1 ; x2 / W  .x1 / W1 .x2 / W1 .x3 /
 C2 1
ZN ZN ZN ZN ZN

and so on. . .

1.2.6 Rooted Maps: One Boundary

The case k D 1, i.e. one boundary plays a special role.

A map with one boundary, is also, by definition, a map with one oriented marked
edge, it is also called a rooted map. The marked face is the face on the right of the
oriented marked edge.
A reason of the special role of maps with one boundary, is that there is only one
automorphism (the identity) which can conserve the map and the oriented marked
edge. Therefore if k D 1 we have

kD1 ) #Aut D 1

A planar map with one boundary is called a disk.

1.3 Tuttes Equations

1.3.1 Planar Case: The Disk

The Canadian mathematician Tutte discovered a combinatoric recursive equation in

1963 [84], for counting planar maps with one boundary, i.e. rooted planar maps, or
equivalently disks.
The idea is the following. A planar map with one boundary of length l C 1,
is in fact a planar map with one marked face of degree l C 1, with one marked
oriented edge on it. Let us draw the map on the plane, such that 1 is in the marked
face, i.e. the marked face is the exterior. The marked edge, separates two faces (not
necessarily distinct).
If one removes the marked edge, two situations may occur:
either the face on the other side of the marked edge was the same, thus if we
remove the edge, we get two planar maps, each having one boundary (we mark
the edges adjacent to the removed edge), one has a boundary of length j, the other
l  1  j, for some j such that 0  j  l  1.
either the face on the other side is not the same, and thus it is an unmarked face of
some degree j such that 3  j  d. When we remove the marked edge, the map
22 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

remains connected, and we get a new map, with a boundary of length l C j  1

(the new marked edge is the one adjacent to the removed edge). Removing the
edge was thus equivalent to removing a j-gone, which has weight tj .
It is easy to see that this procedure of removing the marked edge is a bijection

.0/ .0/ .0/ .0/

M1IlC1 ! [jD0
l1
M1Ij  M1Il1j C [djD3 M1IlCj1

and thus Tuttes equation follows:

.0/
X
l1
.0/ .0/
X
d
.0/
TlC1 D Tj Tl1j C tj TlCj1
jD0 jD3
(1.3.1)

Tuttes proof is illustrated as follows:

1.3.2 Higher Genus Tutte Equations

A similar recursive equation can be found for higher genus or higher number of
boundaries.
Consider a map of genus g, with k boundaries of respective lengths l1 C
1; l2 ; : : : ; lk , and let us denote collectively

K D fl2 ; : : : ; lk g

Then we erase the marked edge of the first boundary. Several mutually exclusive
possibilities can occur:
the marked edge separates the marked face with some unmarked face (let us say
a j-gone with 3  j  d), and removing that edge is equivalent to removing a
j-gone (with weight tj ), and we thus get a map of genus g with the same number
of boundaries, and the length of the first boundary is now l1 C j  1.
the marked edge separates two distinct marked faces (face 1 and face m with
2  m  k, ), thus the marked edge of the first boundary is one of the lm edges of
1.3 Tuttes Equations 23

the mth boundary. We thus get a map of genus g with k  1 boundaries. the other
k  2 boundaries remain unchanged, and there is now one boundary of length
l1 C lm  1.
the same marked face lies on both sides of the marked edge, therefore by
removing it, we disconnect the boundary. Two cases can occur: either the map
itself gets disconnected into two maps of genus h and g  h, one having 1 C #J
boundaries of lengths .j; J/, where J is a subset of K, and the other map having
k  #J boundaries of lengths .l1  1  j; K n J/, or the map remains connected
because there was a handle connecting the two sides, and thus by removing the
marked edge, we get a map of genus g  1, with k C 1 boundaries of lengths
.j; l1  j  1; K/.
Again, this procedure is (up to the symmetry factors) bijective, and all those
possibilities correspond to the following recursive equation:
1 1 h X
lX g
X i Xk
.h/ .gh/ .g1/ .g/
Tj;J Tl1 1j;KnJ C Tj;l1 1j;K C lm Tlm Cl1 1;Knflm g
jD0 hD0 JK mD2

.g/
X
d
.g/
D Tl1 C1;K  tj Tl1 Cj1;K (1.3.2)
jD3

which we call Loop equation or higher genus Tuttes equation.

This equation is illustrated as follows:
24 1 Maps and Discrete Surfaces

Here, we have presented only an intuitive derivation, and we present a more

rigorous derivation in Chap. 2, with a very different technique, called loop equations
for formal matrix integrals.

1.4 Exercises

Exercise 1 Count all connected quadrangulations with n4 D 1 and n4 D 2 quad-

rangles, count them with their symmetry factors and according to their topology.
Answer: There is one planar quadrangulation with n4 D 1 quadrangle, and it
has symmetry factor 2, and one quadrangulation of genus g D 1 with n4 D 1
quadrangle, and it has symmetry factor 4.
There are two planar quadrangulations with n4 D 2 quadrangles, one has
symmetry factor 8, one has symmetry factor 1. And there are four quadrangulations
of genus g D 1 with n4 D 2 quadrangles, one has symmetry factor 8, one has
symmetry factor 4, one has symmetry factor 2, one has symmetry factor 1.
This can be summarized as:
 2     
N 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
F D t t4 C C t t4 N 1 C C C C C 1 C O.t43 /:
2 4 8 8 4 2

Exercise 2 Find all planar maps with one marked face of arbitrary length l, and
whose unmarked faces are only pentagons, and with up to five vertices.
Check that

     
.0/ t t2 3 2 2t5 4 5 9t5 5 12 17t5 3t52
W1 D C Ct C Ct C Ct C C CO.t6 /
x x3 x5 x2 x7 x4 x9 x6 x3
Chapter 2
Formal Matrix Integrals

In this chapter we introduce the notion of a formal matrix integral, which is very
useful for combinatorics, as it turns out to be identical to the generating function of
maps of Chap. 1.
A formal integral is a formal series (an asymptotic series) whose coefficients are
Gaussian integrals, it is not necessarily a convergent series (in fact in our case it is
always not convergent, it has a vanishing radius of convergency).
Wicks theorem [86] gives a method to compute Gaussian matrix integrals in
a combinatorial way, it relates formal matrix integrals to generating functions for
maps.
The relationship between formal matrix integrals and maps, was first noticed in
1974 by t Hooft (1999 physics Nobel prize) in the context of the study of strong
nuclear interactions [48], and then really introduced as a tool for studying maps by
physicists Brezin-Itzykson-Parisi-Zuber in 1978 [74].

2.1 Definition of a Formal Matrix Integral

2.1.1 Introductory Example: 1-Matrix Model and Quartic

Potential

Consider the following polynomial moment of a gaussian integral over the set HN
of hermitian N  N matrices:
Z
Nk M2
Ak .N/ D dM . Tr M 4 /k eN Tr 2
k 4 HN
k

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 25

B. Eynard, Counting Surfaces, Progress in Mathematical Physics 70,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7643-8797-6_2
26 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

where M is a N  N hermitian matrix, and dM the U.N/ invariant Lebesgue measure

on HN

1 YN Y
dM D 2 =2
dMii dReMij dImMij
2 .=N/
N=2 N
iD1 i<j

R M2
normalized so that dM eN Tr 2 D 1, i.e. A0 .N/ D 1.
We shall see below that Ak .N/ is a polynomial in N and 1=N, so it can be
analytically continued to any N 2 C .
With the sequence Ak .N/, k D 0; 1; 2; : : : ; 1, we define a formal power series
in powers of a variable which we choose to call t4 because it is associated to Tr M 4
(later we shall associate tj to Tr M j ):
Definition 2.1.1 We define the formal matrix integral
1
X 1
X Z
Nk M2
ZN .t4 / D t4k Ak .N/ D t4k dM . Tr M 4 /k eN Tr 2

kD0 kD0
k 4k HN

We shall denote it:

Z
M2 4
t4 M4 /
ZN .t4 / D dM eN Tr . 2 :
formal

(as if we could exchange the order of sum and integral).

ZN .t4 / is well defined as a formal power series in t4

ZN .t4 / 2 QN; 1=Nt4 ;

in other words, ZN .t4 / is nothing but a notation which summarizes all the
coefficients Ak .N/ in only one symbol ZN .t4 /. This means that every time we are
going to write properties or equations for ZN .t4 /, we actually mean properties of the
coefficients Ak of the t4 expansion. Writing equations for ZN .t4 / is merely a shorter
way of writing equations for Ak .N/ 8k.
We are never going to consider ZN .t4 / as a usual function of t4 , and in fact, for
t4 > 0 the series ZN .t4 / is never convergent (in the Borel sense for instance).
2.1 Definition of a Formal Matrix Integral 27

2.1.2 Comparison with Convergent Integrals

The definition of a formal matrix integral ZN .t4 / is not to be confused with the
hermitean convergent matrix integral:
Z
M2 M4
Zconv .t4 ; N/ D dM eN Tr . 2 t4 4 /
HN
Z 1
X Nk M2
D t4k dMeN Tr 2 . Tr M 4 /k :
HN kD0 k 4 k

One should notice that Zconv .t4 ; N/ is well defined for t4 < 0, and not for t4 > 0.
The existence and nature of large N asymptotics of hermitean convergent matrix
integrals is a difficult problem which has been solved in a few cases, and which
remains an open question in many cases at the time this book is being written (the
case of the 2-matrix model with complex potentials for instance is unsolved).
The only difference in the definition of ZN .t4 / and Zconv .t4 ; N/, is that the order
of the sum over k and the integral over HN has been exchanged. In general, the sum
and the integral dont commute, and in general:

ZN .t4 / Zconv .t4 ; N/

in other words:
X1 Z Z X 1
Nk N Tr M2
2
4 k Nk M2
t4k dMe . Tr M / t4
k
dMeN Tr 2 . Tr M 4 /k
kD0 HN
k 4 k
HN kD0 k 4 k

the left hand side is a divergent asymptotic series, and it has a meaning either as
a formal series (what we shall consider from now on in this book), or for instance
it can be Borel resummed for t4 < 0. However, those two definitions of a matrix
integral differ even after Borel resummation and analytical continuation from t4 > 0
(which is the interesting regime for combinatorics) to t4 < 0 (where Zconv .t4 / is well
defined) they do not necessarily coincide.
Convergent matrix integrals are not the topic of this book, and readers interested
in asymptotic properties of large Matrix integrals, can refer to the many books
devoted to it for instance [16, 25, 26, 39, 44, 63, 81].

2.1.3 Formal Integrals, General Case

So far, we have studied the example of a formal matrix integral with quartic
potential, now let us give the general definition of a formal integral of the form:
Z
e t
N
Tr V.M/
dM:
formal
28 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

The idea is to expand (Taylor series) the exponential of the non-quadratic part of
V.M/, and write the integral as an infinite sum of polynomial moments of a gaussian
integral, and then invert the integral and the summation.
Let

M 2 X tj j
d
V.M/ D  M
2 jD3
j

be called the potential, then we define the following polynomial moment of a

Gaussian integral:
0 1k
Z X d
1 Nk M2
@
tj
Ak D dM e  Nt Tr 2 Tr M j A :
k tk HN jD3
j

Lemma 2.1.1 Ak is a polynomial of t such that:

.d2/k=2
X
Ak D Ak;m tm :
mDk=2

Proof A monomial moment of a Gaussian integral vanishes if the degree of the

monomial is odd, and is proportional
P to t to the power half the degree, if the degree
t
is even. The polynomial . djD3 jj Tr M j /k can be decomposed into a finite sum of
monomials in M of the form:

Y
d X
d
. Tr M j /nj ; nj D k
jD3 jD3

P
i.e. of degree j jnj . Therefore such a term contributes to Ak with a power of tm
equal to:

1X 1X 1X
d d d
k
m D k C jnj D . j  2/nj  nj D :
2 jD3 2 jD3 2 jD3 2

The upper bound m  .d  2/k=2 is easily obtained because j  d and nj  k 8 j.


This Lemma allows to define:
2m
X
AQ m D Ak;m :
kD0
2.1 Definition of a Formal Matrix Integral 29

Definition 2.1.2 The formal integral is the formal power series in t:

1
X
tm AQ m :
def
Z.t/ D
mD0

It is denoted
Z
notation N
Z.t/ D e t Tr V.M/
dM:
formal

Remark 2.1.1 Z.t/ can also be viewed as a formal power series in each tj with 3 
j  d. We may choose t D 1 and expand in powers of t3 or t4 . . . , as we did
p for the
quartic potential. It is clear that t can be absorbed by a redefinition M ! tM and
j
tj ! t 2 1 tj , exactly like in Sect. 1.2.3 of Chap. 1.
Remark 2.1.2 The formal integral and the convergent matrix integral differ by the
order of integration and sum. In general the two operations do not commute, and the
formal integral and the convergent integral are different (see Sect. 2.1.2 above):
Z Z
N N
e t Tr V.M/
dM e t Tr V.M/
dM:
formal HN

Remark 2.1.3 In combinatorics, the times tj s are Boltzman weights for the j-gons,
and thus we shall mostly be interested in the tj  0. Convergent integrals converge
for instance when d is even and td < 0. This shows again that formal and convergent
matrix integrals are defined in very different domains, and dont have to coincide.
Remark 2.1.4 We shall see below in Sect. 2.2.2, that each Ak;m is a Laurent
polynomial of N:

gmax .k;m/
X .g/
Ak;m D N g Ak;m
gDgmin .k;m/

so that each AQ m is also a Laurent polynomial of N, and thus, to a given order tm ,

the formal integral is a Laurent polynomial of N, and thus a formal matrix integral
always has a 1=N expansion.
In other words, the question of a 1=N expansion is trivial for formal integrals,
whereas it is a very difficult question for convergent integrals (mostly unsolved for
multi-matrix integrals with complex potentials).
Remark 2.1.5 Most of physicists works in so-called 2d-quantum-gravity are
actually using that formal definition of a matrix integral (in fact almost all works
in quantum field theory after Feynmans works, used formal integrals). Most of the
works initiated by Brezin-Itzykson-Parisi-Zuber [74] in 1978 assume the formal
definition of matrix integrals, and are correct and rigorous only with that definition,
30 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

they are often wrong if one uses convergent hermitian matrix integrals instead. See
[31, 40, 42, 54]

2.2 Wicks Theorem and Combinatorics

2.2.1 Generalities About Wicks Theorem

Wicks theorem is a very useful theorem for combinatorics. It gives a combinatoric

way of computing Gaussian expectation values, or conversely, it gives an algebraic
and analytical way of enumerating graphs.
Let A be a positive definite n  n symmetric matrix, and let x1 ; : : : ; xn be n
Gaussian random variables, with a probability measure:

.2/n=2  1 Pi;j Ai;j xi xj

d.x1 ; : : : ; xn / D p e 2 dx1 dx2 : : : dxn
det A

and let

B D A1 (2.2.1)

which we call the propagator.

Let us denote expectation values with brackets (this is the usual notation in
physics):
Z
def
< f .x1 ; : : : ; xn / > D f .x1 ; : : : ; xn / d.x1 ; : : : ; xn /:

Wicks theorem states that:

Theorem 2.2.1 (Wicks Theorem [86]) The expectation value of a product of two
Gaussian random variables, is the inverse of the quadratic form A, and is called the
propagator:

< xi xj >D Bi;j D .A1 /i;j D propagator:

The expectation value of any product of an odd number of variables is zero, and
the expectation value of an even product of Gaussian random variables, is the sum
over all pairings of product of expectation values of pairs:
X Y
< xi1 xi2 : : : xi2m >D Bik ;il :
pairings pairs.k;l/
2.2 Wicks Theorem and Combinatorics 31

Example

< xi1 xi2 xi3 xi4 >D Bi1 ;i2 Bi3 ;i4 C Bi1 ;i3 Bi2 ;i4 C Bi1 ;i4 Bi2 ;i3 :

Wicks theorem becomes even more interesting when the indices i1 ; : : : ; i2m are
not distinct. For instance:

< x2i1 x2i2 >D Bi1 ;i1 Bi2 ;i2 C 2Bi1 ;i2 Bi1 ;i2 :

2.2.1.1 Graphs

The best way to write Wicks theorem is diagrammatically. To each index ik

associate a vertex, and to each pair .ik ; il / associate an edge with weight Bik ;il . If
p
an index ik is repeated, i.e. if it appears as xikk , then we associate to it a vertex
with pk half edges. Wicks theorem says that the expectation value is the sum
over all possible ways of linking vertices by edges, of the product of propagators
corresponding to edges. In other words, draw all possible graphs with the given
vertices, and weight each graph by the product of its edge propagators.
Example

(2.2.2)
the represented graph here has weight

B3i1 ;i2 Bi2 ;i2 :

In other words, Wicks theorem allows to count the number of ways of gluing
vertices (of given valence) by their edges. Such graphs are called Feynman graphs.
A Feynman graph is a graph, with given vertices, to which we associate a value,
which is the product of the propagators Bi;j s of edges:
Y
Bie ;je :
e2edges

2.2.1.2 Symmetry Factors

The total number of possible graphs with m edges, is the number of pairings of 2m
half edges, it is:

.2m  1/ D .2m  1/.2m  3/.2m  5/ : : : 1:

32 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

However, many of the graphs obtained, are topologically identical, they have the
same weight, and it may be more convenient to write only non equivalent graphs,
and associate to them an integer factor (the symmetry factor).
For example, the graph displayed in Eq. (2.2.2), is obtained 60 times, and the
only other topological graph is obtained 45 times, which make a total of 60 C 45 D
105 D 7 5 3 D 7 :

(2.2.3)
D 60 B3i1 ;i2 Bi2 ;i2 C 45 Bi1 ;i2 Bi1 ;i1 B2i2 ;i2 :

Notice on that example, that both 60 and 45 divide 3  5:

(2.2.4)

This is something general: the number of relabelings which leave a graph invariant
(i.e. the number of times we obtain the same graph), is equal to the order of the
group of relabelings, divided by the number of automorphisms of the graph. This is
an application of the orbit-stabilizer theorem, see Proposition 1.1.2.
What we call the symmetry factor, is the number of automorphisms of a graph, it
appears in the denominator.
To summarize, one may say that Gaussian expectation values are generating
functions for counting (weighted by the inverse of their integer symmetry
factor) the number of graphs with given vertices.

2.2.2 Matrix Gaussian Integrals

Let us now apply Wicks theorem, to the computation of Gaussian matrix integrals.
In that case, the Feynman graphs are going to be fatgraphs also called ribbon-graphs,
or maps, or discrete surfaces.

2.2.2.1 Application of Wicks Theorem to Matrix Integrals

Consider a random hermitean matrix M of size N, with Gaussian probability

measure:

1  N Tr M2 Y Y
N
d0 .M/ D e 2t dMi;i dReMi;j dImMi;j
Z0 iD1 i<j
2.2 Wicks Theorem and Combinatorics 33

in other words, the variables Mi;i ; ReMi;j ; ImMi;j are Rindependent Gaussian random
variables. Z0 is the normalization constant such that d0 .M/ D 1:

N2
Z0 D 2N . t=N/ 2 : (2.2.5)
P
Since Tr M 2 D i;j Mi;j Mj;i , the Wicks propagator [defined in Eq. (2.2.1)] is
easily computed:

t
< Mi;j Mk;l >0 D i;l j;k
N

where j;l D 0 if j l and 1 if j D l is the Krnecker -function, and <>0 means

the expectation value with the measure d0 . P
As a first example, let us compute < Tr M 4 >0 D i;j;k;l < Mi;j Mj;k Mk;l Ml;i >0 ,
which we represent as a vertex with four double-line half edges:

i j
i j
l k
l k

We write the half edges as double lines, and associate to each single line its index.
Because of the trace, the indices are constant along single lines.
Since the propagator is < Mi;j Mk;l >0 D Nt i;l j;k , it is going to be used to glue
together half edges carrying the same oriented pair of indices, we can represent it as
a double line edge (a ribbon):

i l
j k
So, let us compute < Tr M 4 >0 :

N
< Tr M 4 >0
4t
N X
D < Mi;j Mj;k Mk;l Ml;i >0 3 possible pairings
4t i;j;k;l .

N X
D < Mi;j Mj;k >0 < Mk;l Ml;i >0
4t i;j;k;l

C < Mi;j Ml;i >0 < Mj;k Mk;l >0 C < Mi;j Mk;l >0 < Mj;k Ml;i >0
34 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

i j i j i j

i j i j i j
l k
+ l k
+ l k
k k k
l l l

D
N X t t t t t t
D i;k j;j k;i l;l C i;i j;l j;l k;k C i;l j;k j;i k;l
4t i;j;k;l N N N N N N

N  t2 3 t2 t2 
D 2
N C 2 N3 C 2 N
4t N N N
t 2 
D N C N2 C N0
4
tN 2 tN 0
D C :
2 4

Notice that there are two steps in that computation:

the first one consists in applying Wicks theorem, i.e. representing each term as
one way of gluing together half edges of the 4-valent vertex with propagators.
This gives three pairings, illustrated by three graphs.
the second step consists in performing the summation over the indices. The
special form of the propagator, with Krnecker -functions of indices, ensures
that there is exactly one independent index per single line. The sum over all
indices is thus equal to N to the power the number of single lines, i.e. number of
faces of the graph.
Since we also have a factor 1=N per propagator i.e. per edge, and a factor N in
front of the trace, i.e. a factor N per vertex, in the end the total N dependance for a
given graph is:

N #vertices#edgesC#faces D N 

where  is a topological invariant of the graph, called its Euler characteristics, see
Sect. 1.1.3.
It should now be clear to the reader that this is something general. The fact that
the power of N is a topological invariant, first discovered in 1974 by the physics
Nobel prize Gerard t Hooft [48], is the origin of the name topological expansion.
Wicks theorem ensures that each term in the expectation value corresponds to
one way of gluing vertices by their edges, and the sum over indices coming from
the traces ensures that the total power of N for each graph is precisely its Euler
2.2 Wicks Theorem and Combinatorics 35

characteristics, which we summarize as:

Y
m X
< .N Tr M pk / >0 D N .G/ t#edges
kD1 labeled Fat Graphs G

where the sum is over the set of (labeled) oriented fat graphs having vertices of
valence p1 ; : : : ; pm obtained by gluing together half edges.
One should make some remarks:
the graphs in that sum maybe disconnected.
several graphs may be topologically equivalent in the sum, i.e. if we remove the
labelling of indices. The order of the group of relabellings is (see Sect. 1.1.4):

Y
m Y
pk .#fpij pi D pg/
kD1 p

indeed, at each vertex of valence pk one can make pk rotations of the indices, and
if several vertices have the same valence they can be permuted.
Therefore, it is better to rewrite:

Ym
1 N X 1
< . Tr M k /nk >0 D N .G/ t#edges (2.2.6)
kD1
n k k Fat Graphs G
#Aut.G/

where now the sum is over non-topologically equivalent fat graphs made with nk
k-valent vertices, and (using again the orbit-stabilizer Theorem 1.1.2) #Aut.G/ is
the number of automorphisms of the graph G.

2.2.2.2 From Graphs to Maps

Instead of summing over fatgraphs, let us sum over their duals, using the obvious
bijection between a graph and its dual. The dual of a k-valent vertex is a k-gon:

Gluing together vertices by their half-edges is equivalent to gluing (oriented)

polygons together by their sides, and thus we obtain a map. Equation (2.2.6) can
36 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

thus be rewritten:

Ym
1 N X t#edges#faces
< . Tr M k /nk >0 D N ./
kD1
n k kt Maps
#Aut./

where now the sum is over maps made with nk k-gons, and #Aut./ is the number
of automorphisms of the map . In the duality graph G $ map , we have:
vertices of G $ faces of
edges of G $ edges of
faces of G $ vertices of
Notice that the Euler characteristics of a graph and its dual is the same. The
Euler-Characteristics is

 D #vertices  #edges C #faces

so that the power of t is:

t#vertices :

All this can be rephrased as the following theorem due to Brezin-Itzykson-Parisi-

Zuber in 1978 [74]:
Theorem 2.2.2 (BIPZ 1978) A Gaussian expectation value of a polynomial
moment of a Gaussian random matrix M with measure d0 is a finite weighted
sum of maps:

Ym
1 N X t#vertices./  N ./
< . Tr M k /nk >0 D (2.2.7)
n kt
kD1 k Maps
#Aut./ t

where the sum is over all maps (not necessarily connected) having exactly m faces,
with given degrees nk , k D 1; : : : ; m. The fact that the power of N is the Euler
characteristics ./ is t Hoofts discovery in 1974 [48].
As we have seen above, this theorem is a mere consequence of Wicks theorem,
applied to matrix Gaussian random variables.
2.3 Generating Functions of Maps and Matrix Integrals 37

2.3 Generating Functions of Maps and Matrix Integrals

2.3.1 Generating Functions for Closed Maps

Theorem 2.2.2 implies that the generating function ZN of Eq. (1.2.5), which counts
non connected maps, is nothing but the formal integral:
Proposition 2.3.1 (BIPZ [74])
Z
M2
dM eN Tr 2t e t Tr . 3 M C 4 M C::: d M /
N t3 3 t4 4 td d
ZN .tI t3 ; t4 ; : : : ; td / D
formal

X  ./ #vertices./
N n ./ n ./ n ./ t
D t33 t44 : : : tdd
n:c: closed maps
t #Aut./

where again, formal integral means that we Taylor expand the exponentials of all
non quadratic terms, and exchange the Taylor series and the integration. In other
words, we perform a formal small t (or equivalently small t3 ; t4 ; : : : ; td ) asymptotic
expansion, and order by order we get the number of corresponding maps. The
coefficient of tj is the finite sum over (n.c. = non-connected) closed maps such that
1 P
2 i .i  2/ni D j D #vertices  .

2.3.1.1 Connected Maps

When we have a formal generating series counting disconnected objects multiplica-

tively, it is well known (see [46]) that the logarithm is the generating function which
counts only the connected objects, i.e. it is the generating function of Eq. (1.2.5):

ln .ZN .tI t3 ; t4 ; : : : ; nd //
D F.tI t3 ; t4 ; : : : ; nd I N/
X  22g./ #vertices
N n ./ n ./ n ./ t
D t33 t44 : : : tdd :
closed connected maps
t #Aut./

Again, the coefficient of tj is the finite sum of connected closed maps such that
1 P
2 i .i  2/ni D j D #vertices  . And the Euler characteristics of a connected
map is  D 2  2g where g is the genus.
38 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

2.3.1.2 Topological Expansion: Maps of Given Genus

We thus see, that order by order in the small t expansion, the coefficients of tj
in N 2 F are polynomials of N 2 , and thus we can define generating series of
coefficients of a given power of N 2g , we define:
1  22g
X N
FD Fg ; Fg 2 Qt3 ; : : : ; td t
gD0
t

where again we emphasize that this is an equality of formal series in powers of t,

and order by order, the sum over g is finite, and the coefficients are polynomials in
N 2 . Fg is obtained by collecting the coefficients of N 2g , and its computation does
not involve any large N expansion.
We recognize the generating function of connected closed maps of genus g, of
Definition 1.2.4:
X X n ./ n4 ./ n ./ 1
Fg .tI t3 ; t4 ; : : : ; td / D tv t33 t4 : : : tdd :
v .g/
#Aut./
2M0 .v/

2.4 Maps with Boundaries or Marked Faces

2.4.1 One Boundary

So far, we have seen how formal matrix integrals, thanks to Wicks theorem, are
counting closed maps where all polygons play similar roles. Now let us count maps
with some marked faces.
Consider the following formal matrix integral:
R M2 Tr .
t3 3 t4 4 td
Md /
3 M C 4 M C::: d
N
dM Tr M l eN Tr 2t et
< Tr M > D
l formal
R M2
: (2.4.1)
Tr . Md /
N t3 3 t4 4 td

formal dM eN Tr 2t et 3 M C 4 M C::: d

The bracket < : > now denotes expectation value with respect to the formal measure
2
e t Tr . 3 M C 4 M C::: d M / dM, whereas in the previous section < : >0
t3 3 t4 4 td d
1 N Tr M2t N
Z
e
1 M2
meant the expectation value with respect to the gaussian measure Z0
eN Tr 2t dM.
2.4 Maps with Boundaries or Marked Faces 39

The numerator in Eq. (2.4.1) is

Z
M2
Tr . M4 C::: dd Md /
t3 t4 t
N
M3 C
dM Tr M l eN Tr 2t et 3 4
formal
X N n3 t3n3 N n4 t4n4 N nd tdnd 1
D : : : P
n3 ;:::;nd
3n3 n3 4n4 n4 dnd nd t nj
Z
. Tr M l / . Tr M 3 /n3 . Tr M 4 /n4 : : : . Tr M d /nd d0 .M/
HN

i.e. each term is a Gaussian expectation value of a polynomial in M, it can be

computed using Wicks theorem, and it gives a sum over all maps (in fact ribbon
graphs dual to maps) with n3 triangles, n4 squares, . . . , nd d-gons, and one marked
l-gon. The sum may include non connected maps, and the role of the denominator
in Eq. (2.4.1) is precisely to kill all non-connected maps (see Sect. 1.2.5 in Chap. 1).
There should be a symmetry factor 1=#Aut./ counting automorphisms which
preserve the marked face, and since there is no factor 1l in front of Tr M l , we get
l times the number of maps with no marked edge on the marked face, i.e. we get
the number of maps with one marked edge on the marked face. Since there is no N
accompanying the Tr M l , the power of N is   1 D 2  2g  1 which is the Euler
characteristic of a surface with one boundary. Therefore we recognize the generating
function Tl of Eq. (1.2.2) in Chap. 1:

< Tr M l > D Tl
X  12g #vertices
N n ./ n ./ n ./ t
D t33 t44 : : : tdd
maps with 1 boundary of length l
t #Aut./

D  Res xl W1 .x/ dx:

x!1

2.4.2 Several Boundaries

The previous paragraph can be immediately generalized to:

< Tr M l1 Tr M l2 : : : Tr M lk >
Z
1 M2
dM Tr M l1 Tr M l2 : : : Tr M lk eN Tr 2 eN Tr . 3 M C 4 M C::: d M /
t3 3 t4 4 td d
D
Z formal
1 
D T (2.4.2)
Z l1 ;:::;lk
40 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

where Tl1;:::;lk is the generating function of not necessarily connected maps with k
boundaries of lengths l1 ; : : : ; lk of all genus.
One obtains connected maps by computing cumulants (see Sect. 1.2.5 of
Chap. 1), for instance:

< Tr M l1 Tr M l2 >c D< Tr M l1 Tr M l2 >  < Tr M l1 > < Tr M l2 > :

And thus the cumulants compute connected maps with k boundaries of lengths
l1 ; : : : ; lk :

Tl1 ;:::;lk
D < Tr M l1 Tr M l2 : : : Tr M lk >c
X  22gk #vertices
N n ./ n ./ n ./ t
D t33 t44 : : : tdd :
with k boundaries of length l ;:::;l
t #Aut./
1 k

2.4.3 Topological Expansion for Bounded Maps of Given

Genus

The Euler characteristics of a connected surface of genus g with k boundaries is:

 D 2  2g  k:

Therefore we have:
1
X  22gk
.g/ N
< Tr M Tr M : : : Tr M
l1 l2 lk
>c D Tl1 ;:::;lk (2.4.3)
gD0
t

.g/
where Tl1 ;:::;lk is the generating function defined in Chap. 1, Eq. (1.2.2), which counts
connected maps of genus g, with k boundaries of lengths l1 ; : : : ; lk .
Once more we emphasize that this equality holds term by term in the powers of
t, and for each power, the sum over g is finite, i.e. both left hand side and right hand
side are Laurent polynomials in N.
In other words, Eq. (2.4.3) is not a large N expansion, it is a small t expansion.
2.5 Loop Equations = Tutte Equations 41

2.4.4 Resolvents

We define the resolvent:

X1 X1  
1 Ml
W1 .x/ D Tl D Tr lC1
lD0
xlC1 lD1
x

and conversely:

Tl D  Res xl W1 .x/ dx:

x!1

Very often (in particular in physicists literature), the resolvent is written:

1
W1 .x/ D < Tr >
xM
which holds in the formal sense, i.e. to each given power of t, the sum over l is finite
and each coefficient in the small t or tj s expansion is a polynomial in 1=x.
More generally:
1
X 1
Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk / D l1 C1
Tl1 ;:::;lk
l1 ;:::;lk D0 x1 : : : xklk C1
1
* +
X M l1 M lk
D Tr : : : Tr
l1 ;:::;lk D0 xl11 C1 xklk C1 c
 
1 1
D Tr : : : Tr
x1  M xk  M c

X N  22gk
.g/
D Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk /: (2.4.4)
g
t

.g/
The Wk are the same as those of Definition 1.2.2 in Chap. 1.

2.5 Loop Equations = Tutte Equations

In this section, we derive a matrix-model proof of Tuttes equation of Chap. 1. In

the matrix model framework, those equations were called loop equations by A.
Migdal who introduced them in [64].
42 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

Loop equations merely arise from the fact that an integral is invariant under a
change of variable (which is called SchwingerDyson equations), or alternatively
from integration by parts.
Although loop equations are equivalent to Tuttes equations, it is often easier
to integrate by parts in a matrix integral, than finding bijections between sets of
maps, and it is much faster to derive loop equations from matrix models than from
combinatorics.
Q
Consider an expectation value of monomial G.M/ of total degree l D l1 C  Clk :
R
Q
dM G.M/
N
e t Tr V.M/ Y
k
Q
< G.M/ >D R ; Q
G.M/ D Tr M lj
dM e t Tr V.M/
N
jD1

R
where can mean either the formal matrix integral (i.e., to any order in t, a finite
sum of Gaussian integrals) or the convergent matrix integral (both formal and
convergent matrix integrals are going to satisfy the same loop equations).
We shall derive a recursion relation on the degrees l D .l1 ; : : : ; lk /.
The method is called loop equations, and it is nothing but integration by parts.
It is based on the observation that the integral of a total derivative vanishes, and
thus,Qif G.M/ is any matrix valued polynomial function of M (for instance G.M/ D
k
M l1 lj
jD2 Tr M ), we have:

XZ @  N

0D dM .G.M//ij e t Tr V.M/
i<j
@ReMi;j
XZ @  N

i dM .G.M//ij e t Tr V.M/
i<j
@ImMi;j

N Z
X @  N

C dM .G.M//ii e t Tr V.M/ : (2.5.1)
iD1
@Mi;i

Choosing

Y
k
G.M/ D M l1 Tr M lj
jD2

and after computing the derivatives we get:

1 1
lX Y
k X
k Y
k
< Tr M j Tr M l1 1j Tr M li > C lj < Tr M lj Cl1 1 Tr M li >
jD0 iD2 jD2 iD2;ij

N Yk
D < Tr .M l1 V 0 .M// Tr M li > : (2.5.2)
t iD2
2.5 Loop Equations = Tutte Equations 43

Remark 2.5.1 Again, we emphasize that this equation is valid for both convergent
matrix integrals and formal matrix integrals, indeed it is valid for Gaussian integrals,
and thus for any finite linear combination of Gaussian integrals, i.e. formal integrals.
In case of formal integrals, those equations are valid, of course, only order by order
in t. In other words the loop equations are independent of the order of the integral
and the Taylor series expansion.
Using the notations of Eq. (2.4.3), we may rewrite the loop equation (2.5.2):
Theorem 2.5.1 Loop equations 8g:
Pl1 1 h Pg P .h/ .gh/ .g1/
i P
.g/
jD0 hD0 JL Tj;J Tl1 1j;L=J C Tj;l1 1j;L C kjD2 lj Tlj Cl1 1;L=f jg
.g/ Pd .g/
D Tl1 C1;L  jD3 tj Tl1 Cj1;L
(2.5.3)
where we denote collectively L D fl2 ; : : : ; lk g.
Loop equations coincide with Tutte equations (1.3.2) of Chap. 1.
.g/
We recall that Tl1 ;l2 ;:::;lk is the generating function that counts the number of
connected maps of genus g with k boundaries of perimeters l1 ; : : : ; lk , and therefore
we have rederived the generalized Tutte equation (1.3.2) of Chap. 1.
It is interesting to rewrite the loop equations of Eq. (2.5.3) in terms of resolvents
.g/ Q
Wk s defined in Eq. (2.4.4). We merely multiply Eq. (2.5.3) by kiD1 1=xlii C1 and
sum over l1 ; : : : ; lk (to any given power of t, the sum is finite).
Theorem 2.5.2 Loop equations. For any k and g, and L D fx2 ; : : : ; xk g, we have:

X
g
X .h/ .gh/ .g1/
W1CjJj .x1 ; J/WkjJj .x1 ; L n J/ C WkC1 .x1 ; x1 ; L/
hD0 JL

Xk .g/ .g/
@ Wk1 .x1 ; L n fxj g/  Wk1 .L/
C
jD2
@xj x1  xj

.g/ .g/
D V 0 .x1 /Wk .x1 ; L/  Pk .x1 ; L/ (2.5.4)

.g/ .0/
where Pk .x1 ; L/ is a polynomial in x1 , of degree d3 (except P1 which is of degree
d  2):

1 .g/
.g/
X
d1 X
j1
X Tj1i;l2 ;:::;lk
Pk .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk / D  tjC1 xi1 C t g;0 k;1 :
jD2 iD0 l2 ;:::;lk D1 xl22 C1 : : : xlkk C1
44 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

Proof Indeed, if we expand both sides of Eq. (2.5.4) in powers of x1 ! 1, and

identify the coefficients on both side, we find that the negative powers of x1 give
precisely the loop equations (2.5.3), whereas the coefficients of positive powers of x1
.g/ .g/
cancel due to the definition of Pk , which is exactly the positive part of V 0 .x1 /Wk :
 
.g/ .g/
Pk .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk / D V 0 .x1 / Wk .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk /
Cx1

where .:/Cx1 means that we keep only the polynomial part, i.e. the positive part of
the Laurent series at x1 ! 1. 

2.6 Loop Equations and Virasoro Constraints

We have seen two derivations of the loop equations. One combinatorial proof in
Chap. 1, based on Tuttes method, corresponding to recursively removing a marked
edge, and one proof based on integration by parts in the formal matrix integral in
Chap. 2. However, there exist other possible derivations, of which we shall only give
a heuristic idea here.
In particular, in string theory and quantum gravity, it is known that partition
functions must satisfy Virasoro constraints. Here, we show how to rewrite the loop
equations for generating functions of maps, as Virasoro constraints.
We write the potential:
1
X tj
V.x/ D  xj :
jD1
j

In the end, we will be interested in t1 D 0; t2 D 1 and tj D 0 if j > d.

It is easy to see from the definitions of our generating functions, and particularly
on the formal matrix integral, that:

.g/ @Fg .g/ @2 Fg

Tj Dj C tj;0 g;0 ; Tj1 ;j2 D j1 j2 :
@tj @tj1 @tj2

If we sum over g we have

X
FD .N=t/22g Fg
g

and thus
X .g/ t @F
Tj D .N=t/12g Tj D j C Nj;0
g
N @tj
2.6 Loop Equations and Virasoro Constraints 45

X .g/ t2 @2 F
Tj1 ;j2 D .N=t/2g Tj1 ;j2 D j1 j2 :
g
N2 @tj1 @tj2

The Tuttes equations (2.5.3) can be rewritten for any k  1:

1
N X X k
0D tj TkCj C .Tk0 Tkk0 C Tk0 ;kk0 /
t jD1 0 k D0

which can be rewritten for k  2:

X1  
t2 X 0
k1
@F @F @F @2 F @F
0D .k C j/ tj C 2 k .k  k0 / C C 2t k :
@tkCj N 0
@tk 0 @tkk0 @tk 0 @tkk0 @tk
jD1 k D1

For k D 1; 0; 1 it reads:
1
X @F @F
0D . j C 1/ tj C 2t
jD1
@tjC1 @t1
1
X @F
0D j tj C N2
jD1
@tj
1
N2 X @F
0 D t1 C . j  1/ tj :
t jD2
@tj1

Notice that if we write Z D eF we have

@F @F @2 F 1 @2
C D Z
@tk0 @tkk0 @tk0 @tkk0 Z @tk0 @tkk0

and thus for k  2 the quadratic differential equation satisfied by F implies a linear
differential equation satisfied by Z:
0 1
1
X 2 X
k1 2
@ t @ @
0 D @ .k C j/ tj C 2 k0 .k  k0 / C 2t k AZ
@tkCj N 0
@tk 0 @tkk0 @tk
jD1 k D1

and we have similar expressions for k D 1; 0; 1.

46 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

2.6.1 Virasoro-Witt Generators

In order to appropriately take into account the special cases k D 1; 0; 1, it is

convenient to introduce another time t0 and define:
Definition 2.6.1 We define the Virasoro-Witt generators Lk for k  1 as:
For k  2:

1
t2 X X
k1
@ @ t2 @ @ @
Lk D 2
j .k  j/ C 2 2
k C .k C j/ tj ;
N jD1 @tj @tkj N @tk @t0 jD1
@tkCj

and for k D 1; 0; 1:

X 1
t2 @ @ @
L1 D 2 2
C . j C 1/ tj ;
N @t1 @t0 jD1
@tjC1

X 1
t2 @ @ @
L0 D 2
C j tj ;
N @t0 @t0 jD1
@tj

X 1
@ @
L1 D t1 C j tjC1 :
@t0 jD1
@t j

The differential operators Lk form a representation of the Witt algebra (the

positive part of a Virasoro algebra), indeed one easily verifies that they satisfy the
Virasoro-Witt commutation relation:

Lk ; Lj  D .k  j/LkCj :

In particular, L1 ; L0 ; L1 form a representation of the SU.2/ algebra:

L0 ; L1  D
L1 ; L1 ; L1  D 2 L0 :

2.6.2 Generating Series of Virasoro-Witt Generators

It is convenient to introduce generating series:

Definition 2.6.2 The stress-energy tensor T.x/ is defined as
1
X Lk
T.x/ D kC2
:
kD1
x
2.6 Loop Equations and Virasoro Constraints 47

and the loop insertion operator is defined as

1
X 1 @
@
D.x/ D ln x  :
@t0 kD1 xk @tk

(The names come from the physics literature). The loop insertion operator is called
so, because it inserts boundaries, indeed we have:

X
n
D0 .x1 / : : : D0 .xn / : ln Z D .N=t/22gn Wn.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xn /:
gD0

Those operators satisfy the following algebra:

Proposition 2.6.1 The Virasoro commutation relations can be rewritten as
 
T.x/  T.y/ T 0 .x/ C T 0 .y/ @ @ T.x/  T.y/
T.x/; T.y/ D 2 2
C D  :
.x  y/ xy @x @y xy

We also have

D0 .x/  D0 .y/
T.x/; D.y/ D  :
xy
1
V 0 .x/; D.y/ D :
yx

In addition we have that

t2 0 2  0
T.x/ D 2
D .x/ C V .x/ D0 .x/ 
N

where the subscript ./ means that we compute the large x expansion and keep only
negative powers of x.

2.6.3 Maps and Virasoro Constraints

Then we have (almost by definition of the Lk s):

Proposition 2.6.2 The Tuttes equations imply that Z is anihilated by the Virasoro
Witt generators:

N2
8k  1 ; Lk : et0 t Z D 0: (2.6.1)
48 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

In terms of T.x/ we have that the Virasoro stress energy tensor T.x/ anihilates the
partition function:
 
N2
8x ; T.x/: et0 t Z D 0:

Remark 2.6.1 As usual, all summations are to be understood as formal power series
in powers of t, they are in general not convergent.
The Virasoro algebra method has been extensively used by physicists, but we
shall not pursue in that direction in this book, we refer the reader to [4042, 54].
Let us mention two important properties of the Virasoro equations:
An important property, is that Eq. (2.6.1) is a linear equation for Z, and thus,
linear combinations of solutions are also solutions. In particular, convergent
matrix integrals are also solutions of the same Virasoro constraints. In fact the
set of all solutions of Virasoro constraints (i.e. a vector space), is in bijection
with the homology space of matrix ensembles on which a matrix integral can be
absolutely convergent.
Alexandrov-Mironov-Morozov in 2004 [3], used the fact that the stress energy
tensor T.x/ should be analytical. This allows to consider contour integrals:
I  2

t0 Nt
0D dx D.x1 / : : : D.xn / T.x/: e Z ;
C

and move the integration contour C to the poles. Using this method, Alexandrov-
Mironov-Morozov recovered Theorem 3.3.1 the solution presented in Chap. 3.

2.7 Summary Maps and Matrix Integrals

Let us summarize the concepts introduced in this chapter:

R
Formal integral formal means that we exchange the order of the integral and the
Taylor expansion of the exponentials of the tk s.
Z
M 2 X tj j
d
e t
N
ZN D Tr V.M/
dM ; with V.M/ D  M
formal 2 jD3
j
0 1k
X1 Z Xd
Nk @
tj j M2
M A e t Tr 2 dM
N
D k
kD0
t k HN jD3 j

2 Qt3 ; : : : ; td ; N 2 ; N 2 t:
2.7 Summary Maps and Matrix Integrals 49

.g/
M0 .v/ D finite set of connected maps of genus g and no boundary, with v
vertices, obtained by gluing n3 triangles, n4 squares, n5 pentagons,. . . , nd d-gons.
Generating function:
1  22g
X N
ln ZN D Fg
gD0
t
1
X X X n ./ n4 ./ n ./
t33 t4 : : : tdd
D tj N 22g
jD0 vC2g2Dj .g/
#Aut./
2M0 .v/

We also denote:
.g/
Fg D W0 :

.g/
Mk .v/ D connected maps of genus g with v vertices, obtained by gluing n3
triangles, n4 squares, n5 pentagons, and k boundaries of length l1 ; : : : ; lk .
Generating function:

< Tr M l1 Tr M l2 : : : Tr M lk >c
1
X X X n ./ n4 ./ n ./
22gk t33 t4 : : : tdd
D t j
N
jD0 vC2gCk2Dj .g/
#Aut./
2Mk .v/;Dfl1 ;:::;lk g

X  N 22gk .g/
D Tl1 ;:::;lk :
g
t

Resolvents for connected maps of genus g and with k boundaries.

Generating function:

Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk /
X  N 22gk .g/
D Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk /
g
t

1 1
D < Tr : : : Tr >c
x1  M xk  M

1
X X X t3n3 t4n4 : : : tdnd 1
D tj N 22gk :
jD0 vC2gCk2Dj xl1 C1 : : : xlkk C1
2Mg;k .v/ 1
#Aut./
50 2 Formal Matrix Integrals

Loop equations (Tuttes equations):

1 1 h X
lX g
X i Xk
.h/ .gh/ .g1/ .g/
Tj;J Tl1 1j;L=J C Tj;l1 1j;L C lj Tlj Cl1 1;L=f jg
jD0 hD0 JL jD2

.g/
X
d
.g/
D Tl1 C1;L  tj Tl1 Cj1;L
jD3

where L D fl2 ; : : : ; lk g. Equivalently, the loop equations can be written in terms

.g/
of Wk s and with L D fx2 ; : : : ; xk g:

X
g X
.h/ .gh/ .g1/
W1CjJj .x1 ; J/WkjJj .x1 ; L n J/ C WkC1 .x1 ; x1 ; L/
hD0 JL

Xk .g/ .g/
@ Wk1 .x1 ; L n fxj g/  Wk1 .L/
C
jD2
@xj x1  xj
.g/ .g/
D V 0 .x1 /Wk .x1 ; L/  Pk .x1 ; L/

.g/ .g/
where L D fx2 ; : : : ; xk g, and Pk .x1 ; L/ D Polx1 V 0 .x1 / Wk .x1 ; L/ is a
.0/
polynomial in the variable x1 , of degree d  3, except P1 which is of degree
d  2.

2.8 Exercises

Exercise 1 For the quartic formal matrix integral

Z  2
1 N M2 t4 M 4 Nt4 1 Nt4
ZD dM e t Tr 2  4 D 1C tr M 4 0 C . tr M 4 /2 0 C O.t43 /
Z0 formal 4t 2 4t

using Wicks theorem, recover the generating function of quadrangulations to the

first orders

t4 t2
ln Z D F D .2N 2 C 1/ C 4 .9N 2 C 15/ C O.t43 /:
4 8
Exercise 2 Prove that with any potential:

t
< Tr V 0 .M/ >D 0 ; < Tr MV 0 .M/ >D t2 :
N
Hint: this is a loop equation, use integration by parts.
2.8 Exercises 51

M2 M4
Exercise 3 Prove that for quadrangulations (i.e. with V.M/ D 2
 t4 4
):

@F Nt4
D 2 T4 :
@t 4t

Answer: hint: use Exercise 2, and dont forget the t dependance of the normal-
ization factor Z0 in Eq. (2.2.5).
Chapter 3
Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

In this chapter, we solve the loop equations (Tuttes equations), we compute

explicitly the generating functions counting maps of given genus and boundaries.
We are first going to solve them for planar maps with one boundary (the disk,
i.e. planar rooted maps), then two boundaries (the cylinder), and then arbitrary
genus and arbitrary number of boundaries. The disk case (planar rooted maps) was
already done by Tutte [8385]. Generating functions for higher topologies have been
computed more recently [5, 31].
In this chapter, we shall show that, surprisingly, the first two cases (disk and
cylinder) are in fact more irregular than the general case. This is a general feature
in enumerative geometry of Riemann surfaces: unstable surfaces with Euler
characteristics

0

are more irregular than stable surfaces ( < 0).

There is a deep algebraic geometry reason to that, because stable Riemann
surfaces have a finite group of automorphims, and the volume of their moduli space
is well-defined, whereas unstable surfaces have an infinite group of automorphisms
(called zero modes) and need to be renormalized, see Chap. 5. Physicists would
say that sums over unstable surfaces   0 involve zero modes, whereas stable
surfaces  < 0 have no zero modes.
The main concepts presented in this chapter are:
The disk amplitude, i.e. the generating function of planar rooted maps with one
marked face, is algebraic. This defines an algebraic curve of genus zero, we call
it the spectral curve.
The cylinder amplitude, i.e. the generating function of planar maps with two
boundaries, is universal, it is independent of the tk s, independent of the type of
maps. It is related to a geometric object of the spectral curve: its fundamental
second kind differential.

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 53

B. Eynard, Counting Surfaces, Progress in Mathematical Physics 70,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7643-8797-6_3
54 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

Once we know the disk and cylinder amplitude, then all the higher topology
amplitudes can be computed by a universal recursion relation called the topo-
logical recursion. The topological recursion is the same for all types of maps, it
works also for Ising model maps of Chap. 8, and it works for Kontsevich graphs
of Chap. 6. The Chap. 7 is entirely devoted to the mathematical properties of the
topological recursion.

3.1 Disk Amplitude

Disks are planar (g D 0) maps with one boundary (k D 1), or also rooted maps
(see Sect. 1.2.6). The generating function of disks i.e. planar rooted maps satisfies
the loop equation (2.5.3) of Chap. 2, i.e. Tuttes equation (1.3.1) of Chap. 1:

X
l1
.0/ .0/ .0/
X
d
.0/ .0/
Tj Tl1j D TlC1  tj TlCj1 ; T0 Dt (3.1.1)
jD0 jD3

.0/
where Tl is the generating series of planar maps (g D 0) with one boundary
(k D 1) of perimeter l:
1
X X
.0/ n ./ n ./
Tl D t l;0 C tv t33 : : : tdd :
vD2 .0/
2M1 .v/; l1 ./Dl

3.1.1 Solving Tuttes Equation

It is more convenient to rewrite Tuttes equation (3.1.1) in terms of the resolvent

.0/
W1 (see Definition 1.2.2 of Chap. 2):

1
.0/ t X 1 .0/
W1 .x/ D C T
lC1 l
x lD1
x

.0/
and Tuttes equation can be written as Eq. (2.5.4) for W1 :
 2
.0/ .0/ .0/
W1 .x/ D V 0 .x/W1 .x/  P1 .x/ (3.1.2)

where we recall that:

X
d
.0/
X
d X
j2
.0/
V 0 .x/ D x  tj xj1 ; P1 .x/ D t  tj Tjl2 xl
jD3 jD3 lD0
3.1 Disk Amplitude 55

.0/
P1 .x/ is a polynomial in x of degree d  2, we have:
 
.0/ .0/
P1 .x/ D V 0 .x/ W1 .x/
C

where C means the positive part of the Laurent series at 1, indeed, the left hand
side of Eq. (3.1.2) tends towards zero at 1.
Equation (3.1.2) is called the spectral curve, we will develop the notion of
spectral curves in Chap. 7.
Solving the second degree equation (3.1.2), yields:
 q 
.0/ 1 0 0 2 .0/
W1 .x/ D V .x/  V .x/  4P1 .x/ :
2

.0/
In other words, if we knew how to determine the polynomial P1 , i.e. the coefficients
.0/ .0/ .0/ .0/
T1 ; : : : ; Td2 , then we would have determined W1 , i.e. Tl for every l. We do it
below.

3.1.2 A Useful Lemma

.0/
The following lemma allows to determine the polynomial P1 . It is very useful,
and it is known under various names in the combinatorics or physics literature. In
combinatorics it is more or less equivalent to Browns lemma [20], and in physics
it is called the 1-cut assumption (although it is not an assumption, it is proved)
[32, 40].
.0/
Lemma 3.1.1 (1-Cut Browns Lemma) The polynomial V 0 .x/2 4P1 .x/ has only
one pair of simple zeros, all the other zeros are even. More precisely, there exist ,
2 and M.x/ which are formal power series in t, and M.x/ is a polynomial of x

2 Qt3 ; : : : ; td t ; 2 2 Qt3 ; : : : ; td t ; M.x/ 2 Qx; t3 ; : : : ; td t

satisfying:

V 0 .x/
D O.t/ ; 2 D t C O.t2 / ; M.x/ D C O.t/
x
and
.0/
V 0 .x/2  4P1 .x/ D .M.x//2 .x  a/.x  b/
p
with a D C 2 , b D  2 , i.e. a; b 2 Qt3 ; : : : ; td  t.
56 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

The meaning of this lemma will become clearer in Chap. 4, where we discuss
solutions of loop equations which do not satisfy this Lemma. As we shall see below,
.0/
this lemma determines the polynomial P1 uniquely.
.0/ .0/
Proof We have T0 D t, and if l  1, recall that Tl counts maps

1
X X
.0/ n ./ n ./
Tl D t l;0 C tv t33 : : : tdd
vD2 .0/
2M1 .v/; l1 ./Dl

where v is the number of vertices of the maps. Since our maps are disks, i.e. g D 0
and k D 1 boundary, the Euler characteristics constraint Eq. (1.2.1) implies (we
have l  1):

1X
d
l
v D1C C . j  2/ nj  2 (3.1.3)
2 2 jD3

.0/ .0/
i.e. Tl is a power series that starts as O.t2 / for l  1. Therefore P1 .x/ vanishes at
t D 0, it is a power series in t which starts at order 1 in t:

.0/
X
d
V 0 .x/
P1 .x/ D t.1  tj xj2 / C O.t2 / D t C O.t2 /:
jD3
x

p .0/
This implies that, to leading order in t, V 0 .x/2  4P1 .x/ is a perfect square,
0
its zeros are double zeros close to the zeros of V , they are of the form (here, for
simplicity, we assume that V 00 .Xi / 0):
q
.0/
P1 .Xi / p
 Xi 2 C o. t/ ; V 0 .Xi / D 0 ; i D 1; : : : ; deg V 0
V 00 .Xi /
p .0/
and they are formal power series in t. In other words, the zeros of V 0 .x/2 4P1 .x/
centered around the zeros Xi of V 0 .x/, and their distance to Xi
come by pairs ai ; bi  p
is of order at most O. t/.
In particular, notice that one of the zeros of V 0 .x/, is X1 D 0, and we have
.0/
V .0/ D 1, and P1 .0/ D tV 00 .0/ C O.t2 /, thus:
00

p p p p
a1  2 t C o. t/ ; b1  2 t C o. t/

.0/
And for the other zeros of V 0 , we have 8 i D 2; : : : ; deg V 0 , P1 .Xi / D 0 C O.t2 /
thus:

ai  Xi C O.t/ ; bi  Xi C O.t/:
3.1 Disk Amplitude 57

.0/
Then, recall that for given v, M1 .v/ is a finite set (see Theorem 1.2.1 in Chap. 1),
and thus, there is a maximum perimeter l  2v  1 [see Eq. (3.1.3)]. In other words,
.0/
W1 .x/ is, order by order in t, a polynomial in 1=x (of degree at most 2v), and we
have:
1 2v1
.0/ t X v X Cv;l
W1 .x/ D C t
x vD2 lD1 xlC1

with some coefficients Cv;l 2 Qt3 ; : : : ; td . This implies that

I

1 .0/ t if C encircles 0
W1 .x/dx D : (3.1.4)
2i C 0 otherwise

This equality holds for any positive oriented closed contour C in the complex plane,
order by order in t.
Assume that ai bi , and thus there exists mi  0 and Ci 0 such that

ai  bi D Ci tmi C1=2 .1 C O.t//:

Choose a contour C (independent of t), which surrounds the zero Xi 0 of V 0 .x/,

0 2
then, order by order in t, the contour C surrounds the pair ai ; bq
i  of zeros of V .x/ 
.0/ H .0/
4P1 .x/. One easily computes that the contour integral C V 0 .x/2  4P1 .x/dx
00
behaves like i V 4.Xi / Ci2 t2mi C1 .1 C O.t// at small t, thus it does not vanish.1
Another way to see it, is that
p  
p Xi  a i .Xi  ai /2 2
x  a i D x  Xi 1 C  C o..Xi  ai / /
2 .x  Xi / 8 .x  Xi /2
and thus
p  
2Xi  ai  bi .ai  bi /2 2
.x  ai /.x  bi / D .x  Xi / 1 C  C o..Xi  ai //
2 .x  Xi / 8 .x  Xi /2
.0/
and if .ai  bi /2 would be non-zero to a certain order in t, W1 would not be, to that
order, a polynomial in 1=x, it would have a pole at x D Xi .
This shows that the assumption ai bi was wrong and therefore this proves that
.0/
if i 1 we must have ai D bi to all orders in t. Therefore V 0 .x/2  4P1 .x/ has only
one pair a1 ; b1  of simple zeros, all the others come by pairs:
.0/
V 0 .x/2  4P1 .x/ D M.x/2 .x  a1 /.x  b1 /:

We have proved the Lemma. 

1
For simplicity, we assume that V 00 .Xi / 0. The lemma remains true when V 00 .Xi / D 0 but for
the proof, one needs to go further in the Taylor expansion. . .
58 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

.ab/2
Notice that D aCb 2 and 2 D are formal power series of t (whereas a
p 16
and b are power series of t).
Remark 3.1.1 In Chap. 4, we are going to consider a situation where this lemma
.0/
does not hold, i.e. we will have more odd zeros of V 0 .x/2  4P1 .x/ centered around
0
the other zeros of V . That situation is called multi-cut solution of loop equations.
In Chap. 4, we are going to see what is the combinatorics meaning of solutions of
loop equations for which this lemma is not valid.

3.1.3 1-Cut Solution, Zhukovskys Variable

Therefore, the solution of loop equation (3.1.2), is:

.0/ 1 0 p 
W1 .x/ D V .x/  M.x/ .x  a/.x  b/ (3.1.5)
2
with

X
d
V 0 .x/
0
V .x/ D x  tj xj1 ; M.x/ D C O.t/
jD3
x
p p p p
a D 2 t C o. t/ ; b D 2 t C o. t/:

It remains to compute explicitly M.x/ as well as a and b.

3.1.3.1 Zhukovskys Variable

In that purpose, instead of x, it is more convenient to use another more appropriate

variable of expansion z, with the help of Zhukovskys transformation:
 
aCb ab 1
x.z/ D C zC
2 4 z
p
which has the property that .x  a/.x  b/ is a rational function of z:

p  
ab 1
.x.z/  a/.x.z/  b/ D z
4 z

.0/
and thus W1 .x.z// is a rational function of z.
Zhukovskys transformation maps the xplane cut along the segment b; a to the
exterior of the unit disk in the zplane, and the points a; b to 1; 1. It maps 1 to 1,
3.1 Disk Amplitude 59

and the other sheet of the xplane is mapped to the interior of the unit disk:

x z

b a
1 1

Zhukovsky was a discoverer of the aerodynamics of wings, and he invented that map
in order to transform conformally an infinitely thin wing profile (the segment b; a),
into a circular wing profile (the circle jzj D 1), for which equations of aerodynamics
are much easier to solve.
The inverse relation between x and z is
1  p 
zD x  C .x  /2  4 2
2

where D aCb
2
and D ab
4
. Its large x expansion is
1
x X .2n/
zD  Cn ..x  /= /2n1 ; Cn D
nD0
n .n C 1/

z as a function of x, can be seen as the generating function for Catalan numbers Cn .

3.1.3.2 Solution with Zhukovskys Variable

.0/
In Zhukovskys variable z, it is clear from Eq. (3.1.5), that W1 is a rational function
of z
.0/
Lemma 3.1.2 The disk amplitude W1 is a polynomial of 1=z, of degree d  1.

.0/
X
d1
W1 .x.z// D uk zk :
kD1

In other words
.0/
W1 2 Q1=z; t3 ; t4 ; : : : ; td t:

.0/
Proof Indeed Eq. (3.1.5) implies that W1 is a Laurent polynomial in z and 1=z,
.0/
and there can be no positive power of z because by definition W1 .x/ contains no
positive power of x at large x, i.e.

.0/
lim W1 .x/ D 0;
x!1
60 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

and x D aCb 2
C ab
4
.z C 1=z/, and we take the convention that large x corresponds
to large z. 
Then, the coefficients uk s, as well as a and b can be determined as follows,
expand V 0 .x/ into powers of z:

X
d1
V 0 .x.z// D uk .zk C zk /
kD0

(V 0 .x.z// is symmetric under z p

! 1=z because x.z/ is).
Then expand y D  12 M.x/ .x  a/.x  b/, which is antisymmetric under z !
1=z:

p 1 X
d1
1
y.z/ D  M.x.z// .x.z/  a/.x.z/  b/ D  uQ k .zk  zk /: (3.1.6)
2 2 kD1

.0/
Since W1 D 12 V 0 C y must have no positive powers of z, we find:

uk D uQ k

and thus:

.0/
X
d1
W1 .x.z// D uk zk
kD1

In addition we must have

u0 D 0
.0/
and, since W1 .x/ D t
x C O.1=x2 / at large x, and x  ab
4 z, we must have:

4t
u1 D :
ab
Let us summarize those results into the following theorem:
Theorem 3.1.1 (Disk Amplitude) For any and , let x.z/ D C .z C 1=z/,
then expand:

X
d1
V 0 .x.z// D uk .zk C zk / (3.1.7)
kD0

where the uk s are polynomial in and .

3.1 Disk Amplitude 61

and are the unique solutions of:

t
u0 D 0 ; u1 D

which behave like

p
D O.t/ ; D t.1 C O.t//:

.0/
Then, the disk amplitude W1 , i.e. the generating function of planar rooted maps is:

.0/
X
d1
W1 .x.z// D uk zk :
kD1

Examples of applications of this theorem are given in Sects. 3.1.7 and 3.1.8
below, where we compute explicitly the case of quadrangulations and triangulations.
More explicitly, one can expand Eq. (3.1.7), and write the uk s as explicit
polynomials of and :

d1 .lCk/=2
X X l
uk D k;0 C k;1  tlC1 2jk lCk2j :
lD2 jDk
jj  kl C k  2j

In particular with k D 0 and k D 1, we see that and are determined by two

algebraic equations:

X
d1 X
l
.l C j/ 2j lj
0 D u0 D  tlCjC1
lD1 jD0
jj.l  j/

t XX d l
.l C j  1/
D u1 D  tlCj 2j1 lj :
lD2 jD1
j.j  1/.l  j/

Those two algebraic equations yield a finite number of solutions for and , and it
is easy to see there is a unique solution such that  O.t/ and 2  t C O.t2 / at
small t.
To the first few orders we have:

D 2t3 2 C .t3 2 C 6t4 2 C 6t5 4 / C : : :

2 D t C .2t3 2 C 3t4 4 / C .3t4 2 2 C 12t5 4 C 20t6 6 / C : : :
62 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

i.e.

2 D t C t2 .4t32 C 3t4 / C O.t3 / : : :

D t.2t3 / C t2 .12t33 C 12t3 t4 / C O.t3 / : : :

Let us summarize it as follows:

Theorem 3.1.2 (Disk Amplitude, Bis) Let and be the unique solutions of the
algebraic system of equations:

X
d1 X
l
.l C j/ 2j lj
0D tlCjC1 (3.1.8)
lD1 jD0
jj.l  j/

X
d X
l
.l C j  1/
t D 2  tlCj 2j lj (3.1.9)
lD2 jD1
j.j  1/.l  j/

p
which behave like D O.t/ and D t C O.t/. Then define

d1 .lCk/=2
X X l
uk D k;0 C k;1  tlC1 2jk lCk2j :
lD2 jDk
jj  kl C k  2j

One then has:

.0/
X
d1
W1 .x/ D uk zk ; x D C .z C 1=z/
kD1

i.e.

X 1  p 
d1
.0/
W1 .x/ D uk zk ; zD x  C .x  /2  4 2 :
kD1
2

It can also be written

.0/ 1  0 p 
W1 .x/ D V .x/  M.x/ .x  a/.x  b/
2
where
 
1X
d1
x
a D C 2 ; b D  2 ; ; M.x/ D uk Uk1
kD1 2

where Uk is the kth second kind Chebyshev polynomial.

3.1 Disk Amplitude 63

The second kind Chebyshev polynomials are defined by:

sinh .k C 1/
Uk .cosh / D
sinh 

or in other words:
 
z C 1=z zk  zk
Uk D :
2 z  z1

The first few of them are:

U0 .x/ D 1 ; U1 .x/ D 2x ; U2 .x/ D 4x2  1 ; U3 .x/ D 8x3  4x ; : : :

An explicit formula is given by the Taylor expansion at x ! 1:

X
k
.k C n C 1/
Uk .x/ D .x  1/n 2n :
nD0
.2n C 1/ .k  n/

or also the Taylor expansion near x D 1:

X
k
.k C n C 1/
Uk .x/ D .1/nCk .x C 1/n 2n :
nD0
.2n C 1/ .k  n/

Later in Sect. 3.3.3, we shall need to consider the Moments of M.x/, defined as:
Definition 3.1.1 (M.x/ and Its Moments) We write:

.0/ V 0 .x/
W1 .x/ D Cy
2
with
1 p
y D  M.x/ .x  a/.x  b/
2

and the polynomial M.x/ is given by:

 
1X
d1
x
M.x/ D uk Uk1 :
kD1 2
64 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

We define the moments M;k of M.x/ as the coefficients of its Taylor expansion near
x D a; b, as:

X
d1
M.x/ D MC;0 .1  MC;k .x  a/k /
kD1

X
d1
D M;0 .1  M;k .x  b/k /:
kD1

We have:
y0 .1/ y0 .1/
MC;0 D M.a/ D ; M;0 D M.b/ D :

And for n  1, the nth moment at a (reps. at b) of M.x/ is:

1 dn 1 dn
MC;n D M.x/ ; M;n D M.x/ :
n MC;0 dxn n M;0 dxn
xDa xDb

We thus have:

1 X
d1
.k C n/
MC;n D uk
nC1 MC;0 kDnC1 .2n C 1/ .k  n  1/

1 X
d1
.k C n/
M;n D .1/kCnC1 uk :
nC1 M;0 kDnC1 .2n C 1/ .k  n  1/

The moments were introduced in a work by AmbjrnChekhovKristjansen

Makeenko in 1993 [5], and played an important role in solving the Tutte equations
for higher topologies, as we shall see in Sect. 3.3.3 below.

3.1.3.3 Variational Principle

There is another way of writing the equations which determine and . Indeed
and are critical points of the functional:

dz
.; / D 2t ln C Res V. C .z C 1=z// :
z!1 z
3.1 Disk Amplitude 65

P
Proof We use that V 0 .x.z// D k uk .zk C zk /, and we compute:

@ dz
D Res V 0 . C .z C 1=z// D u0 D 0
@ z!1 z
@ 2t dz 2t
D C Res V 0 . C .z C 1=z// .z C 1=z/ D  2u1 D 0:
@ z!1 z

3.1.4 EvenBipartite Maps

Even maps are those containing only unmarked faces of even perimeters. In other
words we choose all t2kC1 D 0.
For planar maps, even maps are also Bipartite: vertices can be colored with two
colors, in such a way that adjacent vertices are of different color.
For even maps, V.x/ is an even polynomial, and thus V 0 .x/ is an odd function
of x:
X
V 0 .x/ D x  t2k x2k1 :
k2

Equation (3.1.8) becomes:

0 1
X X
d=2 l1
.2l  1/
0 D u 0 D @1  t2l 2j 2l2j2 A D .1  O.t//:
lD2 jD0
jj.2l  2j  1/

This implies that

D 0:

The Eq. (3.1.9) for is now a polynomial equation for 2 :

X
d=2
.2l  1/ 2l
2
tD  t2l :
lD2
l.l  1/

whose solution is (see the proof in Lemma 3.1.3 below):

X Xk
.k C n/ X Yn
.2ai C 1/ t2ai C2
2 D t C tkC1 :
k1 nD1
.k C 1/ n a1 CCan Dk; ai >0 iD1
ai .ai C 1/
66 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

To the first few orders:

2 D t C t2 .3t4 / C t3 .18 t42 C 10 t6 / C t4 .35 t8 C 150 t4 t6 C 40 t43 / C O.t5 / : : :

.0/
Moreover, all the u2k vanish, and W1 .x.z// is an odd function of z:

.0/
X
d=2
W1 .x.z// D u2k1 z12k :
kD1

Let us summarize it as the following theorem

Theorem 3.1.3 (Disk Amplitude Bipartite) Let be the unique solution of

X
d=2
.2l  1/ 2l
t D 2  t2l :
lD2
l.l  1/
p
which behaves like D t C O.t/, i.e.

X Xk
.k C n/ X Yn
.2ai C 1/ t2ai C2
2 D t C tkC1
k1 nD1
.k C 1/ n a1 CCan Dk; ai >0 iD1
ai .ai C 1/

D t C t2 .3t4 / C t3 .18 t42 C 10 t6 / C t4 .35 t8 C 150 t4 t6 C 40 t43 / C O.t5 /:

Then let

x.z/ D .z C 1=z/:

Let
0 1
X .2j  2k  1/ 2j2k2 A
u2kC1 D @k;0  t2j2k
j2kC1
j .j  2k  1/

Then the disk amplitude is

.0/
X 1  p 
W1 .x.z// D u2kC1 z2k1 ; zD x C x2  4 2 :
k0
2

Remark 3.1.2 Notice that 2 is a formal series of t, whose coefficients are polyno-
mial of the tk s with positive integer coefficients:

2 2 t ZC t4 ; t6 ; : : : t:
3.1 Disk Amplitude 67

.2kC1/
We can be even more precisely, let Qtk D k .kC1/ t2kC2 , we have

2 2 t ZC Qt1 ; Qt2 ; Qt3 ; : : : t;

and explicitly

X Xk
.k C n/ X Y
n
2 Qtai
DtC t kC1

k1 nD1
.k C 1/ n a1 CCan Dk; ai >0 iD1

DtC t2 Qt1 3
C t .Qt2 C 2 Qt12 / 4
C t .Qt3 C 5 Qt1Qt2 C 5 Qt13 /
Ct .Qt4 C 6 Qt1Qt3 C 3 Qt22 C 21 Qt12 Qt2 C 14 Qt14 / C O.t6 /:
5

Lemma 3.1.3 (Lagrange Inversion) For bipartite maps, we have for any m  1

 X X k
.k C n C m  1/ X Y
n 
2m D tm 1 C m tk Qtai :
k1 nD1
.k C m/ n a1 CCan Dk; ai >0 iD1

where

.2k C 1/
Qtk D t2kC2 :
k .k C 1/

Proof This is the Lagrange inversion formulas method. It works as follows:

the equation satisfied by x D 2 is
X
t D 2 .1  P. 2 // D x.1  P.x// ; P.x/ D Qtk xk :
k1

The nth coefficient of the asymptotic expansion

X
xm D cn;m tn
n

is:
dt
cn;m D Res xm
t!0 tnC1
we integrate by parts:
m
cn;m D Res tn xm1 dx
n x!0
m
D Res xn .1  P.x//n xm1 dx
n x!0
68 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

1
m dx mn X .n C k  1/
D Res x P.x/k
n x!0 x kD0
.n  1/k
1
m dx mn X .n C k  1/ X
D Res x Qta1 : : : Qtak xa1 CCak
n x!0 x kD0
.n  1/k a ;:::;a 1 k

1
X X
m .n C k  1/
D Qta1 : : : Qtak
n kD0
.n  1/k a1 CCak Dnm

since ai > 0, we see that the sum over k is in fact bounded by k  n  m. This gives
the lemma. 

3.1.5 Generating Functions of Disks of Fixed Perimeter

.0/
The generating function Tl of disks of perimeter l is the coefficient of 1=xlC1 in
.0/
W1 .x/, i.e.:

.0/ .0/
Tl D  Res W1 .x/ xl dx:
x!1

After changing variable x ! x.z/ it can be written

.0/ .0/
Tl D  Res W1 .x.z// .x.z//l x0 .z/dz
z!1

(this is where Remark 1.2.5 is useful, one must not forget the Jacobian x0 .z/ of the
change of variable).
By the binomial formula, we expand:
X l
x.z/l D . C .z C 1=z//l D lkj kCj zkj ;
jCkl
jk.l  j  k/

and we can perform the residue:

.0/
X l
Tl D lkj kCjC1 .ukjC1  ukj1 /
jCkl
jk.l  j  k/
X l
D l1kj kCjC2 ukj
jCkl
. j C 1/k.l  1  j  k/
X l
 l1kj kCjC2 ukj :
jCkl
j.k C 1/.l  1  j  k/
3.1 Disk Amplitude 69

Thus:
Corollary 3.1.1 The generating function of disks with perimeter l is

.0/
X .k  j/ l
Tl D l1kj kCjC2 ukj
jCk<l; j<k<jCd
. j C 1/.k C 1/.l  1  j  k/
P (3.1.10)
where uk are such that V 0 .x.z// D k uk .zk C zk /.
Alternatively this can be written

.0/
X l
Tl D l1kj kCjC2 vkj
jCkl; j<k<jCd
jk.l  1  j  k/

P vk k
where the coefficients vk D uk1  ukC1 are such that V.x.z// D k k .z C zk /.
Corollary 3.1.2 In particular, for bipartite maps we have D 0 and u2k D 0, in
which case we obtain:
d=2
.0/
X .2j  1/ .2l/ .0/
T2l D 2lC1 u2j1 ; T2lC1 D 0: (3.1.11)
jD1
.l  j C 1/.l C j/

or with the vj s:

d=2
.0/
X .2l/
T2l D 2lC1 v2j1 :
jD1
.l  j/.l C j  1/

.0/
Remark 3.1.3 (Convergency of Formal Series) So far, all Tl were defined as
formal series in powers of t, and we didnt know whether those series were
convergent or not.
.0/
Now we see that Tl is a polynomial of and , and and are solutions of an
algebraic equation, therefore all of them are algebraic functions of t. This means that
those series are convergent in a certain disk. They may diverge at a finite number of
values of t, and they have algebraic singularities.
Those algebraic singularities, and their implication on the behavior of large maps
are studied in full details in Chap. 5.

3.1.6 Derivatives of the Disk Amplitude

Let us mention a few useful properties of the disk amplitude, in particular derivatives
with respect to the parameters.
70 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

Lemma 3.1.4

@W1 .x.z//
.0/
@y.z/ 0 @x.z/ 0 1
x0 .z/ D x .z/  y .z/ D ; (3.1.12)
@t @t z @t z z
x.z/

@W1 .x.z//
.0/
0 1 d x.z/k @y.z/ 0 @x.z/ 0
x .z/ D  C x .z/  y .z/
@tk 2k dz @tk z @tk z
x.z/

d 1
D .x.z/k / ; (3.1.13)
dz k

where in the leftmost term, the derivative is taken at constant x.z/, and in the middle
term the derivatives are taken at constant z, and where the function y.z/ was defined
in Eq. (3.1.6).
.0/ 0
Proof Remember that we have W1 .x.z// D V .x.z//
P 2 C y.z/, and V 0 .x.z// D x.z/ 
k
k tkC1 x.z/ , therefore, from the chain rule, we have:

@W1 .x.z//
.0/
0 @y.z/ 0 @x.z/ 0
x .z/ D x .z/  y .z/;
@t @t z @t z
x.z/

@W1 .x.z//
.0/
1 d x.z/k @y.z/ 0 @x.z/ 0
x0 .z/ D  C x .z/  y .z/:
@tk 2k dz @tk z @tk z
x.z/

This implies that the right hand side is a polynomial of z and 1=z. Beside, the
antisymmetry y.1=z/ D y.z/ and x.1=z/ D x.z/ implies that

@y @x @x @y 1 X
 D cj .zj C zj /:
@t @z @t @z z j

.0/
At large x.z/, i.e. at large z, we have W1 .x.z//  t=x.z/ C O.z2 /, and therefore
.0/
@W1 .x/=@t  1=x C O.1=x2 / D 1= z C O.z2 /, and thus

@y @x @x @y 1
  C O.z2 /:
@t @z @t @z z

This implies that we can have only the c0 term, and thus:

@y @x @x @y 1
 D :
@t @z @t @z z
3.1 Disk Amplitude 71

Similarly,

@y.z/ 0 @x.z/ 0
x .z/  y .z/
@tk z @tk z

is clearly a polynomial in z and 1=z, and from the symmetry z $ 1=z, it must be of
the form
@y @x @x @y 1 X
 D cj .zj C zj /:
@tk @z @tk @z z j

.0/
Since W1 .x.z//  t=z C O.1=z2 / at large z, we see that

1 d x.z/k 1 X
 C cj .zj C zj / D O.z2 /: (3.1.14)
2k dz z j

A derivative can never have a 1=z term, and O.z2 / also has no 1=z term, therefore
we must have c0 D 0, and thus

1 X d X cj j
cj .zj C zj / D .z  zj /:
z j dz j1 j

Taking only the positive powers of z in Eq. (3.1.14), we see that:

d X 1 d
cj zj D .x.z/k /C
dz j1 2k dz

and by symmetry z $ 1=z:

d X 1 d 
cj .zj  zj / D .x.z/k /C  .x.z/k /
dz j1 2k dz

and the lemma follows. 

Remark 3.1.4 (Hamiltonian Structure)
Those derivatives can be written with Poisson brackets:
   
def @f @g @g @f def @f @g @g @f
f f ; ggk D  : ; f f ; gg D z  :
@tk @z @tk @z @t @z @t @z

With those notations, Lemma 3.1.4 can be written

fy; xg D 1 ; fy; xgk D Hk0 ;

1
where Hk D 2k
..x.z/k /C  .x.z/k / /, and 0 means derivative with respect to z.
72 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

.0/ .0/
The compatibility @tk @tl W1 .x/ D @tl @tk W1 .x/ implies that:

fHk0 ; xgl D fHl0 ; xgk ;

and
1 0 1 @x
2
fHk ; xg D f1=z; xgk D 2 ;
z z @tk
i.e.
@x
D fHk0 ; xg;
@tk
i.e. Hk0 is a Hamiltonian generating the flow with respect to the time tk .
Again, the compatibility @tk @tl D @tl @tk implies that those hamiltonians Poisson
commute with each other:

fHk0 ; Hl0 g D 0:

An integrable system can be constructed, and we refer the interested reader to [8,
38, 40] for more details about the integrable structure of matrix models and maps.
To summarize we have:
@x
fy; xg D 1 ; D fHk0 ; xg ; fHk0 ; Hl0 g D 0:
@tk

3.1.7 Example: Planar Rooted Quadrangulations

Let us see how to apply Theorem 3.1.1 to quadrangulations.

We choose all tk D 0 except t4 (quadrangulations are bipartite maps). We then
have:

V 0 .x/ D x  t4 x3 :

.0/
With that definition, Tl counts quadrangulations with n4 quadrangles and a
boundary of size l:
.0/
X n
Tl D tv t44 #fplanar quadrangulations with one boundary of perimeter l g
n4

where v is the number of vertices. Notice that we have Eq. (3.1.3):

l
v D 1 C n4 C
2
i.e. l must be even, and v and n4 are not independent.
3.1 Disk Amplitude 73

Then we compute the resolvent generating series:

1
.0/ t X 1 .0/
W1 .x/ D C T
2lC1 2l
x lD1
x

with the help of Theorem 3.1.1: let x.z/ D C .z C 1=z/, we have:

h
V 0 .x.z// D C .z C 1=z/  t4 3 C 3 2 .z C z1 /
i
C3 2 .z2 C 2 C z2 / C 3 .z3 C 3z C 3z1 C z3 /

i.e.:

u0 D  t4 . 3 C 6 2 / ; u1 D  t4 .3 2 C 3 3 /
u2 D 3t4 2 ; u3 D t4 3 :

The equations u0 D 0 and u1 D t= allow to determine and :

0 D  t4 . 3 C 6 2 / D .1  t4 . 2 C 6 2 //
t
D  t4 .3 2 C 3 3 / D .1  t4 .3 2 C 3 2 //:

Since and must tend to 0 at small t, we have 1  t4 . 2 C 6 2 / 0 order by

order in t, and therefore the first equation implies D 0. Then the second equation
gives

t D 2  3t4 4

p is (the sign in front of the square root must be , in order for to

whose solution
behave like t at small t):
(
D0
 p P 4 / .2n/ :
2 D 6t14 1  1  12 tt4 D t.1 C 3tt4 C 18.tt4 /2 C : : : / D t n .3tt
n
.nC1/ n
(3.1.15)
We shall write
p
rD 1  12 t t4 ;

and thus

2 D 2t=.1 C r/:
74 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

As an expansion we have (using the Lagrange formula of Lemma 3.1.3)

2 D t.1 C 3tt4 C 18.tt4 /2 C : : : /

X .3tt4 /n .2n/
Dt :
n
.n C 1/ n

From Theorem 3.1.1, we get the disk amplitude:

.0/ t 1
W1 .x.z// D  t4 3 3 : (3.1.16)
z z

We can also write it:

.0/ 1  p 
W1 .x/ D x  t4 x3  M.x/ .x  a/.x  b/
2
where
 
t
2 1r
2 x2
M.x/ D t4 .x   /Dr  4 :
t4 2 6 2

The moments are

MC;0 D M;0 D r;
1r 1
MC;1 D  M;1 D ;
3r
1r 1
MC;2 D M;2 D :
3 r 2

See Fig. 3.1.

0.35
2

0.30

1 0.25

0.20
0
0.15

1 0.10

0.05
2
0.00
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 2 1 0 1 2

.0/ 1 .0/
Fig. 3.1 Plot of the spectral curve W1 .x/ and 2t
Im W1 .x/, for t D 0:2 and t4 D 1=6.
.x/ D
1 .0/
2t
Im W1 .x/ would be large N limit of the eigenvalue density of a random matrix with probability
N Tr V.M/
measure e dM
3.1 Disk Amplitude 75

Then using Eq. (3.1.11) for fixed perimeter 2l:

.0/ .2l/ .0/

T2l D 2l .2l C 2/t  l 2  ; T2lC1 D 0
l.l C 2/

which counts the number of planar rooted quadrangulations with a boundary of

perimeter 2l (resp. 2l C 1).
 lC1
.0/ .2l/ 2t
T2l D .r l C r C 1/:
l.l C 2/ rC1

Lemma 3.1.3 gives the expansion into powers of t:

.0/ .2l/ X .2n C l  3/

T2l D tlC1 .3tt4 /n1 :
l .l  1/ n
.l C n/.n  1/

The number of rooted planar quadrangulations with n4 D n  1 quadrangles, and

with a marked face of perimeter 2l is thus:

.2l/ .2n4 C l  1/
3n4 :
l .l  1/ .l C n4 C 1/ n4

In particular with l D 2, we find the number of planar rooted quadrangulations

where all n faces, including the marked one, are quadrangles:

.0/
T4 D 4 .3t  2 /
1 C 3r
D 4t3
.1 C r/3
X 2 3n .2n/
D t3 .tt4 /n1 :
n
n .n C 2/

Thus we recover the famous result of Tutte [84, 85] that the number of rooted
quadrangulations with n faces is:

2 3n .2n/
:
n .n C 2/

3.1.8 Example: Planar Rooted Triangulations

If we want only triangulations, we choose all tk D 0 except t3 . We then have:

V 0 .x/ D x  t3 x2 :
76 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

The generating series of planar rooted triangulations with n3 triangles, and a

boundary of length l is:

.0/
X
Tl D tv t3n3 #fplanar triangulations with one boundary of perimeter l g:
n3

Notice that we have Eq. (3.1.3):

l C n3
v D1C
2
i.e. l C n3 must be even, and v and n3 are not independent.
Then we compute the resolvent generating series

X 11
.0/ t
W1 .x/ D C T .0/
x mD1 xmC1 m

with Theorem 3.1.1: let x.z/ D C .z C 1=z/, we have:

 
V 0 .x.z// D C .z C 1=z/  t3 2 C 2 .z C z1 / C 2 .z2 C 2 C z2 /

i.e.:
t
u0 D  t3 . 2 C 2 2 / D 0 ; u1 D  2 t3 D ; u2 D t3 2 :

Theorem 3.1.1 requires u0 D 0 and u1 D t= , which implies (after eliminating in

the equation for 2 ):

1 t t2 1
D .1  2 / ; 6
 2 C 8t32 D 0:
2t3

The cubic equation for 1= 2 , can be solved as follows:

p
p 3 t 
12 3 t t32 D sin .3/ ; D sin .  /
2 2 3

that gives

t cos 6
2 D p D t.1 C 4tt32 C 40t2 t34 C 29 t3 t36 C : : : :
cos . 6 C 13 Arcsin.12 3 t t32 //

It is convenient to write 2 D t=r, and thus r obeys the equation:

r  r3 D 8tt32 ;
3.1 Disk Amplitude 77

and we must chose the solution r D 1 C O.t/. We then have:

t 1r
2 D ; t3 D :
r 2
P 2 n
The Lagrange inversion formula allows to expand t= 2 D r D n cn .8tt3 / , in that
purpose we write

d.8tt32 /
cn D Res r
t!0 .8tt32 /nC1
.1  3r2 / dr
D Res r .change of variable 8tt32 D r  r3 /
r!1 .r  r3 /nC1
.1  3r2 / dr
D Res r
r!1 .r  r3 /nC1
1  3r2 dr
D Res
r!1 rn .1  r2 /nC1
1 1  3u du
D Res .nC1/=2 .change of variable r2 D u /
2 u!1 u .1  u/nC1
1 3v  2 dv
D Res .change of variable u D 1  v /
2 v!0 .1  v/.nC1/=2 v nC1
1 X ..n C 1/=2 C k/ dv
D Res .3v  2/ v k nC1
2 v!0 k
k ..n C 1/=2/ v

1 h ..n C 1/=2 C n  1/ ..n C 1/=2 C n/ i

D 3 2
2 .n  1/ ..n C 1/=2/ n ..n C 1/=2/
1 ..3n  1/=2/
D :
2 n ..n C 1/=2/

and finally

1 1 X 2 n ..3n  1/=2/ 1
2
D .8tt3 / D .1  4tt32  24t2 t34 C : : : /:
2t n n..n C 1/=2/ t

By a similar method, we find

X ..3n C 1/=2/
2 D t .8tt32 /n
n
.n C 1/ ..n C 1/=2/
X .n C 1/ ..3n C 2/=2/
4 D 2 t2 .8tt32 /n :
n
.n C 2/ ..n C 2/=2/
78 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

0
0.20

1
0.15
2

3 0.10

4
0.05
5

0.00
2 0 2 4 6 2 0 2 4 6

.0/ 1 .0/
Fig. 3.2 Plot of the spectral curve W1 .x/ and 2t
Im W1 .x/, for t3 D 0:2 and t D 0:44.
.x/ D
1 .0/
2t
Im W1 .x/ would be large N limit of the eigenvalue density of a random matrix with probability
N Tr V.M/
measure e dM

.0/
Finally the resolvent W1 is:

.0/ t 1
W1 .x.z// D  t3 2 2
z z

We have

.0/ 1  0 p 
W1 .x.z// D V .x/  M.x/ .x  a/.x  b/
2
with
t 1Cr
M.x/ D t3 x C t3 C D t3 x C :
2 2

Its moments are

r
1  r2 3r2  1
M;0 D r
; MC;0 M;0 D :
2 2
r !
1 1 1  r2 1  r2
M;1 D 2
r :
3r  1 2 2

See Fig. 3.2.

.0/
Then we easily compute the number of planar rooted triangulations T3 where
all faces, including the marked one, are triangles, using Eq. (3.1.10):

.0/ t 1 3
T3 D 3  C 4  4r C r
8t3 r
2 
t t t 1
D 3  3 C 3r
2t3 t3 8t3 r
3.1 Disk Amplitude 79


t X 2 n ..3n C 1/=2/ 3 ..3n  1/=2/
D 3 .8tt / 
8t3 n2 3 .n C 1/ ..n C 1/=2/ 2 n ..n C 1/=2/

t X 2 n ..3n  1/=2/ 3n  1 3
D 3 .8tt /  .n C 1/
8t3 n2 3 .n C 1/ ..n C 1/=2/ 2 2

2t X 2 n ..3n  1/=2/
D .8tt /
8t33 n2 3 .n C 1/ ..n C 1/=2/

2 t2 X 2 n .3n=2 C 1/
D .8tt3 /
t3 n1 .n C 2/ .n=2 C 1/

i.e. the number of rooted planar triangulations with 2n faces is:

.3n=2 C 1/
23nC1 ;
.n C 2/ .n=2 C 1/

which is again Tuttes result [84, 85].

3.1.9 Example: Gaussian Matrix Integral, Catalan Numbers

For book keeping purpose, as well as for normalization purposes, it is also

interesting to consider the quadratic potential V.x/ D t22 x2 , although it is not
directly a generating function of maps in the sense of Chap. 2, it has a combinatorial
interpretation as Catalan numbers which we wont discuss in this book (it was used
for instance in Harrer-Zagiers work [45]).
In that case:
Z
Nt2 2
ZD e 2t Tr M dM
HN

is a Gaussian integral, and thus can be computed exactly. With our definition of dM
we find:
0 1
1
X
2
Z D .t2 /N =2 D exp @ .N=t/22g Fg A
gD0

therefore:

t2
F0 D  ln .t2 / ; Fg D 0 8 g > 0:
2
80 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

We write:
1
x.z/ D C .z C /
z
1
V 0 .x.z// D t2 x.z/ D t2 C t2 .z C /
z

and Theorem 3.1.1 implies:

t
t2 D 0 ; D t2

i.e. D 0 and
p
D t=t2 :

The spectral curve of the Gaussian model is thus [we use def. Eq. (3.1.6)]:
(
x.z/ D .z C 1z /
p
y.z/ D 2 t . 1z  z/ D  t22 x2  4 2

in other words

.0/ t2 t
W1 .x.z// D x.z/ C y.z/ D :
2 z

If we plot 1
i
y, as a function of x in the range 2  x  2 , we obtain a semi
circle of area t, which is the famous Wigners semi-circle.

1
y
i

2 2 x

We also find, using Eq. (3.1.10):

.0/ .2l/
T2l D t 2l
l .l C 1/

which is the lth Catalan number.

3.2 Cylinders/Annulus Amplitude 81

3.2 Cylinders/Annulus Amplitude

By cylinder or annulus, we mean genus zero connected maps with two

.0/
boundaries of perimeters l1 ; l2 , i.e. elements of M2 , with generating function:

.0/
X X t3n3 : : : tdnd 1
W2 .x1 ; x2 / D tv
v .0/ xl11 C1 xl22 C1 #Aut./
2M2 .v/

1
1 X .0/
X Tl1 ;l2
D :
l1 D1 l2 D1 xl11 C1 xl22 C1

The loop equation (2.5.3) for g D 0 and k D 2 is:

l1 1
X X
d
.0/ .0/ .0/ .0/ .0/
2 Tj Tl1 1j;l2 C l2 Tl2 Cl1 1 D Tl1 C1;l2  tj Tl1 Cj1;l2 (3.2.1)
jD0 jD3

.0/ .0/
which can be rewritten in terms of W2 and W1 :
.0/ .0/
.0/ .0/ @ W1 .x1 /  W1 .x2 / .0/ .0/
2W1 .x1 / W2 .x1 ; x2 /C D V 0 .x1 /W2 .x1 ; x2 /P2 .x1 ; x2 /
@x2 x1  x2
(3.2.2)
where
j3 1
.0/
X
d X X 1 .0/
P2 .x1 ; x2 / D  tj xl1 2 C1
Tj2l;m2
jD3 lD0 m2 D1 xm
2

.0/
is a polynomial in x1 of degree at most d  3 (because maps in M2 must have a
boundary of length j  2  l  1). Since the left hand side of Eq. (3.2.2) has no
positive part, we have:
 
.0/ .0/
P2 .x1 ; x2 / D V 0 .x1 / W2 .x1 ; x2 / ;
Cx1

where the subscript ./Cx1 means keeping only positive powers of x1 at large x1 .
.0/
Inserting the expression of W1 of Eq. (3.1.5) into Eq. (3.2.2), we obtain:
.0/ .0/
.0/ @ W1 .x1 /W1 .x2 /
.0/
P2 .x1 ; x2 / C @x2 x1 x2
W2 .x1 ; x2 / D .0/
V 0 .x1 /  2W1 .x1 /
.0/ .0/
.0/ .x /W .x2 /
P2 .x1 ; x2 / C @x@2 1 x11 x21
W

D p (3.2.3)
M.x1 / .x1  a/.x1  b/
82 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

i.e.
.0/ 0 0
.0/
P2 .x1 ; x2 / C 12 @x@2 V .xx11/V
x2
.x2 /
W2 .x1 ; x2 / D p
M.x1 / .x1  a/.x1  b/
p
@ M.x2 / .x2 a/.x2 b/
1 1 1 @x2 x x
 C p 1 2 : (3.2.4)
2 .x1  x2 /2 2 M.x1 / .x1  a/.x1  b/

.0/
In particular this tells us that W2 is an algebraic function of x1 , with possible .x1 
a/1=2 and .x1  b/1=2 square root singularities at the branch points a and b. It may
also have simple poles at the zeros of M.x1 / or double poles at x1 D x2 .
.0/
This also shows that in terms of Zhukovsky variables, W2 .x.z1 /; x.z2 // is a
rational function of z1 , with possible poles at z1 D C1; 1; z2 ; 1=z2 , and also
possible simple poles at the zeros of M.x.z1 //.
In order to see that poles at the zeros of M.x.z1 // are not possible, we need a
small variation of the 1-cut Browns Lemma 3.1.1 :
.0/
Lemma 3.2.1 (1-Cut Lemma for Cylinders) W2 .x.z1 /; x.z2 // x0 .z1 /x0 .z2 / is a
rational function of z1 and z2 , which behaves as O.z2
1 / at large z1 , and it has a
pole only at z1 D 1=z2 , and this pole is a double pole with coefficient z2
2 , and
with no residue:

.0/ z2
W2 .x.z1 /; x.z2 // x0 .z1 /x0 .z2 /  2
C O.1/
z1 !1=z2 .z1  z12 /2

.0/
Proof From Eq. (3.2.4) we see that W2 .x1 ; x2 / may possibly have a simple pole at
0
x1 a zero of M.x1 /. Recall that M.x1 / D V x.x1 1 / C O.t/, so that the zeros of M.x1 / are
zeros of V 0 plus a power series in t.
.0/
Similarly to Lemma 3.1.1, to every order in t, W2 .x1 ; x2 / is a polynomial in
2
1=x1 , starting with O.1=x1 /, and thus for every contour C, we have order by order in
t:
I
1 .0/
W .x; x2 /dx D 0: (3.2.5)
2i C 2

In particular, if we choose a contour which surrounds a zero of V 0 .x/, and thus

.0/
surrounds a zero of M.x/ order by order in t, this implies that the residue of W2 is
.0/
zero to all orders in t, and therefore W2 .x; x2 / can have no pole at that point.
Also, it is clear that the expressions in the right hand side of Eq. (3.2.3) have no
pole at x1 D x2 , provided that both x1 and x2 are in the same sheet (same sign of the
square-root). In other words, there is no pole at z1 D z2 , but there could be a pole at
z1 D 1=z2 .
In p
the right hand side of expression Eq. (3.2.4), there are terms with a square-
root .x1  a/.x1  b/ which change sign when z1 ! 1=z1 , and there is a
3.2 Cylinders/Annulus Amplitude 83

1
term  2.x1 x 2/
2 which does not change sign. Writing that there is no pole at z1 D z2 ,

gives the coefficient of the double pole of the square-root term, and changing the
sign, we get the coefficient of the pole at z1 D 1=z2 .
Moreover, there is no pole at the branchpoints z1 D 1, because the multiplica-
tion by x0 .z1 / D .1  z2
1 / cancels the possible .x1  a/
1=2
and .x1  b/1=2 .
Also, it is easy to see from the degree of each terms in Eq. (3.2.3), that it behaves
as O.z2
1 / when z1 ! 1, and the symmetry z1 ! 1=z1 implies that there is also no
pole at z1 D 0.
This proves the Lemma. 
.0/
With this lemma, it is rather easy to find W2 :
Theorem 3.2.1 (Cylinder Amplitude) The cylinder generating function is:

.0/ 1 1 x0 .z1 /x0 .z2 /

W2 .x.z1 /; x.z2 // x0 .z1 /x0 .z2 / D 2
D 2
 :
.z1 z2  1/ .z1  z2 / .x.z1 /  x.z2 //2
(3.2.6)

Proof This is the only rational fraction of z1 which satisfies Lemma 3.2.1. 

3.2.1 Universality and Fundamental Second Kind Kernel

The cylinder generating function is universal! Written in the Zhukovsky variables,

it is independent of the tj s, it depends on nothing, it is independent of the type of
maps we are considering.
In fact, the bi-differential form:
dz1 dz2
B.z1 ; z2 / D
.z1  z2 /2
is called the fundamental second kind differential or BergmanSchiffer kernel
on the Riemann sphere (z lives in the complex plane C, or more precisely, on the
Riemann sphere CP1 D C [ f1g), or heat kernel of the Riemann sphere, or also
derivative of the Green function, and it plays a very important role in algebraic
geometry (see [1214, 36, 37]), and Chap. 7.
Remark 3.2.1 On an arbitrary compact Riemann surface (here the Riemann sphere),
the fundamental form of the second kind, is the unique differential form (in z1 ),
which has a double pole at z1 D z2 and no other pole, and which behaves near the
pole as
dz1 dz2
B.z1 ; z2 /  C O..z1  z2 /0 /:
.z1  z2 /2
In the case where z1 would live on a higher genus Riemann surface, there would be
also a cycle integral normalization condition, see Chap. 7. It can be proved that this
84 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

differential form is unique, and it is always symmetric in z1 and z2 . For example on

the torus, the unique function with a double pole is the Weierstrass function }.z/,
modulo a constant, and thus the Bergman-Schiffer kernel would be B.z1 ; z2 / D
.}.z1  z2 / C C/ dz1 dz2 , with a constant C chosen to normalize some cycle
integral, see Chap. 7 or Chap. 4 for details).
What we have found, is that:
Theorem 3.2.2 (Universal Cylinder Amplitude and Bergman-Schiffer Funda-
mental Second Kind Kernel) Up to the addition of a trivial term [rational in
x.z/], and written as a differential form, the cylinder generating function for any
sort of maps, is always the fundamental second kind kernel

.0/ dx.z1 /dx.z2 /

W2 .x.z1 /; x.z2 // dx.z1 /dx.z2 / C D B.z1 ; z2 /: (3.2.7)
.x.z1 /  x.z2 //2

Remark 3.2.2 We call dx.z1 /dx.z2 /=.x.z1 /  x.z2 //2 a trivial term for reasons
which will be clear in Sect. 3.2.2 below, basically, it does not contribute to residues,
.0/
it does not contribute to the computation of Tl1 ;l2 .
Remark 3.2.3 In our case, the Zhukovsky variable z lives on the Riemann sphere
CP1 D C [ f1g, and the fundamental second kind kernel of the Riemann sphere is
simply
dz1 dz2
B.z1 ; z2 / D :
.z1  z2 /2
.0/
However, the fact that the generating function of cylinders W2 is the funda-
mental second kind kernell, is valid far beyond the case studied in this chapter.
It continues to hold for multicut case (see Chap. 4), and it holds also for more
complicated sorts of maps, like Ising model maps (see Chap. 8).

3.2.2 Cylinders of Fixed Perimeter Lengths

We have
.0/ .0/
Tl1 ;l2 D Res Res xl11 xl22 W2 .x1 ; x2 / dx1 dx2 :
x1 !1 x2 !1

Changing to Zhukovsky variables, it is easy to see that the last term in Eq. (3.2.6)
plays no role in the residue, therefore we may compute the residue with the
fundamental second kind kernel only:

.0/ dz1 dz2

Tl1 ;l2 D Res Res x.z1 /l1 x.z2 /l2
z1 !1 z2 !1 .z1  z2 /2

which is a universal polynomial of and 2 .

3.2 Cylinders/Annulus Amplitude 85

In particular for bipartite maps, with D 0, and writing

X
l
l
x.z/l D l .z C 1=z/l D l zl z2j ;
jD0
j .l  j/

this simplifies to:

Corollary 3.2.1 For bipartite maps, assume l1  l2 and l1 C l2 even, one has

bl2 =2c
.0/
X l1 l2
Tl1 ;l2 D l1 Cl2 .l2  2j/
jD0
j . l1 l
2
2
C j/ . l1 Cl
2  j/ .l2  j/
2

where bl2 =2c is the largest integer  l2 =2.

The coefficient of l1 Cl2 is an integer number, independent of the tk s and of t, it
is a pure constant.
Example: Quadrangulations
1
Let us chose l1 D l2 D 4, and remember that for quadrangulations 2 D 6t4
.1 
p
1  12tt4 /, so that we find, using Lemma 3.1.3:

.0/
X .2n  1/
T4;4 D 36 8 D 16 t4 3n .t t4 /n2 D 36 t4 C432 t5 t4 C4536 t6 t42 C: : :
.n  2/ .n C 2/
n2

i.e. the number of maps with n D n4 C 2 faces, where all faces including the two
.2n1/
marked faces are quadrangles, is 4  3n .n2/ .nC2/ . One can check that this is
consistent with the number of maps with only one boundary:

.0/
@T4 1 .0/
D T4;4 :
@t4 4

Example: Triangulations
Let us chose l1 D l2 D 3, one gets

.0/ dz1 dz2

T3;3 D Res Res x.z1 /3 x.z2 /3 D 9 4 2 C 36 2 4 C 12 6 :
z1 !1 z2 !1 .z1  z2 /2

For triangulations 2 D t=r, D .1  r/=2t3 , where r  r3 D 8tt32 , so that we find:

.0/ 9 t X .2n  1/. 3n 2

/
T3;3 D 4
.8 t t32 /nC1 D 12 t3 C 288 t4 t32 C 5040 t5 t34 C : : :
4 t3 n1 .n C 2/ . 2 /
n

i.e. the number of planar maps with 2n faces, where all faces including the two
.2n1/. 3n
2 /
marked faces are triangles, is 18 .nC2/ . n2 /
23n .
86 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

Again, one can check that this is consistent with the number of maps with only
one boundary:

.0/
@T3 1 .0/
D T3;3 :
@t3 3

3.3 Higher Topology and Topological Recursion

.g/
We are now going to compute Wk for values of .g; k/ .0; 1/; .0; 2/, i.e. such that
2g  2 C k > 0, or in other words, for maps of strictly negative Euler characteristics
 D 2  2g  k < 0. In algebraic geometry, Riemann surfaces of strictly negative
Euler characteristics are called stable.
Let us choose .g; k/ such that 2g  2 C .k C 1/ > 0. We shall consider maps
of genus g with k C 1 boundaries. Let us call l the length of the first boundary, and
let L D fl1 ; : : : ; lk g denote collectively the boundary lengths of k other boundaries,
labeled 1; : : : ; k. We are now going to compute:

.g/ .g/
Tl;l1 ;:::;lk D Tl;L

which is the generating function that counts the number of genus g connected maps
with k C 1 boundaries of respective perimeters l; l1 ; : : : ; lk .

3.3.1 Preliminary Results: Analytical Properties

.g/
Lemma 3.3.1 Wk .x.z1 /; : : : ; x.zk // is a rational function of its Zhukovsky vari-
ables z1 ; : : : ; zk .
Proof The general loop equation is Eq. (2.5.3):

1 1 h X
lX g
X i XjLj
.h/ .gh/ .g1/ .g/
Tj;J Tl1 1j;LnJ C Tj;l1 1j;L C lj Tlj Cl1 1;Lnfjg
jD0 hD0 JL jD1

.g/
X
d
.g/
D Tl1 C1;L  tj Tl1 Cj1;L
jD3

again, we write it in terms of the resolvent generating function:

1 .g/
.g/
X Tl;l1 ;:::;lk
WkC1 .x; x1 ; : : : ; xk / D
l;l1 ;:::;lk D0 xlC1 xl11 C1 : : : xlkk C1
3.3 Higher Topology and Topological Recursion 87

which satisfies (we now write L D fx1 ; : : : ; xk g):

X
g
Xh .h/ .gh/
i
.g1/
WjJjC1 .x; J/WkjJjC1 .x; L n J/ C WkC2 .x; x; L/
hD0 JL

XjLj .g/ .g/

@ Wk .x; L n fxj g/  Wk .L/
C
jD1
@xj x  xj
.g/ .g/
D V 0 .x/WkC1 .x; L/  PkC1 .x; L/ (3.3.1)

.g/
where PkC1 .x; L/ is a polynomial of degree d  3 in the variable x.
This equation is sufficient to prove the lemma 
This lemma allows to define
Definition 3.3.1 We define the rational functions:
.g/ .g/
!k .z1 ; : : : ; zk / D Wk .x.z1 /; : : : ; x.zk // x0 .z1 / : : : x0 .zk /
x0 .z1 /x0 .z2 /
Ck;2 g;0
.x.z1 /  x.z2 //2
1
 k;1 g;0 V 0 .x.z1 // x0 .z1 /:
2
For k D 1, g D 0, we have already found:

.0/ 1 0 X d1
W1 .x.z// D V .x.z// C y.z/ D uj zj
2 jD1

where y.z/ was already computed in Eq. (3.1.6):

0
1 X
deg V
y.z/ D y.1=z/ D  uj .zj  zj /:
2 jD1

In other words
.0/
!1 .z/ D y.z/ x0 .z/:

And for k D 2, g D 0 we have already computed:

.0/ 1
!2 .z1 ; z2 / D :
.z1  z2 /2
88 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

.g/
Remark 3.3.1 Here we consider !k (rational functions of the zi s), instead of the
.g/
Wk (algebraic functions of the xi s), where we have multiplied by x0 .zi /. The
fundamental reason to do this change of function, is related to Remark 1.2.5 in
.g/
Chap. 1, the generating functions Wk should be viewed as differential forms, rather
than functions. Indeed, if f .x/ is a function of x, then the differential form f .x/dx,
written in the Zhukovski variable becomes:

f .x/dx ! f .x.z// x0 .z/ dz

.g/ Q
this is the reason why we multiplied Wk by i x0 .zi /, which is the Jacobian of the
change of variable.
The topological recursion of Chap. 7 is naturally written in terms of differential
forms.
.g/
Now we are going to explain the method to compute all others !k s.
First, we need the following anti-symmetry lemma:
.g/
Lemma 3.3.2 (Anti-Symmetry Lemma) If 2g C k  2 > 0, !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk /=x0 .z1 /
is an antisymmetric function under z1 ! 1=z1 , i.e.

1 .g/ 1 .g/
!k .1=z1 ; : : : ; zk / D  !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk /
x0 .1=z1 / x0 .z1 /
or:
.g/ .g/
!k .1=z1 ; : : : ; zk / D z21 !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk /:

Another way of writing this, is with differential forms:

.g/ .g/
!k .1=z1 ; : : : ; zk / d.1=z1 / D  !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk / dz1 :

.g/
In other words the differential forms !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk / dz1 : : : dzk are antisymmetric.
See Remark 3.3.1 above.
Proof It is easily proved by recursion from the loop equation. Let us temporarily
define:

fk .g/ .z1 ; : : : ; zk / D Wk .g/ .x.z1 /; : : : ; x.zk // C 1 k;2 g;0

W
1
2 .x.z1 /  x.z2 //2

[notice the factor 1=2, to be compared with Eq. (3.2.7)] we have:

f2 .0/ .z1 ; z2 / D 1 .z1 C 1=z1 / .z2 C 1=z2 /  4

W
2.x.z1 /  x.z2 //2 .z1  1=z1 / .z2  1=z2 /

which has the antisymmetry property.

3.3 Higher Topology and Topological Recursion 89

The loop equation can be written:

e .z; L/.g/
2y.z/ W kC1

X
g 0 h
X i
.g1/
D e .h/ .z; J/W
W e .gh/ .z; L=J/ C W
e kC2 .z; z; L/
jJjC1 kjJjC1
hD0 JL

jLj
X @ e .g/
W k .L/ .g/
 C PkC1 .x.z/; L/
jD1
@x.zj / x.z/  x.zj /

P
where the symbol 0h;J means that we exclude from the sum the term that we have
put in the left hand side, i.e. the terms .h; J/ D .0; ;/ and .h; J/ D .g; L/. By
recursion hypothesis, the right hand side has the antisymmetry property, so the left
hand side is antisymmetric. This proves the lemma. 
Then we have the following lemma:
.g/
Lemma 3.3.3 (Analytical Behavior Lemma) If 2g C k  2 > 0, !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk /
is a rational function of its Zhukovsky variables z1 ; : : : ; zk , with poles only at the
branch points zi D 1, and which behaves as O.z2 i / at large zi .
.g/
Proof Loop equation seem to imply that !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk / could possibly have poles
at zi D zj or at zi D 1=zj , or at the zeros of y.zi /, or at zi D 0 or zi D 1 or at
zi D 1.
.g/
What we need to prove is that !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk / doesnt have poles at zi D
0; 1; zj ; 1=zj ; 0; 1, neither at the zeros of y.z/.
This is proved by recursion. Assume that the theorem has been proved for all
.g0 /
!k0 C1 with 0 < 2g0  2 C k0  2g  2 C k.
Using the antisymmetry, write the loop equation (now L D fz1 ; : : : ; zk g):

.g/
2y.z/ !kC1 .z; L/ x0 .1=z/
X
g 0 h
X i
.h/ .gh/ 1 .g1/
D !jJjC1 .z; J/ !kjJjC1 . ; L n J/ C !kC2 .z; 1=z; L/
hD0 JL
z

XjLj .g/ .g/

@ !k .z; L n fzj g/x0 .1=z/ C !k .L/ x0 .z/ x0 .1=z/=x0 .zj /
C
jD1
@zj x.z/  x.zj /
.g/
PkC1 .x.z/; L/ x0 .z/x0 .1=z/ x0 .z1 / : : : x0 .zk /
90 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

where 0 means that we exclude the terms .h D 0; J D 0/, and .h D g; J D L/. We

thus have
.g/
!kC1 .z; L/
.h/ .gh/
X 0
g X
!jJjC1 .z; L/!kjJjC1 . 1z ; L n J/ .g1/
!kC2 .z; 1=z; L/
D C
hD0 JL
2y.z/x0 .1=z/ 2y.z/x0 .1=z/
jLj
X .g/ .g/
1 @ !k .z; L n fzj g/ C !k .L/ x0 .z/=x0 .zj /
C
jD1
2y.z/ @zj x.z/  x.zj /

x0 .z/ .g/
 P .x.z/; L/ x0 .z1 / : : : x0 .zk /: (3.3.2)
2y.z/ kC1

It is clear that in the Zhukovsky variable, the right hand side is a rational function
of z. It may possibly have poles at z D 1, at z D 0 or z D 1, at the zeros of y.z/,
or also at z D zj or z D 1=zj with j D 1; : : : ; k.
First, it is very easy to see that it behaves as O.z2 / at z D 1, since y.z/ 
0 .g/
O.zdeg V /, and deg PkC1  deg V 000 . From the antisymmetry Lemma 3.3.2, or for the
0
same reason (y.z/  O.z deg V /) there is no pole at z D 0.
Also, the recursion relation Eq. (3.3.1) is regular at x.z/ D x.zj /, which means
.g/
that !kC1 has no pole at z D zj , and from the antisymmetry lemma, it has also no
pole at z D 1=zj .
.g/
From the recursion hypothesis, !kC1 could have at most simple poles at the zeros
of y.z/. To see that there is no pole at those points, it is sufficient to prove that the
residues vanish, which is proved by the following 1-cut lemma:
Lemma 3.3.4 (1-Cut Lemma) for every contour C which does not enclose the
branch-points 1, we have, order by order in t:
I
.g/
!kC1 .z; z1 ; : : : ; zk /dz D 0:
C

Proof This is the generalization of Browns 1-cut Lemmas 3.1.1 and 3.2.1. This
.g/
lemma holds because to every order in t, WkC1 .x; x1 ; : : : ; xk / is a polynomial in 1=x
2
starting at order 1=x . 
.g/
Applying this lemma to a contour surrounding a zero of y.z/, shows that !kC1
can have no residue, and thus no pole at that point.
.g/
Thus, we have proved the recursion hypothesis, i.e. !kC1 has poles only at the
branch points zj D 1. 
3.3 Higher Topology and Topological Recursion 91

3.3.2 The Topological Recursion

.g/
As we shall see now, knowing that the !k s are rational functions with poles only
at zi D 1, will allow to considerably simplify the loop equations. It will result in
the following theorem, named topological recursion:
.g/
Theorem 3.3.1 (Topological Recursion) The generating functions !kC1 counting
genus g maps with k C 1 boundaries can be computed with the following recursion
(called topological recursion):
 
.g/ 1 1 1
!kC1 .z0 ; L/ D Res z!1 z0 z  z0 1=z
dz
2y.z/x0 .1=z/
h2 Pg P0 i
.h/ .gh/ 1 .g1/
hD0 JL !1CjJj .z; J/!1CkjJj . z ; L n J/ C !kC2 .z; 1z ; L/ :
(3.3.3)
Notice that all the terms in the right hand side have 2g0 C k0  2 < 2g C .k C
.g/
1/  2, and thus this theorem allows an effective recursive computation of !kC1 .
It is relatively easy to implement on any symbolic mathematic computer program.
See also Sect. 7.4 of Chap. 7, how to represent this recursion in a diagrammatic way,
and Sect. 7.4.5 of Chap. 7, how it can be interpreted as cutting surfaces into pairs of
pants recursively.
.g/
Proof (Cauchy Formula, and Moving the Contour) Since !kC1 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk / is
a rational function of z0 , we can write Cauchy residue formula:

.g/ dz .g/
!kC1 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk / D Res ! .z; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk /:
z!z0 z  z0 kC1

Now, since the only other poles are at the branch-points z D 1, and it behaves
like O.1=z2 / at 1, we may deform the integration contour (a residue is a contour
integral), as a contour enclosing all the other poles, i.e. z D 1:

.g/ dz .g/
!kC1 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk / D Res !kC1 .z; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk /:
z!1 z0  z

Then we change the variable z ! 1=z and use the antisymmetry Lemma 3.3.2, and
thus we also have:

.g/ dz .g/
!kC1 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk / D Res !kC1 .z; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk /
z!1 z0  z

dz 1 .g/ 1
D Res  1
!kC1 . ; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk /
z!1 z2 z0  z
z
dz .g/
D  Res 1
!kC1 .z; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk /:
z!1 z0  z
92 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

Taking the half sum of the two equations, we get

!
.g/ 1 dz dz .g/
!kC1 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk / D Res  1
!kC1 .z; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk /:
2 z!1 z0  z z0  z

.g/
Then substitute !kC1 in the right hand side, using the loop equation (3.3.2),

.g/
!kC1 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zk /
! .h/ .gh/
1 dz dz hX
g 0
X !jJjC1 .z; L/!kjJjC1 . 1z ; L n J/
D Res  1
2 z!1 z0  z z0  z hD0 JL
2y.z/x0 .1=z/
.g1/
!kC2 .z; 1=z; L/
C
2y.z/x0 .1=z/
jLj
!
X 1 @
.g/ .g/
!k .z; L n fzj g/ C !k .L/ x0 .z/=x0 .zj /
C
jD1
2y.z/ @zj x.z/  x.zj /

x0 .z/ .g/ i
 PkC1 .x.z/; L/ x0 .z1 / : : : x0 .zk /
2y.z/

where L D fz1 ; : : : ; zk g. Then, notice that x0 .z/=y.z/ has no pole at z D 1, and

.g/ .g/
PkC1 .x.z/; L/ as well as @z@ j !k .L/=.x0 .zj /.x.z/  x.zj /// have no pole at z D 1,
so that they dont contribute to the residue. Using the antisymmetry property
.g/
y.z/ D y.1=z/, the term @z@ j !k .z; L n fzj g/=.x.z/  x.zj // can be replaced by
@ .g/ .g/
@zj
!k .z; L=fzj g/=.x.z/  x.zj //  z2 @z@ j !k .1=z; L n fzj g/=.x.z/  x.zj // D 0, and
thus it doesnt contribute to the residue either. 
This theorem can be rephrased in the general framework of symplectic invariants,
.g/
see Chap. 7, it proves that the functions !kC1 are the symplectic invariant correlators
for the spectral curve .x; y/. This gives the corollary:
.g/
Corollary 3.3.1 The !k s are the symplectic invariants correlators (defined in
Chap. 7) of the spectral curve E D .CP1 ; x; y/ with:
8

< z 2 CP
1

E W x.z/ D C .z C 1z /
: y.z/ D  1 Pd1 u .zj  zj / :
2 jD1 j

where x.z/ and y.z/ are meromorphic functions defined on the Riemann sphere, i.e.
the complex projective plane z 2 CP1 D C [ f1g.
Remark 3.3.2 The recursion of Theorem 3.3.3, is not symmetric in all the variables,
z0 seems to play a special role, but it can be proved by recursion, that this recursion
3.3 Higher Topology and Topological Recursion 93

always generates symmetric functions in all variables, this is a general property of

symplectic invariants, see Chap. 7. Here this is not surprising, since by definition,
generating functions of maps are symmetric.

.g/
3.3.3 Topological Recursion for Wk s, and the Method
of Moments

The topological recursion can equivalently be rewritten as follows (this is the form
under which it was initially found in [30]):
Theorem 3.3.2

.g/ 1 dx 1 .g/
WkC1 .x0 ; L/ D p Res W .xI x1 ; : : : ; xk /
.x0  a/.x0  b/ x!a;b x0  x M.x/ kC1

where we defined

.g/ .g1/
WkC1 .xI x1 ; : : : ; xk / D WkC2 .x; x; x1 ; : : : ; xk /
X
g 0
X
C Q .h/ .x; J/W
W Q .gh/0 .x; J 0 /
1CjJj 1CjJ j
hD0 J]J 0 Dfx1 ;:::;xk g

with

Q k.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xk / D Wk.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xk /

W if .g; k/ .0; 2/;

Q 2.0/ .x1 ; x2 / D W2.0/ .x1 ; x2 / C 1

W
2 .x1  x2 /2
x1 x2  aCb
2 .x1 C x2 / C ab
D p :
2
2 .x1  x2 / .x1  a/.x1  b/.x2  a/.x2  b/

Proof First assume that .g; k C 1/ .1; 1/ and .0; 3/.

The topological recursion is:
 
.g/ 1 1 1
!kC1 .z0 ; L/ D Res z!1 z0 z  z0 1=z
dz
2y.z/x0 .1=z/
h2 Pg P0 i
.h/ .gh/ 1 .g1/
hD0 JL !1CjJj .z; J/!1CkjJj . z ; L n J/ C !kC2 .z; 1z ; L/ :
94 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

Notice that
 
1 1 1 z  1=z 1
 D
z0  z z0  1=z 2y.z/ z0 .z0 C 1=z0  z  1=z/ 2y.z/
.z  1=z/ 1
D p
z0 .x.z0 /  x.z// M.x.z// .x.z/  a/.x.z/  b/
p
.x.z/  a/.x.z/  b/ 1
D p
z0 .x.z0 /  x.z// M.x.z// .x.z/  a/.x.z/  b/
1 1
D :
z0 .x.z0 /  x.z// M.x.z//

.g0 /
Then, using the antisymmetry, and for .g0 ; k0 / .0; 2/, we have !k0
.g0 /
.1=z; z1 ; : : : ; zk0 1 / D z2 !k0 .z; z1 ; : : : ; zk0 1 /, and we recall that

.g/ .g/
Y
k
Wk .x.z1 /; : : : ; x.zk // D !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk / x0 .zi /:
iD1

This gives (writing L D fx.z1 /; : : : ; x.zk /g:

.g/ 1 1 1 z2 dz 0 2 .g/
WkC1 .x.z0 /; L/ x0 .z0 / D Res x .z/ WkC1 .x.z/I L/
2 z0 z!1 x.z0 /  x.z/ M.x.z// x0 .1=z/
1 1 1 2 z2 .1  1=z2 /2 dz
D Res
2 z0 z!1 x.z0 /  x.z/ M.x.z// .1  z2 /
.g/
WkC1 .x.z/I L/
1 1 1 .g/
D Res x0 .z/ dz WkC1 .x.z/I L/
2 z0 z!1 x.z0 /  x.z/ M.x.z//
1 1 1 .g/
D Res dx.z/ WkC1 .x.z/I L/:
2 z0 z!1 x.z0 /  x.z/ M.x.z//

Now remark that a circle going around z D 1 in the zplane, goes twice around
x D a (reps. x D b) in the x-plane, therefore, the residue in the z variable, is twice a
residue in the x variable. This gives

.g/ 1 dx 1 .g/
WkC1 .x0 ; L/ D p Res W .xI L/:
.x0  a/.x0  b/ x!a;b x0  x M.x/ kC1

The cases .g; k C 1/ D .1; 1/ or .0; 3/, need to be done separately, and we leave
them as an exercise for the reader. 
3.3 Higher Topology and Topological Recursion 95

Let us introduce the zeros of M.x/:

8 i D 1; : : : ; d  2; M.mi / D 0;

i.e.
Y
d2
M.x/ D tdC1 .x  mi /:
iD1

In the previous theorem the residues are taken at x D a and x D b, which are poles
.g/
of WkC1 .xI L/. One can move the integration contour, and pick the residues at the
other poles, i.e. the zeros of M.x/, and also at x D x0 , or at x D xj . This results into
Theorem 3.3.3 If .g; k C 1/ .0; 3/, we have

X
d2 .g/ .g/
.g/ 1 1 WkC1 .x0 I L/  WkC1 .mi I L/
WkC1 .x0 ; L/ D p
.x0  a/.x0  b/ iD1 M 0 .mi / x 0  mi

1 Xk
@
.g/
Wk .L/
p
.x0  a/.x0  b/ jD1 @xj .x0  xj / M.xj /

where mi are the zeros of M.x/, and

X
g 0
X
.g/ .g1/ Q .h/ .x; J/W
Q .gh/ .x; L n J/:
WkC1 .xI L/ D WkC2 .x; x; L/ C W 1C#J 1Ck#J
hD0 JL

.0/
The case of W3 will be treated separately, we compute it explicitly in Sect. 3.3.4
below.
Proof We move the integration contour, and pick the residues at the other poles, i.e.
the zeros of M.x/, and also at x D x0 , or at x D xj :
p .g/ dx 1 .g/
.x0  a/.x0  b/ WkC1 .x0 ; L/ D Res W .xI L/
x!x0 x  x0 M.x/ kC1
X
d2
dx 1 .g/
C Res W .xI L/
iD1
x!mi x  x0 M.x/ kC1

X
k
dx 1 .g/
C Res W .xI L/:
jD1
x!xj x  x0 M.x/ kC1

The residue at x D x0 is simply

dx 1 .g/ 1 .g/
Res W .xI L/ D W .x0 I L/:
x!x0 x  x0 M.x/ kC1 M.x0 / kC1
96 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

We shall write that

1 X d1
1
D :
M.x0 / iD1
.x0  mi / M 0 .mi /

Then, the residue at x D mi is

dx 1 .g/ 1 .g/
Res W .xI L/ D W .mi I L/:
x!mi x  x0 M.x/ kC1 .x0  mi / M 0 .mi / kC1
.g/
And for the residue at x D xj , notice that WkC1 .xI L/ has a double pole 1=2.x 
2
xj / each time there is a W Q 0;2 .x; xj / in the product. Since any of the two terms in the
product can be a W Q 0;2 , we have a factor 2, i.e.

.g/ 1 .g/
WkC1 .xI L/  W .x; L n fxj g/ C analytic at xj
.x  xj /2 k
@ 1 .g/
 W .x; L n fxj g/ C analytic at xj :
@xj .x  xj / k
Therefore
dx 1 .g/ @ 1 .g/
Res W .xI L/ D W .xj ; L n fxj g/:
x!xj x  x0 M.x/ kC1 @xj .xj  x0 / M.xj / k
This gives the theorem. 

3.3.4 Examples of Maps of Higher Topology

Let us illustrate Theorem 3.3.1 on a few examples with low values of g and k.

3.3.4.1 The Pair of Pants (g D 0; k D 3)

3.3 Higher Topology and Topological Recursion 97

A pair of pants is a sphere with three disks removed, i.e. a genus zero surface
.0/
with three boundaries, i.e. an element of M3 . Theorem Eq. (3.3.3) gives:
 
.0/ 1 1 1 dz
!3 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 / D Res 
2 z!1 .z0  z/ z0  1=z 2y.z/x0 .1=z/
h i
.0/ .0/ .0/ .0/
!2 .z; z1 / !2 .1=z; z2 / C !2 .z; z2 / !2 .1=z; z1 /

1 dz
D Res
4 z!1 zz0 .x.z0 /  x.z// y.z/
h 1 1 i
C :
.z  z1 /2 .1=z  z2 /2 .z  z2 /2 .1=z  z1 /2

After computing the residues, one finds:

Theorem 3.3.4

.0/ 1 1 1 1
!3 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 / D
2 y0 .1/ .z0  1/2 .z1  1/2 .z2  1/2
1 1 1 1
C :
2 y0 .1/ .z0 C 1/ .z1 C 1/ .z2 C 1/2
2 2

One can see that although the recursion relation Eq. (3.3.3) looks non-symmetric
in z0 ; z1 and z2 , the result is symmetric. This is a general fact, Eq. (3.3.3) generates
only symmetric functions of its k C 1 variables (see Chap. 7).
In terms of moments we also have

.0/ 1 1 1 1
!3 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 / D
2 2 MC;0 .z0  1/2 .z1  1/2 .z2  1/2
1 1 1 1
 :
2 2 M;0 .z0 C 1/2 .z1 C 1/2 .z2 C 1/2

and

.0/  1 1 1 1 
W3 .x0 ; x1 ; x2 / D 
2 MC;0 .x0  a/.x1  a/.x2  a/ M;0 .x0  b/.x1  b/.x2  b/
2
Y 1
p :
iD0 .x i  a/.x i  b/
98 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

Case of Bipartite Maps

If we consider bipartite maps such that V 0 .x/ is odd, we have D 0 and y0 .1/ D
0
y .1/ D  Ma;0 D  Mb;0 , and thus:

.0/ 1 1 1 1
!3 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 / D
2 y .1/ .z0  1/ .z1  1/ .z2  1/2
0 2 2

1 1 1 1
C :
2 y0 .1/ .z0 C 1/2 .z1 C 1/2 .z2 C 1/2

Proposition 3.3.1 The generating function of bipartite maps of genus 0 with 3

boundaries of lengths l1 ; l2 ; l3 such that l1 C l2 C l3 is even, is:

.0/ l1 Cl2 Cl3 1 1 C .1/l1 Cl2 Cl3

Tl1 ;l2 ;l3 D  CQ l1 CQ l2 CQ l3
y0 .1/ 2

where
l
CQ l D
.l=2/ ..l  1/=2/

and k is the integer part of k, i.e. the largest integer  k.

Proof Indeed, compute the residue:

.0/ 1 x.z1 /l1 x.z2 /l2 x.z3 /l3

Tl1 ;l2 ;l3 D Res Res Res dz1 dz2 dz3
2 y0 .1/ z1 !1 z2 !1 z3 !1 .z1  1/2 .z2  1/2 .z3  1/2
1 x.z1 /l1 x.z2 /l2 x.z3 /l3
 Res Res Res dz1 dz2 dz3 :
2 y0 .1/ z1 !1 z2 !1 z3 !1 .z1 C 1/2 .z2 C 1/2 .z3 C 1/2

Therefore we need to compute

x.z/l
Res dz
z!1 .z  a/2

with a D 1. First integrate by parts

x.z/l x0 .z/
Res 2
dz D l Res x.z/l1 dz
z!1 .z  a/ z!1 za
1  z2
D l Res x.z/l1 dz
z!1 za
dz
D l Res x.z/l1 .z C a/ 2
z!1 z
3.3 Higher Topology and Topological Recursion 99

then use the binomial formula for x.z/l1 :

x.z/l dz
Res dz D l l Res .z C 1=z/l1 .z C a/ 2
z!1 .z  a/2 z!1 z
X
l1
.l  1/ dz
D l l Res zl12j .z C a/ 2
jD0
j .l  1  j/ z!1 z

if l D 2k C 1 is odd only j D .l  1/=2 D k contributes:

.2k/
l l
k k
and if l D 2k is even, only j D k  1 contributes:

.2k  1/
a l l :
.k  1/ k

In both cases we obtain:

l
 l al1
l=2 .l  1/=2

This gives:

.0/ l1 Cl2 Cl3 Q Q Q

Tl1 ;l2 ;l3 D  Cl1 Cl2 Cl3 .1 C .1/l1 Cl2 Cl3 /:
2 y0 .1/


For instance for quadrangulations we have:
  X
.0/ 12 1 .2n  1/
T4;4;4 D .12/3 1C p D t5 26 3n .tt4 /n3
2t 1  12tt4 n
.n C 2/ .n  3/

i.e. the number of planar quadrangulations where all n faces, including the three
.2n1/
marked faces, are quadrangles, is 26 3n .nC2/ .n3/ .
For triangulations we find (with the notations of Sect. 3.1.8, r  r3 D 8tt32 )

.0/ 27 .1 C r/.1  r/4 .5 C 7r  3r2  r3 /

T3;3;3 D
32 t37 .3r2  1/
X 23n .n  1/.2n  1/ . 3n /
D 27 t4 t3 2
.tt32 /n2
n2
.n C 2/ . n
2 /
100 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

in other words, the number of planar triangulations where all 2n faces, including the
23n .n1/.2n1/ . 3n2 /
three marked faces, are triangles, is .nC2/ . n2 / .

3.3.4.2 The Genus 1 Disk (g D 1; k D 1), the lid

.1/
Let us compute the generating function !1 , i.e. count maps of genus 1 with one
.1/
boundary, elements of M1 , i.e. maps drawn on a disk with one handle (a lid).

Formula Eq. (3.3.3) gives:

 
.1/ 1 1 1 dz 1
!1 .z0 / D Res  :
2 z!1 .z0  z/ z0  1=z 2y.z/x .1=z/ .z  1=z/2
0

After computing the residues this gives

0 1
y00 .1/ y000 .1/
.1/ 1 1 1 1 C 0
y .1/ C 0
3y .1/
!1 .z0 / D @ C  A
16 y0 .1/ .z0  1/4 .z0  1/3 2.z0  1/2
0 00 .1/ 000 .1/
1
1 1 1 1  yy0 .1/ C y3y0 .1/
C @   A:
16 y0 .1/ .z0 C 1/4 .z0 C 1/3 2.z0 C 1/2

(3.3.4)

In terms of moments:
p  
.1/ 1 1 MC;1 1
.x0  a/.x0  b/ W1 .x0 / D C 
16MC;0 .x0  a/2 .x0  a/ 2 .x0  a/
 
1 1 M;1 1
C C C :
16M;0 .x0  b/2 .x0  b/ 2 .x0  b/

Example Quadrangulations p
Equation (3.3.4) gives (with r D 1  12tt4 ):

.1/ z  1 C r1 1 C r1 1  r2 

!1 .z/ D  C C
2t .1  z2 /4 .1  z2 /3 12 .1  z2 /2
3.3 Higher Topology and Topological Recursion 101

and:
 
.1/ 1 1 1
T4 D p
6t4 1  12 tt4 1  12 tt4

! !
.1/
X 1=2 X .2n  1/

T4 D 2t 1C .1/n1
.12tt4 /n1 D 2t 1 .12t4 /n1
n1
n n1
n 2n

D t C 15t2 t4 C 198t3 t42 C : : :

i.e. the number of rooted quandrangulations of genus 1 with n faces is:

   
1 .2n  1/ 3n 2n .2n/
1 .12/ D
n
2  : (3.3.5)
6 n 2n 6 n n

This is indeed a positive integer.

Example Triangulations
Equation (3.3.4) gives

.1/ t3 z3 C 3 t2 t3 z2 .1 C z2 / C 6 tt32 z.1  6z2 C z4 / C 9 t33 .1  5z2  5z4 C z6 /

!1 .z/ D 
.t2  4 6 t32 /2 .1  z2 /4

.1/ .1/
and, after taking the residue T3 D  Res 1 !1 .z/ x.z/3 dz, we get (with the
notations of Sect. 3.1.8, r  r3 D 8tt32 )

.1/ 1 1  r2
T3 D :
2t3 .1  3r2 /2

Let us write it as

.1/ 1 X
T3 D cn .8tt32 /n
t3 n

D tt3 C 40 t2 t33 C 1368 t3 t5 C O.t4 t37 /:

We have

1 1  r2 .1  3r2 / dr
cn D Res
2 r!1 .1  3r2 /2 .r.1  r2 //nC1
1 1u du
D Res change of variable r2 D u
4 u!1 .1  3u/ unC3=2 .1  u/nC1
1 1 du
D Res
4 u!1 .1  3u/ u nC3=2 .1  u/n
102 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

1 .1 C v/2nC1=2
D Res dv change of variable u D 1=.1 C v/
4 v!0 v n .2  v/

1 X k
n1
.1 C v/2nC1=2
D 2 Res dv
8 kD0 v!0 v nk
 
1 X k
n1
2n C 12
D 2
8 kD0 nk1

1 X
n1
.4n C 1/
D :
2nC2 kD0
k .4n C 1  2k/

3.3.4.3 Quadrangulations Genus 2

.2/
To genus 2, computing !1 gives:

.2/ .1 C r/3  105 105

!1 .z/ D z  .1  z2 /10 C .1  z2 /9
r 3 t3 8 2
7 .29 C 529 r/ 7 .29 C 109 r/
 .1  z2 /8 C .1  z2 /7
48 r 16 r
7 C 94 r C 67 r2 2 6 84 C 113 r  71 r2
 .1  z / C .1  z2 /5
8 r2 48 r2
14 C 57 r  78 r2 C 7 r3 2 4 14  27 r C 12 r2 C r3
 .1  z / C .1  z2 /3
96 r3 96 r3
14  41 r C 39 r2  11 r3  r4 
2 2
 .1  z /
576 r4

from which we have

  p
.2/ 13 1 7
T4 D C  t4 with r D 1  12tt4
2 r6 2 r5 r7
D 45 tt42 C 2007 t2 t43 C O.t45 /:

That is, the number of rooted quandrangulations of genus 2 with n faces is:

n.n  1/  2n  1 28n C 13 
D .3/n2  13 4n2 :
4 .n  1/ n 15
3.4 Closed Surfaces 103

3.4 Closed Surfaces

The topological recursion of Theorem 3.3.1 applies only to k  1, i.e. maps with at
least one boundary.
.g/
Closed surfaces are surfaces with no boundary, i.e. elements of M0 . We want to
.g/ .g/
compute their generating function Fg D W0 D !0 .

X X n ./ n4 ./
t33 t4
n ./
: : : tdd
Fg .t; t3 ; : : : ; td / D tv :
v .g/
#Aut./
2M0 .v/

As usual in algebraic geometry, unstable maps require a special treatment, i.e.

F0 and F1 are in fact less regular than Fg with g  2. For example, Fg with g  2
will always be an algebraic expression, whereas F0 and F1 also contain logarithmic
terms as we shall see below.

3.4.1 General Considerations

The way to compute Fg is through its derivatives. Indeed, it is clear from the
definition of the formal matrix integral that for every l D 3; : : : ; d:

@ ln Z N
D < Tr M l >
@tl lt

i.e.

@Fg 1 .g/ 1 .g/

D Tl D  Res xl W1 .x/ dx
@tl l l x!1

and more generally:

1 1
@ < Tr x1 M : : : Tr xk M >c N 1 1
D < Tr : : : Tr Tr M l >c
@tl lt x1  M xk  M

which can be written (for 2g  2 C k > 0):

.g/
@Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk / 1 .g/
D  Res WkC1 .x; x1 ; : : : ; xk / xl dx
@tl l x!1
104 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

or:

@ !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk /
.g/
1 .g/
D Res ! .z; z1 ; : : : ; zk / x.z/l dz:
@tl l z!1 kC1
x.z1 /;:::;x.zk /

Let us summarize it as a theorem:

Theorem 3.4.1

@Fg 1 .g/ 1 .g/ 1 .g/

D Tl D  Res xl W1 .x/ dx D  Res x.z/l !1 .z/ dz: (3.4.1)
@tl l l x!1 l z!1

And for k  1:

.g/
@Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk / 1 .g/
D  Res WkC1 .x; x1 ; : : : ; xk / xl dx (3.4.2)
@tl l x!1

or for 2g  2 C k  0:

@!k .z1 ; : : : ; zk /
.g/
1 .g/
D Res ! .z; z1 ; : : : ; zk / x.z/l dz: (3.4.3)
@tl l z!1 kC1
x.z1 /;:::;x.zk /

In other words, taking a derivative is an operation which increases the number of

boundaries k ! k C 1.
For k  1 and 2g  2 C k > 0, this relation can be inverted, with the following
theorem which decreases k by 1:
Theorem 3.4.2 For k  1 and 2g  2 C k > 0 we have

.g/ 1 .g/
!k .z1 ; : : : ; zk / D Res .z/ !kC1 .z1 ; : : : ; zk ; z/ dz
2  2g  k z!1

where

0 .z/ D y.z/x0 .z/:

Proof This theorem is a general property of symplectic invariants (see Chap. 7), and
we refer to [34] for the general proof.
Here, let us do the proof for maps.
Assume k  1. We shall prove by recursion on 2g C k that

.g/ .g/
Res .z/ !kC1 .z1 ; : : : ; zk ; z/ dz D .2  2g  k/ !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk /:
z!1
3.4 Closed Surfaces 105

First let us show that it holds for 2g  2 C k D 0, i.e. for .g; k/ D .0; 2/. We have

.0/ 1 1
!3 .z1 ; z2 ; z/ D
2 y .1/ .z1  1/ .z2  1/2 .z  1/2
0 2

1 1
C (3.4.4)
2 y0 .1/ .z1 C 1/2 .z2 C 1/2 .z C 1/2

which gives

.0/ 0 .1/ 1
Res .z/ !3 .z1 ; z2 ; z/ dz D
z!1 2 y .1/ .z1  1/ .z2  1/2
0 2

0 .1/ 1
C D0
2 y .1/ .z1 C 1/ .z2 C 1/2
0 2

which vanishes because 0 .1/ D 0 .1/ D 0.

Assume that we have already proved the theorem for all g0 ; k0 such that 2g0  2 C
0
k < 2g  2 C k. Now consider k  1 and 2g  2 C k > 0, write L D fz1 ; : : : ; zk1 g.
We have, from the topological recursion of Theorem 3.3.1:

.g/
Res .zk / !kC1 .z0 ; L; zk / dzk
zk !1
 
.zk / dzk .zk / dzk dz
D Res Res 
zk !1 z!1 .z0  z/ z0  1=z 4y.z/x0 .1=z/
h X
g 0
X
.0/ .g/ 1 .h/ .gh/ 1
!2 .z; zk /!k . ; L/ C !2CjJj .z; J; zk /!kjJj . ; L=J/
z hD0 JL
z

Xg
X0
.g/ .0/ 1 .h/ .gh/ 1
C!1Ck .z; L/!2 . ; zk / C !1CjJj .z; J/!1CkjJj . ; L=J; zk /
z hD0 JL
z
1 i
.g1/
C!kC2 .z; ; L; zk /
z
P P
where as usual h 0J means that we exclude .h D 0; J D ;/ and .h D g; J D L/
from the sum.
For the moment, we first compute the residue at z ! 1, and then at zk !
1. We can exchange the order, by pushing the small circle where zk is integrated
through that of z. By doing so, we may pick a pole at zk D z or zk D 1=z:

Res Res D Res Res C Res Res :

zk !1 z!1 z!1 zk !1 z!1 zk !z;1=z

The only cases where there can be a pole at zk D z or zk D 1=z, is when we have
.0/ .0/ .g0 /
a !2 .z; zk / or !2 .1=z; zk /, because all the other !k0 have no pole at coinciding
106 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

points. That gives:

.g/
Res .zk / !kC1 .z0 ; L; zk / dzk
zk !1
 
.zk / dzk .zk / dzk dz
D Res Res 
z!1 zk !1 .z0  z/ z0  1=z 4y.z/x0 .1=z/
hX
g 0
X .h/ .gh/ 1
!2CjJj .z; J; zk /!kjJj . ; L=J/
hD0 JL
z

X 0
g X
1 1 i
.h/ .gh/ .g1/
C !1CjJj .z; J/!1CkjJj . ; L=J; zk / C !kC2 .z; ; L; zk /
hD0 JL
z z
 
.zk / dzk .zk / dzk dz
C Res Res 
z!1 zk !1 .z0  z/ z0  1=z 4y.z/x0 .1=z/
h i
.0/ .g/ 1 .g/ .0/ 1
!2 .z; zk /!k . ; L/ C !k .z; L/!2 . ; zk /
z z
 
.zk / dzk .zk / dzk dz
C Res Res 
z!1 zk !z;1=z .z0  z/ z0  1=z 4y.z/x0 .1=z/
h i
.0/ .g/ 1 .g/ .0/ 1
!2 .z; zk /!k . ; L/ C !k .z; L/!2 . ; zk /
z z

In the first line, the residues in zk ! 1 are evaluated by the recursion hypothesis,
in the second line there is no pole at zk D 1, and in the last line we have

.0/ .zk / dzk

Res !2 .z; zk / .zk / dzk D Res D 0 .z/ D y.z/ x0 .z/:
zk !z zk !z .z  zk /2

That gives

.g/
Res .zk / !kC1 .z0 ; L; zk / dzk
zk !1
 
1 1 dz
D Res 
z!1 .z0  z/ z0  1=z 4y.z/x0 .1=z/
hXg
X0
.h/ .gh/ 1
.2  2h  1  jJj/!1CjJj .z; J/!k#J . ; L=J/
hD0 JL
z

X
g 0
X .h/ .gh/ 1
C .2  2g C 2h  k C jJj/!1CjJj .z; J/!k#J . ; L=J/
hD0 JL
z

.g1/ 1 i
C.2  2.g  1/  .k C 1// !kC1 .z; ; L/
z
3.4 Closed Surfaces 107

 
1 1 dz
C Res 
z!1 .z0  z/ z0  1=z 4y.z/x0 .1=z/
h i
.g/ 1 .g/
x0 .z/ y.z/!k . ; L/ C x0 .1=z/ y.1=z/!k .z; L/ :
z
.g/ .g/
Notice that y.1=z/ D y.z/, x0 .1=z/ D z2 x0 .z/, and !k .1=z; L/ D z2 !k .z; L/,
the last line is thus worth:
  h i
1 1 dz .g/
 Res  2 !k .z; L/ :
z!1 .z0  z/ z0  1=z 4
The only poles of the integrand are at z D 1 and z D z0 or z D 1=z0 . By moving
the integration contour we find that the last line is thus
  h i
1 1 dz .g/
Res  2 !k .z; L/
z!z0 ;1=z0 .z0  z/ z0  1=z 4
1 .g/ 1 .g/
D  !k .z0 ; L/  z2 ! .1=z0 ; L/
2 2 0 k
.g/
D !k .z0 ; L/:

Therefore we find:
.g/
Res .zk / !kC1 .z0 ; L; zk / dzk
zk !1
 
1 1 dz
D .2  2g  .k  1// Res 
z!1 .z0  z/ z0  1=z 4y.z/x0 .1=z/
hXX
0 g
1 i
.h/ .gh/ 1 .g1/
!1CjJj .z; J/!kjJj . ; L=J/ C !kC1 .z; ; L/
hD0 JL
z z
.g/
!k .z0 ; L/
.g/
D .2  2g  k/ !k .z0 ; L/

which proves the theorem. .

3.4.2 The Generating Function of Stable Maps of Genus  2

Fg is obtained as the k D 0 case of Theorem 3.4.2. Indeed, what we are going to

prove is that

@ 1 .g/ 1 .g/ 1 .g/

Res .z/ !1 .z/ dz D Tk D Res x.z/k !1 .z/ dz:
@tk 2  2g z!1 k k z!1
108 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

1 .g/
This will prove that Fg coincides with 22g Res z!1 .z/ !1 .z/ dz, up to a
constant independent of tk , and which can be computed at tk D 0, i.e. for the
Gaussian matrix model. It results:
Theorem 3.4.3

B2g t22g 1 .g/

8g  2 ; Fg D C Res .z/ !1 .z/ dz
2g .2  2g/ 2  2g z!1

where 0 .z/ D y.z/x0 .z/, and B2g is the 2gth Bernoulli number (B2 D 1=6, B4 D
1=30, B6 D 1=42, B8 D 1=30, B10 D 5=66, . . . ).
Proof We have

@ .g/
Res .z/ !1 .z/ dz
@tk z!1

@.z/ @ .g/
!1 .z/ dz :
.g/
D Res !1 .z/ dz C Res .z/
z!1 @tk x.z/ z!1 @tk x.z/

From Theorem 3.4.1, we have

@ .g/ 1
!1 .z/ dz D
.g/
Res x.z0 /k !2 .z; z0 / dz dz0 ;
@tk x.z/ k z0 !1

and thus

@ .g/ 1
!1 .z/ dz D
.g/
Res .z/ Res 0Res .z/ x.z0 /k !2 .z; z0 / dz dz0 :
z!1 @tk x.z/ k z!1 z !1

The residue at z ! 1 is computed by Theorem 3.4.2, and gives

@ .g/ 1
! .z/ dz D
.g/
Res .z/ .1  2g/ 0Res x.z0 /k !1 .z0 / dz0 :
z!1 @tk 1 x.z/ k z !1

And since d=dx D y, we have from Lemma 3.1.4

@.z/ x.z/k .x.z/k / .x.z/k /C  .x.z/k /
 D  D :
@tk x.z/ 2k k 2k

By the symmetry z $ 1=z, we see that

.g/ .g/
Res .x.z0 /k /C !1 .z0 / dz0 D  Res .x.z0 /k / !1 .z0 / dz0 :
z0 !1 z0 !1
3.4 Closed Surfaces 109

.g/
Then, notice that the only poles of .x.z0 /k / !1 .z0 / are at z0 D 1 and z0 D 0,
therefore
.g/ .g/ .g/
Res .x.z0 /k / !1 .z0 / dz0 D  Res
0
.x.z0 /k / !1 .z0 / dz0 D 0Res .x.z0 /k /C !1 .z0 / dz0
z0 !1 z !0 z !1

.g/
(where we have used the symmetry z $ 1=z again). Since .x.z0 /k / !1 .z0 / has no
pole at 1, we can add it, and obtain

.g/ .g/
Res .x.z0 /k / !1 .z0 / dz0 D 0Res x.z0 /k !1 .z0 / dz0 ;
z0 !1 z !1

which implies

@.z/ .g/ 1 .g/
Res ! .z/ dz D Res x.z0 /k !1 .z0 / dz0 ;
z!1 @tk x.z/ 1 k z0 !1

and thus

@ .g/ .2  2g/ .g/ @ Fg

Res .z/ !1 .z/ dz D Res x.z0 /k !1 .z0 / dz0 D .2  2g/ :
@tk z!1 k 0
z !1 @tk

1 .g/
Therefore Fg  22g Res z!1 .z/ !1 .z/ dz is independent of tk . It can be
computed at all tk D 0, i.e. using the Gaussian matrix integral, for which, it is
B t22g
known that Fg .Gaussian/ D 2g2g.22g/ . 
Again this theorem is a general property of symplectic invariants, see Chap. 7.
Example Quadrangulations
A direct computation of the residue in Theorem 3.4.3 gives
 
89r5 C 20r4 C 130r3  100r2  65r C 56 B4
F2 D t2 8 5

5 9 2 r 8
15 3 2007 2 4 28323 3 5
D tt C t t4 C t t4 C : : :
4 4 16 10
1 X  .2n C 3/ 
D .12tt4 / nC2
.28n C 65/  195.n C 1/ ;
5 33 28 t2 n1 22n n .n C 2/

p
where we have written r D 1  12 t t4 .
110 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

3.4.3 Planar Maps

We want to compute F0 . The result has been found by many authors [4, 5, 31], and
can be written as follows:
Theorem 3.4.4 The generating function of planar maps is any of the following
three equivalent expressions
  2 
1 .0/ dz 3t2
F0 D Res V.x/W1 .x/dx C t Res V.x/ C C t2 ln
2 z!1 z!1 z 2 t
1 X 2 2t
D .ujC1  uj1 /2 C .1/ j .u2j1  u2jC1 /
2 j1
j j
 2 
3t2
C C t2 ln
2 t
 2 
1 X 2 3t2
D jvj C 4t .1/ j v2j C C t2 ln (3.4.5)
2 j1 2 t

P
where V.x.z// D 2v0 C j1 vj .zj C zj /.
Proof It is sufficient to prove that its derivative with respect to any tl , is:

@F0 1 1 .0/
D < Tr M l >.0/ D  Res xl W1 .x/ dx
@tl l l z!1

and that the initial conditions (tl D 0) agree.

Let us compute @=@tl of Eq. (3.4.5).
First, notice that at fixed x.z/ we have:

d x.z/ @z @ @ 1
D 0 D x0 .z/ C C .z C /;
d tl @tl @tl @tl z

and thus

@z dz  @ @ 1 
D C .z C /
@tl dx @tl @tl z

which implies after dividing by z:

@ ln z d ln z  @ @ 1 
D C .z C /
@tl dx @tl @tl z
3.4 Closed Surfaces 111

and applying d=dx:

d @ @  dz  d  dz  @ @ 1 
ln z D D C .z C / :
dx @tl @tl zdx dx zdx @tl @tl z

x2 Pd xl
Since V.x/ D 2  lD3 tl l , we have:

@ dz  xl dz dz  @ @ 1 
Res V.x/ D  Res C Res V 0 .x/ C .z C / :
@tl 1 z 1 l z 1 z @tl @tl z
Pd1
Since we have V 0 .x.z// D iD0 ui .zi C zi /, we have:

dz t dz
0 D 2 u0 D  Res V 0 .x/ ; D u1 D  Res V 0 .x/ dz D  Res V 0 .x/ 2
1 z 1 1 z

therefore:

@ dz  xl dz 2t @
Res V.x/ D  Res 
@tl 1 z 1 l z @tl

i.e.

@ dz  xl dz
Res V.x/ C t ln 2 D  Res D r0
@tl 1 z 1 l z

where we have defined

1 l Xl X
l
x D r0 C rj .zj Czj / D r0 CrC .z/Cr .z/ ; r .z/ D rj zj D r .1=z/:
l jD1 jD1

.0/
For k D 1 and g D 0, Eq. (3.4.2), together with !2 .z1 ; z2 / D 1=.z1  z2 /2 ,
becomes:

@W1 .x/
.0/
1 .0/
D  Res W2 .x; x2 / xl2 dx2
@tl l 2
x !1
x
 
1 1 1
D  Res  xl2 dx2
l x2 !1 x0 .z/x0 .z2 /.z  z2 /2 .x  x2 /2
1
!
1 X 1 z j1 x j1
D j Res  xl2 dx2
l jD1 x2 !1 x0 .z/x0 .z2 / z2jC1 x2jC1

1 X z j1
D xl1  Res j x.z2 /l dz2
l x0 .z/ z2 !1 j z2jC1
112 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

.0/
Since x0 .z/W1 .x/ contains only negative powers of z, we have:

@W1 .x/
.0/
0 1
x .z/ D .x.z/l1 x0 .z// D  ..x.z//l /0 D r .z/0 : (3.4.6)
@tl l
x

That implies:

@ .0/ xl .0/
Res V.x/ W1 .x/ dx C 2 Res W1 .x/ dx
@tl 1 1 l

.0/
@W1 .x/ xl .0/
D Res V.x/ dx C Res W1 .x/ dx
1 @tl 1 l

.0/
D Res V 0 .x/ r .z/ x0 .z/dz C Res .r0 C rC .z// W1 .x/ dx
1 1
.0/
D Res V 0 .x/ r .z/ x0 .z/dz C Res rC .z/ W1 .x/ dx  tr0
1 1
.0/ .0/
D Res .V 0 .x/  W1 .x// r .z/ x0 .z/dz C Res rC .z/ W1 .x/ dx  tr0
1 1
.0/ .0/
D Res W1 .x.1=z// r .z/ x0 .z/dz C Res rC .z/ W1 .x/ dx  tr0
1 1
.0/ .0/
D Res W1 .x.z// rC .z/ x0 .z/ dz C Res rC .z/ W1 .x/ dx  tr0
0 1
.0/ .0/
D Res W1 .x.z// rC .z/ dx C Res rC .z/ W1 .x/ dx  tr0
0 1
D tr0
.0/
indeed it gives tr0 , since W1 .z/rC .z/x0 .z/ has no other poles than 0 and 1.
That implies:

@ .0/ dz xl .0/
. Res V.x/W1 dx C t Res V C t2 ln 2 / D 2 Res W1 dx
@tl 1 1 z 1 l

which is the result we sought.

This shows that F0 is given by Eq. (3.4.5), up to an integration constant
independent of tk s. The constant can be computed with tk D 0 for k  3, i.e. a
quadratic potential V.x/ D t2 2 x2 , which we have already studied in Sect. 3.1.9,
2
and for which we should have F0 D  t2 ln .t2 /. In that case we have (see the
example Sect. 3.1.9):

t p 1 t 1
u0 D 0 ; u1 D ; D  t=t2 ; x.z/ D .zC / ; y.z/ D .z /
z 2 z
3.4 Closed Surfaces 113

The expression Eq. (3.4.5) gives as expected:

1 2 2 3t2  t2
u1  2t u1 C C t2 ln . 2 =t/ D  ln .t2 /:
2 2 2 2

There are also nice expressions for the derivatives of F0 with respect to t:
Theorem 3.4.5 Derivatives of F0 with respect to t:
 2
@F0 dz
D Res V.x.z// C t C t ln
@t z!1 z t
 2

D t ln C t  2v0
t
 2
@2 F0
D ln
@t2 t

1 @3 F0 dz 1  1 1 
C 3 D Res 3 0 D C :
t @t z!1 z x .z/ y0 .z/ 2 y0 .1/ y0 .1/

Proof Specialize Eq. (3.1.12) of Lemma 3.1.4 to z D 1 and z D 1, at which x0 .z/
vanishes, this implies:

@ @ @x.1/ 1
2 D D 0 ;
@t @t @t y .1/

from which we get

   
@ 1 1 1 @ 1 1 1
D 0
C 0 ; D  :
@t 4 y .1/ y .1/ @t 2 y0 .1/ y0 .1/

This also implies that xP D @x=@t at fixed z is xP D P C P .zC1=z/ (we denoteP D @=@t
and 0 D @=@z), and applying the chain rule, we find that at fixed x we have

@z 1 1 P
D 0 .P C P .z C 1=z// D  0 .P C .x.z/  //;
@t x .z/ x .z/

and

@ ln z 1
D 0 .P C P .z C 1=z//:
@t z x .z/
114 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

Then, use the first expression of F0 , namely:

 2
.0/ 3t2
2 F0 D Res V.x/W1 .x/dx C t Res V.x/ d ln z C C t2 ln
z!1 z!1 2 t

and take a derivative of each term with respect to t at fixed x, that gives
 
@F0 dz @ ln z 2 P
2 D 2 Res V.x/ C t Res V.x/ d C 2t C 2t ln C 2t2 :
@t z!1 z z!1 @t t

Let us integrate the second term by parts, and get

@F0 dz dz P
2 D 2 Res V.x/ C t Res V 0 .x/ .P C .x.z/  //
@t z!1 z z!1 z
2 P
C2t C 2t ln C 2t2
t
dz 2
D 2 Res V.x/ C 2t C 2t ln
z!1 z t
 
t dz t P dz
C . P  P / Res V 0 .x/ C 0
Res x V .x/ C 2t :
z!1 z z!1 z

We have

dz @ .0/
Res V 0 .x/ D Res V 0 .x/ W1 .x/ dx D 0;
z!1 z @t x!1
dz @ .0/ @
Res xV 0 .x/ D Res xV 0 .x/ W1 .x/ dx D  t2 D 2t:
z!1 z @t x!1 @t

This implies the result for @F0 =@t.

Then, one easily finds the last equality that @2 F0 =@t2 D ln 2 =t. 

3.4.4 Genus 1 Maps

.1/
Genus 1 closed maps are elements of M0 . Their generating function is given by
the following theorem.
Theorem 3.4.6 The generating function of genus 1 maps is

1  2 0
F1 D  ln y .1/ y0 .1/=t2 :
24
This result was derived many times, in particular in [4, 22, 31].
3.4 Closed Surfaces 115

Proof Let us denote @=@tk D P, and @=@z D0 . From Eq. (3.1.13) of Lemma 3.1.4, we
have
1 
xP y0  yP x0 D Hk0 ; Hk .z/ D .x.z/k /C  .x.z/k / :
2k
Taking the first derivative, we have

xP 0 y0 C xP y00  yP 0 x0  yP x00 D Hk00

and the second derivative

xP 00 y0 C 2Px0 y00 C xP y000  yP 00 x0  2Py0 x00  yP x000 D Hk000 :

At z D 1, we have x0 .z/ D 0 and xP 0 .1/ D 0, therefore we get

xP .1/ y00 .1/  yP .1/ x00 .1/ D Hk00 .1/

i.e.

y00 .1/ Hk00 .1/

yP .1/ D xP .1/  00 ;
x00 .1/ x .1/

and

xP 00 .1/ y0 .1/ C xP .1/ y000 .1/  2Py0 .1/ x00 .1/  yP .1/ x000 .1/ D Hk000 .1/

i.e.

yP 0 .1/ H 000 .1/ 1 y000 .1/ x000 .1/

0
D  00 k 0 C xP 00 .1/ 00 C xP .1/ 00 0
 yP .1/ 00
y .1/ 2x .1/ y .1/ 2x .1/ 2x .1/ y .1/ 2x .1/ y0 .1/

yP 0 .1/ Hk000 .1/ Hk00 .1/ x000 .1/ 1

0
D  00 0
C 00 2 0
C xP 00 .1/ 00
y .1/ 2x .1/ y .1/ 2x .1/ y .1/ 2x .1/
 000 000 00 
y .1/ x .1/y .1/
C xP .1/ 00 0
 00 2 0 :
2x .1/ y .1/ 2x .1/ y .1/

Beside, we have
 
Hk0 .1/ xP 00 .1/ P 1 Hk0 .1/ Hk0 .1/
xP .1/ D P C 2 P D ; D D  :
y0 .1/ x00 .1/ 4 y0 .1/ y0 .1/
116 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

Therefore
 
1 yP 0 .1/ P Hk000 .1/ Hk00 .1/ y000 .1/ y00 .1/
D   C Hk0 .1/ C
24 y0 .1/ 48 96 y0 .1/ 32 y0 .1/ 96 y0 .1/2 32 y0 .1/2

and, similarly at z D 1 we obtain

1 yP 0 .1/ P Hk000 .1/ Hk00 .1/

D C 
24 y0 .1/ 48 96 y0 .1/ 32 y0 .1/
 
y000 .1/ y00 .1/
CHk0 .1/  C :
96 y0 .1/2 32 y0 .1/2

From Eq. (3.3.4), we have

0 1
y00 .1/ y000 .1/
.1/ 1 1 1 1 C 0 .1/ C 3y 0 .1/
!1 .z/ D @ C 
y
A
16 y0 .1/ .z  1/4 .z  1/3 2.z  1/2
0 00 .1/ 000 .1/
1
1 1 1 1  yy0 .1/ C y3y0 .1/
 @   A
16 y0 .1/ .z C 1/4 .z C 1/3 2.z C 1/2

and thus
.1/
Res Hk .z/ !1 .z/ dz
z!1
0 1
y00 .1/ y000 .1/
1 000 00 1C C
D @ Hk .1/ C Hk .1/  Hk0 .1/ y0 .1/ 3y0 .1/ A
0
16 y .1/ 6 2 2
0 1
y00 .1/ y000 .1/
1 000 00 1 C
 @ Hk .1/  Hk .1/  Hk0 .1/ y0 .1/ 3y0 .1/ A
16 y0 .1/ 6 2 2

i.e.
.1/ 1 yP 0 .1/ 1 yP 0 .1/ P
Res Hk .z/ !1 .z/ dz D   C
z!1 24 y0 .1/ 24 y0 .1/ 24
 0 
1 Hk .1/ Hk0 .1/
 
32 y0 .1/ y0 .1/
1 yP 0 .1/ 1 yP 0 .1/ P P
D 0
 0
C 
24 y .1/ 24 y .1/ 24 8
1 yP 0 .1/ 1 yP 0 .1/ 2 P
D 0
 0
 :
24 y .1/ 24 y .1/ 24
3.4 Closed Surfaces 117

Eventually, we arrive at

1 @ .1/
ln 2 y0 .1/ y0 .1/ D  Res Hk .z/ !1 .z/ dz:
24 @tk z!1

.1/
The only poles of Hk .z/ !1 .z/ are at z D 1; 1; 0; 1, and thus, moving the
integration contour we have:

1 @ .1/ .1/
ln 2 y0 .1/ y0 .1/ D Res Hk .z/ !1 .z/ dz C Res Hk .z/ !1 .z/ dz:
24 @tk 1 0

.1/ .1/
Near z D 0, we use the symmetry Hk .1=z/ D Hk .z/ and !1 .1=z/ D z2 !1 .z/,
and thus
.1/ .1/ .1/
Res Hk .z/ !1 .z/ dz D Res Hk .1=z/ !1 .1=z/ d.1=z/ D Res Hk .z/ !1 .z/ dz:
0 1 1

Then, near z D 1, 2k Hk .z/ D .x.z/k /C  .x.z/k / , and it is clear that

.1/
.x.z/k / !1 .z/ has no pole at z D 1, thus:

.1/ 1 .1/
2 Res Hk .z/ !1 .z/ dz D Res x.z/k !1 .z/ dz:
1 k 1
This implies that

1 @ 1 .1/ @F1
ln 2 y0 .1/ y0 .1/ D Res x.z/k !1 .z/ dz D 
24 @tk k 1 @tk
1
where we used Eq. (3.4.1). This proves that F1 C 24 ln 2 y0 .1/ y0 .1/ is independent
of tk , and can be computed when all tk D 0 8 k, i.e. for the Gaussian matrix model,
1
and we find that it is worth 24 ln t2 . 
Example: Quadrangulations p
For quadrangulations, that gives (r D 1  12tt4 ):

1 1Cr
F1 D ln
12 2r
tt4 15 t2 t42 33 t3 t43 2511 t4 t44
D C C C C :::
4 8 2 16
 
1 X 3n .2n  1/
D 22n1  .tt4 /n :
12 n1 n n .n  1/
118 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

3.4.5 Derivatives of Fgs

The following derivative formulae are very useful:

Theorem 3.4.7

@Fg 1 .g/ 1 .g/

D  Res !1 .z/ x.z/k dz D Res !1 .z/ x.z/k dz
@tk k z!1 k z!0
1 .g/ 
D Res !1 .z/ .x.z/k /C  .x.z/k / dz
2k z!1

@!n .z1 ; : : : ; zn /
.g/
1 .g/
D Res ! .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn / x.z/k dz
@tk k z!1 nC1
x.zi /

1 .g/
D Res ! .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn / x.z/k dz
k z!0 nC1
1 .g/ 
D Res !nC1 .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn / .x.z/k /C  .x.z/k / dz:
2k z!1

This theorem can be seen as a consequence of a general property of the

topological recursion, the form-cycle duality deformation Theorem 7.3.2. For
completeness we give the direct proof for maps:
Proof Using Theorem 3.4.1, we have

@Fg 1 .g/ 1 .g/ 1 .g/

D Tk D  Res xk W1 .x/ dx D  Res x.z/k !1 .z/ dz:
@tk k k x!1 k z!1
.g/
Since !1 .z/ D O.1=z2 / at large z, we can replace x.z/k ! .x.z/k /C by keeping
only positive powers of z:

@Fg 1 .g/
D  Res .x.z/k /C !1 .z/ dz;
@tk k z!1

and we can even add any negative powers of z, for example:

@Fg 1  .g/
D  Res .x.z/k /C  .x.z/k / !1 .z/ dz:
@tk k z!1

Using the symmetry z ! 1=z, we also have

@Fg 1  .g/
D  Res .x.z/k /C  .x.z/k / !1 .z/ dz:
@tk k z!0
3.4 Closed Surfaces 119

and thus adding the 2:

@Fg 1 .x.z/k /C  .x.z/k / .g/

D Res !1 .z/ dz:
@tk 2 z!0;1 k
.g/
x.z/ has poles only at 0 and 1, and so do x.z/k , and !1 .z/ has poles only at
z D 1, and the sum of all residues of a rational fraction has to vanish, therefore:

@Fg 1 .x.z/k /C  .x.z/k / .g/

D Res !1 .z/ dz:
@tk 2 z!1 k

we have proved the third equation of the theorem.

.g/
Theorem 3.4.1, also applies to Wn and gives in the same manner, the fourth
equation. 
There is a similar theorem for the derivatives with respect to t:
Theorem 3.4.8
Z 1
@Fg .g/ .g/
g1; D !1 .z/ dz D  Res !1 .z/ dz ln z;
@t 0 z!1

and more generally for 2g  2 C n  0 we have

Z 1
@!n .z1 ; : : : ; zn /
.g/
.g/
D !nC1 .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn / dz
@t 0
x.zi /
.g/
D  Res !nC1 .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn / dz ln z:
z!1

We shall admit it. This theorem is also a consequence of the form-cycle duality
deformation of topological recursion: Theorem 7.3.2.

3.4.6 Summary Closed Maps

Finally, we have just proved that the Fg s, are the symplectic invariants (see Chap. 7)
of the spectral curve E of Theorem 3.3.1:
Theorem 3.4.9 The Fg s, are the symplectic invariants of the spectral curve E D
.C [ f1g; x; y/ of Theorem 3.3.1:

B2g t22g
Fg D Fg .E/ C
2g .2  2g/
120 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

1
F1 D F1 .E/ C ln t2
24
3t2 t2
F0 D F0 .E/ C  ln t2 :
4 2
Again, this theorem gives an efficient way of computing explicitly the Fg s. It can be
represented diagrammatically as in Sect. 7.4 of Chap. 7. Also, this theorems allows
to compute easily the asymptotic numbers of large maps, as we shall see in Chap. 5.

3.5 Structure Properties

.g/ .g/
So far, we had defined Wn s and W0 D Fg s to be formal series of t, whose
coefficients are polynomials of t3 ; t4 ; : : : ; td , and polynomials of 1=xi :

Wn.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xn / 2 Qf1=xi g; t3 ; t4 ; : : : ; td t:

We didnt consider the question of convergency of the formal series.

Now, from the explicit solution, and from the topological recursion, we see that
.g/
the Wn s, are algebraic combinations of , , and the Zhukovski variables zi z, and
all of them are algebraic functions of t.
.g/
This shows that Wn s are algebraic functions of t, the series are thus convergent
in some disk. Let us be more precise.
Since the topological recursion of Theorem 3.3.1 only amounts to computing
residues at z D 1, all the !g;n s will be polynomials of the Taylor series coefficients
of the function y.z/ at z D 1. We write the Taylor expansion at z D 1
1
X
y.z/  y.1=z/ D 2 y0 .1/ .z  1 C yC;k .z  1/k /
kD2

or at z D 1
1
X
y.z/  y.1=z/ D 2 y0 .1/ .z C 1 C y;k .z C 1/k /:
kD2

Then, the topological recursion of Theorem 3.3.1 can be written:

.g/
X 1 dz 1
!nC1 .z0 ; L/ D Res P
4 y0 ./ z! .z0  z/.zz0  1/ .z  / 1 C 1kD1 ;kC1 .z  /
y k
D1

hX
g 0
X 1 1 i
.h/ .gh/ .g1/
!1C#J .z; J/!1Cn#J . ; L n J/ C !nC2 .z; ; L/ :
hD0 JL
z z

By an easy recursion, this says that

3.5 Structure Properties 121

.g/
Proposition 3.5.1 The stable (2g  2 C n > 0) !n s are polynomials with rational
coefficients, of the 1=.zi 1/, and of the Taylor series coefficients yC;j s and the
y;j s, and of 1=4 y0 .1/:

2g2Cn !n.g/ .z0 ; L/ 2 Q1=.zi  1/; 1=.zi C 1/; 1=y0 .1/; 1=y0.1/; yC;j ; y;j :

There is a lot of redundancy in the parameters y;j s, for example y00 .1/ D 3y0 .1/.
The moments of M.x/, see Definition 3.1.1, are better suited.
The method of moments was introduced by Ambjrn, Chekhov, Kristjansen,
Makeenko in 1993 [5], as thep coefficients of the Taylor series expansion of M.x/
rather than y.z/ D  12 M.x/ .x  a/.x  b/, near z D 1, i.e. near x D a; b:

1
X
M.x/ D MC;0 .1  MC;k .x  a/k /
kD1
1
X
D M;0 .1  M;k .x  b/k /:
kD1

We then use the topological recursion in the form of Theorem 3.3.2:

p .g/
.x0  a/.x0  b/ WnC1 .x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xn /
dx 1 .g/
D Res WkC1 .xI x1 ; : : : ; xk /
x!a;b x0  x M.x/

1 dx 1 .g/
D Res P W .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn /
MC;0 x!a x0  x 1  k1 MC;k .x  a/k nC1
1 dx 1 .g/
C Res P WnC1 .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn /:
M;0 x!b x0  x 1  k1 M;k .x  b/k

From it, it we have (first claimed by [5]) that:

.g/
Theorem 3.5.1 If 2g  2 C n > 0, the !n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / are rational functions
P of the
zi s, with poles only at zi D 1, of degree di C 2, such that di  0 and i di 
6g  6 C 2n.
Moreover, they are rational fractions of and the 3g3Cn first moments M;k s:

Y
n
p
.16 /4g4C2n Wn.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xn / .xi  a/.xi  b/
iD1

4 4
2 Z ; ; 1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 ; f.4 /k MC;k gk3g3Cn; f.4 /k M;k gk3g3Cn
xi  a xi  b
122 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

and more precisely

Y
n
p
.16 /4g4C2n Wn.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xn / .xi  a/.xi  b/
iD1
X X .g;n/
D PN ;d .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I f.4 /k MC;k g; f.4 /k M;k g/
P
i D1 di ; di 3g3Cn

.4 /di C1
Q di C1
;
i .xi  2  2 i /
aCb

.g;n/
where PN ;d .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I f.4 /k MC;k gk3g3Cn ; f.4 /k M;k gk3g3Cn / is a
universal polynomial with integer coefficients.
Or equivalently

Y
n p
44g4C2n .4 /g1 Wn.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xn / .xi  a/.xi  b/
iD1
X X .g;n/
D P;d .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I 1=4 ; fMC;k g; fM;k g/
P
i D1 di ; di 3g3Cn

.4 /di C1
Q di C1
;
i .xi  2  2 i /
aCb

.g;n/
where P;d .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I 1=4 ; fMC;k gk3g3Cn ; fM;k gk3g3Cn / is a univer-
sal homogeneous polynomial with integer coefficients:
it is homogeneous of degree 2g  2 C n of P1=MC;0 and 1=M;0 ,
homogeneous of degree .3g  3 C n  i di / in all the other variables, where
each M;k is considered to be of degree k, and 1= is of degree 1. This explain
that it depends only on the first 3g  3 C n moments M;k s with

k  3g  3 C n:

It is invariant if we change i ! i , and .4 /k M;k ! .4 /k M;k :

.g;n/
PN ;d .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I f.4 /k MC;k g; f.4 /k M;k g/
P
.g;n/
D .1/nC i di PN ;d .1=M;0 ; 1=MC;0 I f.4 /k M;k g; f.4 /k MC;k g/ (3.5.1)

.g;n/
P;d .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I 1=4 ; fMC;k g; fM;k g/
P
.g;n/
D .1/nC i di P;d .1=M;0 ; 1=MC;0 I 1=4 ; f./k M;k g; f.1/k MC;k g/
(3.5.2)
3.5 Structure Properties 123

Proof Let us define the variables xN i such that

 
aCb
xN i D xi  =4 ;
2

N ;k D .4 /k M;k .
and define M
Define, for .g; n/ .0; 2/:

Y
n p
Un.g/ .Nx1 ; : : : ; xN n / D .16 /4g4C2n Wn.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xn / .xi  a/.xi  b/;
iD1

and

.0/ 2x1 x2  12
U2 .x1 ; x2 / D :
4.x1  x2 /2

Define also, for .g; n/ .1; 0/:

N .g/ .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn / D U .g1/ .x; x; x1 ; : : : ; xn /

W nC1 nC2
0
X .h/ .h0 /
C U1C#I .x; I/ U1C#I 0 .x; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; ItI 0 Dfx1 ;:::;xn g

and

N .1/ .x/ D 1
W 1 :
16 .x  1=2/.x C 1=2/

The topological recursion can be written

.g/
UnC1 .x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xn /

16 dx 1 WN .g/ .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn /
nC1
D Res P
N C;k .x  1=2/k .x  1=2/.x C 1=2/
MC;0 x!1=2 x0  x 1  k1 M

16 dx 1 WN .g/ .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn /
nC1
C Res P :
M;0 x!1=2 x0  x 1 
k1
N
M ;k .x C 1=2/ k .x  1=2/.x C 1=2/

First notice that , a or b no longer appear.

We can expand:

1 X
!
1 X Y
l Pl
P D1C N ;ki
M .x
1=2/ iD1 ki
1 N
k1 M;k .x
1=2/k lD1 k1 ;:::;kl iD1
124 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

which involves positive powers of .x

1=2/, whose coefficients are polynomials of
the MN ;ki s with positive integer coefficients.
The Laurent series expansion of 16 W N .g/ .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn / near x D 1=2, involves
nC1
negative powers of .x
1=2/, whose coefficients are, by recursion hypothesis,
polynomials of the M N ;ki s with integer coefficients. Notice that we need the factor
N .1/ .0/
16, for the case W1 .x/, and also when we have some U2 .x; xj / (and there can be
2 of them in a product), so indeed the coefficients are integers.
The Taylor series expansion of .x 1=2/d near x ! 1=2, is:

X1
.d C m  1/
.x 1=2/d D .
1/d .x
1=2/m
mD0
m .d  1/

which also involves only integer coefficients.

We also have

X1
1 .x
1=2/d0
D
x0  x d D0
.x0
1=2/d0 C1
0

X 1 0
2xxj  1=2 0 .x
1=2/d
D .d C 1/
.x  xj /2 0
.xj
1=2/d0C1
d D0
1
X 0
.x
1=2/d
C.xj  1=2 C xj C 1=2/ d0
.xj
1=2/d0C1
d 0 D1

All of them contain powers of .xj 1=2/, with integer coefficients.

The residue picks the coefficient of the term .x
1=2/1.
For a given term in W N .g/ .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn /, not containing any U .0/ , we have, by
nC1 2
recursion hypothesis, terms of the form:

0
Y
n Y
.x
1=2/.dCd C2/ .xj 1=2/dj1 N ;k0
M l
jD1 l

with integer coefficients and where

X
n X
d C d0 D .3g  3 C n  1/  dj  kl0  m0 ; m0  0:
jD1 l

To that, the term 1=.x0 x/ adds a power d0 , and 1=M.x/ adds a power kl for each
MN ;kl , and 1=.x  1=2/.x C 1=2/ adds a power 1 C m. The residues thus keeps the
term where

.d C d0 C 2/ C d0 C m  1 D 1
3.5 Structure Properties 125

i.e.

X
n X X
3g  3 C n C 1 D d0 C dj C kl0 C k l C m C m0
jD1 l l

with m  0 and m0  0.
.0/
A similar equality is found for terms involving some U2 .x; xj /.
This proves the theorem.

For closed maps, we have the n D 0 counterpart of that theorem, except that the
coefficients are not necessarily integers:
Theorem 3.5.2 For g > 1, the generating function Fg of closed maps of genus g, is
a homogeneous polynomial of the moments

g1 Fg 2 Q1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I 1= ; fMC;k gk3g3 ; fM;k gk3g3 :

More precisely

44g4 .4 /g1 Fg D P.g;0/ .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I 1=4 ; fMC;k gk3g3 ; fM;k gk3g3 /

where P.g;0/ .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I 1=4 ; fMC;k gk3g3 ; fM;k gk3g3 / is a homogeneous
polynomial with rational coefficients
of degree 2g  2 of 1=MC;0 and 1=M;0 ,
of degree 3g  3 in all the other variables, where each M;k is considered to be
of degree k, and 1=4 is of degree 1.
.g/
Proof This is easily proved by integrating W1 .x/. Integration does not preserve
integer coefficients, we get rational coefficients.

It is also very convenient to rewrite it in the following form:
Corollary 3.5.1 For g  2

Fg D t22g P.g;0/ .t=MC;0 2 ; t=M;0 2 I 1; f k MC;k gk3g3 ; f k M;k gk3g3 /:

The reason to write it this way, is because 2 M;0 =t and k M;k are dimensionless,
which make them more interesting. See the example of quadrangulations below.
Proof Just use homogeneity. 
Then, notice that the derivatives of y.z/, and the moments M;k , are linear
combinations of the coefficients uk , i.e. they are polynomials of ; and the tk s.
Since and are algebraic functions of the tk s and t, we see that the coefficients
.g/
of !n and Fg are algebraic functions of t and the tk s.
126 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

.g/ .g/
Theorem 3.5.3 When .g; n/ .0; 0/; .1; 0/, !n and Wn , are formal series of
t, which are in fact algebraic. The formal series are convergent in a disk of finite
radius R independent of g and n.
F0 and F1 are not algebraic, they have in addition logarithmic terms, but they
are also convergent in a disk of the same finite radius.
.g/ .g/
Proof We have already mentioned that the !n s and the Wn s are rational
functions of and . Their denominator are powers of M0 and , or in other
words, the denominators are powers of y0 .1/ and y0 .1/.
It is easy to see, that, for generic tk s, and are analytical at t D 0, and they are
algebraic, therefore they are convergent series of t, within a disk of a certain radius
R. The radius R is necessarily finite R < 1, because an algebraic system of equation
has a singularity at the zeros of its discriminant, which is itself a polynomial, and
thus it has zeros.
.g/ .g/
Since the only singularities of !n s and Wn s can come from the singularities
0
of , or the zeros of y .1/, the radius of convergence is independent of g and n.


3.5.1 Singularities

.g/
Therefore, the Wn s have algebraic singularities, of the form:

.tc  t/g;n

where jtc j D R is the radius of convergence, and g;n 2 Q is called a critical

exponent.
Chapter 5 is entirely devoted to the study of those algebraic singularities, and
what they imply for the asymptotic counting of large maps.

3.5.2 Examples

.0/
W3 :

.0/ 1 1 1 1
!3 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 / D
2 y0 .1/ .z0  1/2 .z1  1/2 .z2  1/2
1 1 1 1
C ;
2 y0 .1/ .z0 C 1/ .z1 C 1/ .z2 C 1/2
2 2

Q P
is of the form of Theorem 3.5.1, i.e. i 1=.zi i /di C2 with di  6g6C2n D
0, i.e. all di D 0, i.e. only double poles.
3.5 Structure Properties 127

.0/
In terms of W3 and the moments:

2 p
Y .0/
42 .4 /1 .xi  a/.xi  b/ W3 .x0 ; x1 ; x2 /
iD0
 1 1 1 1 
D2  ;
MC;0 .x0  a/.x1  a/.x2  a/ M;0 .x0  b/.x1  b/.x2  b/
Q P
is of the form of Theorem 3.5.1, i.e. i 1=.xi ai /di C1 with di  3g3Cn D 0,
i.e. all di D 0, i.e. only simple poles.
In the notation of Theorem 3.5.1:

.0;3/ 2 .0;3/ 2
PC;0IC;0IC;0 D ; P;0I;0I;0 D :
MC;0 M;0

.1/
W1 :
For example we have from Eq. (3.3.4):

.1/ 1 1 y000 .1/

!1 .z/ D  C
16 y0 .1/ .z  1/4 0
16 y .1/ .z  1/3 96 y .1/2 .z  1/2
0

1 1 y000 .1/
C   :
16 y0 .1/ .z C 1/4 16 y0 .1/ .z C 1/3 96 y0 .1/2 .z C 1/2

In terms of moments:
p  
.1/ 1 1 1 1
16 .x  a/.x  b/ W1 .x/ D C MC;1 
MC;0 xa 2 x  a
 
1 1 1 1
C C M;1 C :
M;0 xb 2 x  b

It is indeed a polynomial homogeneous of degree 2g  2 C n D 1 in the M;0 ,

it has poles of degree at most 1 C 3g  3 C n D 2 at x D a and x D b, and
the terms inside the brackets are homogenous of degree 3g  3 C n D 1 in
1=.x  a/; 1=.x  b/; M;1 ; 1= .
In the notation of Theorem 3.5.1:
2
.1;1/ 1 .1;1/
MC;1  4
PC;1 D ; PC;0 D
MC;0 MC;0
2
.1;1/ 1 .1;1/
M;1 C 4
P;1 D ; P;0 D :
M;0 M;0
128 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

.0/
W4 :

4 p
Y
.0/
W4 .x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; x4 / .xi  a/.xi  b/
iD1

3 Y 1 1 
4 4
MC;1 X
D 2
C C
MC;0 x  a 16
iD1 i
4 jD1
4.xj  a/

3 Y 1 1 
4 4
M;1 X
C 2
 
M;0 x  b 16
iD1 i
4 jD1
4.xj  b/

1  1 
 C 5 symmetric terms :
16 MC;0 M;0 .x1  a/.x2  a/.x3  b/.x4  b/

In the notation of Theorem 3.5.1:

3
.0;4/ 3 .0;4/ 4 C 3 MC;1
PC;1;C;0;C;0;C;0 D 2
; PC;0;C;0;C;0;C;0 D 2
MC;0 MC;0
3
.0;4/ 3 .0;4/ 4
 3 M;1
P;1;;0;;0;;0 D 2
; P;0;;0;;0;;0 D 2
M;0 M;0
.0;4/ 1
PC;0;C;0;;0;;0 D :
MC;0 M;0

F2 :

 21M 3 29M;2 M;1

3
35M;3 21MC;1
;1
42 4 F2 D 2
C 2
C 2
 2
10M;0 8M;0 24M;0 10MC;0
29MC;1 MC;2 35MC;3 
 2
 2
8MC;0 24MC;0
2
!
2 22MC;1
1 M;1 MC;1 22M;1 43M;2 43MC;2
C  C 2
C 2
C 2
C 2
4 4M;0 MC;0 5M;0 12M;0 5MC;0 12MC;0
!
1 3M;1 3MC;1 181M;1 181MC;1
C  C 2
 2
.4 /2 4M;0 MC;0 4M;0 MC;0 30M;0 30MC;0
!
1 5 181 181
C C 2
C 2
.4 /3 M;0 MC;0 30M;0 30MC;0

which is of the form of Theorem 3.5.2. It involves the M;k up to k D 3.

3.6 Examples of Higher Topologies Computations 129

3.6 Examples of Higher Topologies Computations

3.6.1 Quadrangulations

In Sect. 3.1.7, we enumerated planar rooted quadrangulations. Let us now enumerate

quadrangulations of higher topologies.
We have V.x/ D x2 =2  t4 x4 =4. Let us define:
p
rD 1  12 t t4 :

.0/
The disk amplitude W1 is given by Theorem 3.1.1, with the Zhukovsky change of
variable
2t
x.z/ D .z C 1=z/ ; 2 D ;
1Cr

we have
t
u1 D ; u3 D  t4 3 :

Theorem 3.1.1 gives

 
.0/ u1 u3 t t4 3 t 1 1r
W1 .x.z// D C 3 D  3 D  :
z z z z z 3 .1 C r/ z3

.0/ p
Written in the form W1 D 12 .V 0 .x/  M.x/ .x  a/.x  b/ this gives
 
t 1r x2
M.x/ D t4 .x2  2  2
/Dr   4 :
t4 6 2

The moments are

MC;0 D M;0 D r;
1r 1
MC;1 D  M;1 D ;
3r
1r 1
MC;2 D M;2 D :
3 r 2

For planar quadrangulations without marked faces, applying Theorem 3.4.4, we

find:
 
1 2 2 3t2 2
F0 D .u3  11 /2 C u23  2t .u1  u3 / C t u3 C C t2 ln
2 2 4 2 t
130 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

4 5 t 2 3t2 t2 2
D  C C ln
24 12 8 2 t
2  
t 1 5 3 1Cr
D  C  ln
2 3.1 C r/2 3.1 C r/ 4 2
X 3 .2n  1/
n
D t2 .t t4 /n
n
n .n C 2/
 
2 1 5 r2 r4 4r5 6
Dt ln 2   C  C O.r / : (3.6.1)
2 24 12 8 15

For genus 1 quadrangulations without marked faces, applying Theorem 3.4.6,

with
t 2r
y0 .1/ D y0 .1/ D  ;
1Cr

we find:
 
1 1Cr 1 X 3n 2n .2n/
F1 D ln D 2  .t t4 /n : (3.6.2)
12 2r 24 n1 n n n

We also have

.1/ z.1  r2 / C z3 .8r2 C 6r  2/ C z5 .r2  1/

!1 .z/ D
12 t r2 .1  z2 /4
 
.1/ 2t t X n 2n .2n/
T4 D 2 D 3 2  .t t4 /n1 :
r .1 C r/ 24 n1 n n

For genus 2 quadrangulations without marked faces, applying Theorem 3.4.3, we

find (with the Bernoulli number B4 D 1=30):
 
2 89r5 C 20r4 C 130r3  100r2  65r C 56 B4
F2 D t 8 5

5 9 2 r 8
15 3 2007 2 4 28323 3 5
D tt C t t4 C t t4 C : : :
4 4 16 10
1 X  .2n C 3/ 
D 3 8 2
.12tt4 /nC2 2n .28n C 65/  195.n C 1/ ;
5 3 2 t n1 2 n .n C 2/

(3.6.3)
3.6 Examples of Higher Topologies Computations 131

We also have

.2/
!1 .z/ D z.1 C r/3 ..1 C z16 /.r  1/3 .14 C r/

2.z2 C z14 /.r  1/2 .7r2 C 94r  56/

C4.z4 C z12 /.7r4 C 320r3  642r2 C 413r  98/
C.z6 C z10 /.922r4  6292r3 C 6630r2  3556r C 784/

C2z8 .4717r4  5161r3 C 4497r2  2275r C 490/ =.576 t3 r7 .1  z2 /10 /

.2/ .r  1/2 .r C 1/ .r C 14/

T4 D :
24t r7
For genus 3 quadrangulations without marked faces, applying Theorem 3.4.3, we
find (with the Bernoulli number B6 D 1=42):

B6  .1 C r/4 
F3 D 1 C 13720  73752r C 163275r2  190340r3
24 t4 32 28 r10

C123450r4  42828r5 C 6619r6

1 X .12 t t4 /n  n
D 4 4 10
.781 C 490 n/
t n5 3 2 n 4 .n  4/

.2n  1/ 
 .45 C 674 n/ (3.6.4)
2n4 .n  4/ 7

.3/ 2450  3033r C 291r2 C 292r3

T4 D .1  r2 /3
33 26 t3 r12

 2450 3033 291 292 

D t43  C C
r12 r11 r10 r9
X  .n C 4/ .2n C 7/ 
D t43 .12tt4 /n .2741 C 490 n/  .2741 C 674 n/ :
n1
4 n 2n n 7

And so on . . .
Using Theorem 3.5.2, or more precisely Corollary 3.5.1, we see that for every
g  2, we shall have:

.1 C r/2g2 1r
Fg D t22g 2g2
Pg . /
r 3r
132 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

where Pg is a polynomial of degree at most 3g  3. This implies that

Qg .r/
Fg D t22g
r5g5
where Qg is a polynomial of degree at most 5g  5. Since we know that in the limit
t ! 0, we have r ! 1 and t2g2 Fg should vanish, this implies that Pg .0/ D 0 and
Qg .1/ D 0.
In other words, t2g2 Fg is a polynomial of 1=r, of degree 5g  5.

5g5
X Qg;k
22g
Fg D t :
kD0
r5g5k

To anticipate on Chap. 5, we notice that Fg is singular at r D 0, i.e. at t D

1=12t4, and it has an algebraic singularity of the type:

.t  1=12t4/5=4.22g/ :

Example: Triangulations
We use the computations and notations from Sect. 3.1.8, i.e. we write 8tt32 D
r.1  r2 /, which has the expansion

1 X 2 n ..3n  1/=2/
rD .8tt3 / D .1  4tt32  24t2 t34 C : : : /:
2 n n..n C 1/=2/

That gives

t 1r
2 D ; t3 D :
r 2
Theorem 3.4.4 gives
  X .8 t t2 /n
1  r2 1 .1 C 3n /
F0 D t 2 2
 ln r D t 2 3 2
12r 2 n1
3 n .n C 2/ .1 C n2 /

where the last expansion is obtained by the Lagrange inversion as in Sect. 3.1.8.
Theorem 3.4.6 gives

1 3r2  1
F1 D  ln : (3.6.5)
24 2 r2
3.6 Examples of Higher Topologies Computations 133

Also,
P doing Lagrange inversion like in Sect. 3.1.8, we compute the expansion F1 D
2 n
n cn .8tt3 / by writing

.1  3r2 /
cn D Res F1 dr
r!1 .r.1  r2 //nC1
 2 
1 3r  1 .1  3r2 /
D Res ln dr
24 r!1 2r2 .r.1  r2 //nC1
 2   
1 3r  1 1
D Res ln d
24 n r!1 2r2 .r.1  r2 //n
1 1 2r
D Res dr integration by parts
24 n r!1 .r.1  r // r .3r2  1/
2 n 2

1 1 1
D Res du change variable r2 D u
24 n u!1 un=2 .1  u/n u .3u  1/
.3=2/n1 1 1
D Res 1Cn=2
dv change u D 1  2v=3
48 n v!0 .1  2v=3/ v .1  v/
n

X1
.3=2/n1 .k C n=2/k vk 1
D Res .2=3/k n dv
48 n v!0
kD0
k v .1  v/

.3=2/n1 X .k C n=2/k
n1
D .2=3/k
48 n kD0
k

where .a/k D a.a C 1/.a C 2/ : : : .a C k  1/ is the Pochhammer symbol. That gives

1 X X
n1
2 n .k C n=2/k
F1 D .3=2/ .8tt3 /
n
.2=3/k : (3.6.6)
3 24 n kD0
k

t 1Cr
M.x/ D t3 x C t3 C D t3 x C :
2 2

Its moments are

r
1  r2 3r2  1
M;0 D r
; MC;0 M;0 D :
2 2
r !
t3 1 1 1  r2 1  r2
M;1 D D 2
r :
M;0 3r  1 2 2
134 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

According to Theorem 3.5.2, we have for g  2:

Fg D 1g Qg .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I 1= ; MC;1 ; M;1 /

where Qg is homogeneous of degree 2g  2 in the first two variables, and

homogeneous of degree 3g  3 in the last three variables. Using this homogeneity,
we rewrite:

1g
Fg D Qg .M;0 ; MC;0 I MC;0 M;0 = ; MC;0 M;0 MC;1 ; MC;0 M;0 M;1 /
.MC;0 M;0 /5g5
1g
D Qg .M;0 ; MC;0 I MC;0 M;0 = ; t3 M;0 ; t3 MC;0 /:
.MC;0 M;0 /5g5
q
MC;0 CM;0 MC;0 M;0 1r2
We then change variables MC;0 ; M;0 ! 2
D r; 2
D 2
, which
conserves the homogeneity:
r r !
1g Q g r; 1  r2 1  r2
Fg D Q I MC;0 M;0 = ; t3 r; t3
.MC;0 M;0 /5g5 2 2

again using the homogeneity, we may write

r r !
1g r5g5 t33g3 Q 1  r2 1  r2
Fg D Qg 1; I MC;0 M;0 = rt3 ; 1; :
.MC;0 M;0 /5g5 2r2 2r2

q
1r2
Let us introduce a reduced variable v D 2r2
, we thus have

 
1g r5g5 t33g3 Q 1  v2
Fg D Q g 1; vI 2 ; 1; v :
.MC;0 M;0 /5g5 v

This can be rewritten

 
r10g10 3g3 Q 1  v2
Fg D .t=2/22g v Q g 1; vI 2 ; 1; v
.3r2  1/5g5 v
r10g10 
D .t=2/22g Q g 1; vI 2.1  v 2 /; v; v 2 :
Q
.3r2  1/5g5

Moreover, the polynomial Qg has the symmetries of Theorem 3.5.2, i.e. QQ g has to
satisfy:

Q g .a; bI c; d; e/ D .1/3g3 Q

Q Q g .a; bI c; d; e/:
3.7 Summary, Generating Functions of Maps 135

 2
 
This implies that v 3g3 QQ g 1; vI 2 1v
v
Q g 1; vI 2.1  v 2 /; v; v 2 is an even
; 1; v D Q
function of v . We may write it as a polynomial of v 2 , or also as a polynomial of
u D 1  v2.
Therefore, there exists a polynomial Pg of degree at most 4g  4 such that

1
Fg D t22g Pg .1  v 2 /:
.1  v 2 /5g5

3r2 1
If we write u D 1  v 2 D 2r2
, this gives the following theorem for triangulations:
Theorem 3.6.1 The generating functions Fg for closed triangulations of genus g, are
polynomials of 1=u of the form:
 
22g Pg .u/ B2g
Fg D t C ; Pg 2 Qu ; deg Pg  4g  4:
u5g5 2g.2  2g/

where

3r2  1
uD ; with r  r3 D 8tt32 :
2r2
2g B
And we have Pg .1/ D  2g.22g/ .
Example:
 
21 55 191 29 3 1
F2 D t2  C  C C
160u5 128u4 384u3 128u2 128u 240

 2205 13365 68625 4055053 1443995 39311 7925

F3 D t4  C  C  C
256u10 256u9 512u8 21504u7 9216u6 512u5 384u4
22765 63 1 
 3
C 2

9216u 1024u 1008

3.7 Summary, Generating Functions of Maps

P
Define V 0 .x/ D x  dkD3 tk xk1 .
Let Mk.g/ .n3 ; : : : ; nd I l1 ; : : : ; lk / denote the (finite) set of maps of genus g, with k
boundaries (i.e. k marked faces of degrees l1 ; : : : ; lk with one oriented edge marked
on each marked face), obtained by gluing n3 triangles, n4 squares, : : : , nd d-gones.
136 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

The purpose of this chapter was to compute the generating functions:

.g/
Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk /
X X t3n3 : : : tdnd X tv
D
l1 ;:::;lk n3 ;:::;nd x1l1 C1 : : : xklk C1 .g/
#Aut./
2MkC1 .n3 ;:::;nd Il1 ;:::;lk /

which is a formal series of t:

.g/
k>0 Wk 2 Zt3 ; : : : ; td ; 1=x1 ; : : : ; 1=xk  t;
.g/
kD0 Fg D W0 2 Qt3 ; : : : ; td  t:

Spectral curve
Let and be the unique solutions of the two algebraic equations
8 Pd1 Pl .lCj/
< 0 D u0 D  lD1 jD0 tlCjC1
jj.lj/
2j lj

: Pd Pl .lCj1/
t

D u1 D  lD2 jD1 tlCj j.j1/.lj/ 2j1 lj

which behave like

p
D O.t/ ; D t C O.t/:

Then define
d1 .lCk/=2
X X l
uk D k;0 C k;1  tlC1 2jk lCk2j:
lD2 jDk
jj  kl C k  2j

They are such that

X
d1
1
V 0 .x.z// D uk .zk C zk / with x.z/ D C .z C /:
kD0
z

The pair of functions .x.z/; y.z//

(
x.z/ D C .z C 1z /
Pd1
y.z/ D 1
2
j
jD1 uj .z  z /
j

is called the spectral curve.

Moments
We define the polynomial M.x/ such that

1 p
y.z/ D  M.x.z// .x.z/  a/.x.z/  b/
2
3.7 Summary, Generating Functions of Maps 137

i.e.
 
1 X
d1
x
M.x.z// D uk Uk1
kD1 2

where Uk is the kth second kind Chebyshev polynomial (defined by Uk .cosh / D

sinh .kC1/
sinh 
). The moments M;k are the Taylor series expansion of M.x/ near
x D a; b:

1
!
X
M.x/ D MC;0 1 MC;k .x  a/ k

kD1
1
!
X
D M;0 1 M;k .x  b/ k
:
kD1

Even case
Even maps, are maps whose unmarked faces have an even perimeter. We
mention that even planar maps are bipartite maps.
The even case corresponds to all t2jC1 D 0, in that case we have

X
d=2
.2l  1/ 2l
D0 ; t D 2  t2l
lD2
l.l  1/

whose solution is
1
X Xk
.k C n/ X Y
n 
2 D t C tkC1 Qtai
.k C 1/ n
kD1 nD1 a1 CCan Dk; ai >0 iD1

2 3
D t C t Qt1 C t .Qt2 C 2 Qt12 / C t .Qt3 C 5 Qt1 Qt2 C 5 Qt13 / C O.t5 /;
4

where
.2k C 1/
Qtk D t2kC2 :
k .k C 1/

The Lagrange inversion formula gives

 X Xk
.k C n C m  1/ X Y
n 
2m D tm 1 C m tk Qtai :
.k C m/ n
k1 nD1 a1 CCan Dk; ai >0 iD1

We have u2k D 0 and

X .2j  2k  1/ 2j2k1
u2kC1 D k;0  t2j2k :
j>2k
j.j  2k  1/
138 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

and the spectral curve is

(
x.z/ D .z C 1z /
P
y.z/ D 1
2 j u2jC1 .z
2jC1
 z2j1/:

For the even case, the moments satisfy:

M;k D .1/k MC;k :

Disks, rooted planar maps

Then the generating function for counting maps with the topology of a disk
(genus 0, and one boundary) is:
1 X
X
.0/ t v n3 .0/
W1 .x/ D lC1
t3 : : : tdnd #M1 .n3 ; : : : ; nd I l/
lD0 n3 ;:::;nd
x

.0/
X
d1
1 0
W1 .x.z// D uj zj D V .x.z// C y.z/
jD1
2

.0/ 1  0 p 
W1 .x/ D V .x/  M.x/ .x  a/.x  b/ :
2

Cylinders, annulus

1
X X X
.0/ t3n3 : : : tdnd tv
W2 .x1 ; x2 / D
l1 ;l2 D0 n3 ;:::;nd x1l1 C1 x2l2 C1 .0/
#Aut./
2M2 .n3 ;:::;nd Il1 ;l2 /

.0/ 1 1 1
W2 .x.z1 /; x.z2 // D  :
x0 .z1 /x0 .z2 / .z1  z2 /2 .x.z1 /  x.z2 //2

The following differential form

 
.0/ x0 .z1 / x0 .z2 /
B.z1 ; z2 / D W2 .x.z1 /; x.z2 // x0 .z1 /x0 .z2 / C dz1 dz2
.x.z1 /  x.z2 //2

is universal (independent of the type of maps):

dz1 dz2
B.z1 ; z2 / D :
.z1  z2 /2

It is the fundamental form of the second kind (see [37]) on the spectral curve: the
unique (1,1) symmetric meromorphic form, having a simple pole at z1 D z2 and
no other pole, and normalized.
3.7 Summary, Generating Functions of Maps 139

Stable maps with boundaries

.g/
WkC1 .x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xk /
X X t3n3 : : : tdnd X tv
D
l0 ;l1 ;:::;lk n3 ;:::;nd x0l0 C1 : : : xklk C1 .g/
#Aut./
2MkC1 .n3 ;:::;nd Il0 ;:::;lk /

.g/ .g/
!kC1 .z0 ; : : : ; zk / D WkC1.x.z0 /; x.z1 /; : : : ; x.zk // x0 .z0 /x0 .z1 / : : : x0 .zk /
x0 .z0 /x0 .z1 / 1
Ck;1 g;0 2
 k;0 g;0 V 0 .x.z0 // x0 .z0 /:
.x.z0 /  x.z1 // 2

If 2g  2 C k  0, we have recursively:
h 1
.g/ .g1/
!kC1 .z0 ; L/ D Res K.z0 ; z/ !kC2 .z; ; L/
z!1 z
X
g 0
X 1 i
.h/ .gh/
C !1CjIj .z; I/!1CkjIj . ; L=I/ dz
hD0 IL
z

where L D fz1 ; : : : ; zk g and

1 1 1  1
K.z0 ; z/ D  : (3.7.1)
2 z0  z z0  1z .y.z/  y.1=z// x0 .1=z/

This guarantees that the !k.g/ s are the symplectic invariants in the sense of Chap. 7
for the spectral curve .x.z/; y.z//.
Equivalently we have for .g; k/ .1; 0/:

.g/
Y
k
p
WkC1 .x0 ; x1 ; : : : ; xk / .xi  a/.xi  b/
iD0

dx 1 h .g1/
D Res WkC2 .x; x; x1 ; : : : ; xk /
x!a;b x0  x M.x/

X
g 0
X i
.h/ .gh/
C W1CjIj .x; I/W1CjI 0 j .x; I 0 /
hD0 ItI 0 Dfx2 ;:::;xk g

and

.1/
p dx 1 .a  b/2
W1 .x0 / .x0  a/.x0  b/ D Res :
x!a;b x0  x M.x/ 16 .x  a/.x  b/
140 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

Stable maps without boundaries

X X tv
Fg D t3n3 : : : tdnd :
n3 ;:::;nd .g/
#Aut./
2M0 .n3 ;:::;nd /

For g  2 we have:

1 .g/ B2g t22g

Fg D Res .z/ !1 .z/ dz C
2  2g z!1 2g.2  2g/

where 0 .z/ D y.z/ x0 .z/.

Torus

X X tv
F1 D t3n3 : : : tdnd
n3 ;:::;nd .1/
#Aut./
2M0 .n3 ;:::;nd /

1
F1 D ln . 2 y0 .1/y0 .1/=t2 /:
24

Sphere

X X tv
F0 D t3n3 : : : tdnd
n3 ;:::;nd .0/
#Aut./
2M0 .n3 ;:::;nd /

1 1
F0 D Res V.x.z//y.z/x0 .z/  t Res V.x.z//
2 z!1 z!1 z
3t 2  
  t2 ln 2
2
1 X 2 2t
D  .ujC1  uj1 /2  .1/j .u2j1  u2jC1 /
2 j1
j j

3t2 
  t2 ln . 2 / :
2

Some structure properties

The generating functions of maps are of the form:

!n.g/ .z1 ; : : : ; zn /
.g;n/
1 X X P;d .u1 ; : : : ; ud1 /
D Q
2g2Cn .y0 .1/ y0 .1//5g5C2n P i .zi  i /
di C2
i D1 di ; di 6gC2n4
3.7 Summary, Generating Functions of Maps 141

where P.g;n/
;d 2 Qu1 ; : : : ; ud1  is some universal polynomial. For g  2, Fg is a
rational function of and of the form:

Fg D 22g .y0 .1/y0 .1//.55g/ Pg .u1 ; : : : ; ud1 /

where Pg 2 Qu1 ; : : : ; ud1  is some universal polynomial.

Some structure properties in terms of moments
For n  1 and 2g  2 C n > 0 we have

Y
n
p
44g4C2n .4 /g1 Wn.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xn / .xi  a/.xi  b/
iD1
X X .g;n/
D P;d .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I 1=4 ; fMC;k g; fM;k g/
P
i D1 di ; di 3g3Cn

.4 /di C1
Q ;
i .xi  aCb
2
 2 i /di C1

where P.g;n/
;d .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I 1=4 ; fMC;k gk3g3Cn ; fM;k gk3g3Cn / is a univer-
sal homogeneous polynomial with integer coefficients:
 it is homogeneous of degree 2g  2 C n of 1=MC;0 and 1=M;0 ,
P
 it is homogeneous of degree .3g3Cn i di / in all the other variables, where
each M;k is considered to be of degree k, and 1= is of degree 1. This explain
that it depends only on the first 3g  3 C n moments M;k s with

k  3g  3 C n:

 It is invariant if we change i ! i , and .4 /k M;k ! .4 /k M;k :

.g;n/
PN ;d .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I f.4 /k MC;k g; f.4 /k M;k g/
P
.g;n/
D .1/nC i di PN ;d .1=M;0 ; 1=MC;0 I f.4 /k M;k g; f.4 /k MC;k g/

.g;n/
P;d .1=MC;0 ; 1=M;0 I 1=4 ; fMC;k g; fM;k g/
P
.g;n/
D .1/nC i di P;d .1=M;0 ; 1=MC;0 I 1=4 ; f./k M;k g; f.1/k MC;k g/:

Fg s in terms of moments (g  2)
The generating function Fg of closed maps of genus g, is a homogeneous
polynomial of the moments

Fg D .t= 2 /22g P.g;0/ .t=MC;0 ; t=M;0 I 1; f k MC;k gk3g3; f k M;k gk3g3/

142 3 Solution of Tutte-Loop Equations

where P.g;0/ .u; vI w; fMC;k gk3g3; fM;k gk3g3 / is a homogeneous polynomial

with rational coefficients
 of degree 2g  2 of the first two variables u and v ,
 of degree 3g  3 in all the other variables, where each M;k is considered to be
of degree k, and w is of degree 1.
 It has the symmetry:

P.g;0/ .v; uI w; fM;k gk3g3; fMC;k gk3g3/

D .1/3g3 P.g;0/ .u; vI w; fMC;k gk3g3; fM;k gk3g3/:

Some derivative formulae

We have
Z 1
@Fg .g/
g1 D !1 .z/ dz
@t 0

and for n  1
Z
@!n .z1 ; : : : ; zn /
.g/ 1
.g/
D !nC1 .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn / dz:
@t 0
x.zi /

@!n .z1 ; : : : ; zn /
.g/
1 .g/
D Res ! .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn / x.z/k dz:
@tk k z!1 nC1
x.zi /

Some Integration formulae

.g/ .g/
Res !kC1 .z1 ; : : : ; zk ; z/ .z/ D .2  2g  k/ !k .z1 ; : : : ; zk /
z!1

where 0 .z/ D y.z/ x0 .z/.

3.8 Exercises

Exercise 1 (This exercise will be useful for Chap. 5). Consider maps with quadrangles and
hexagons, t4 0 and t6 0. We have V.x/ D x2 =2  t4 x4 =4  t6 x6 =6. Parametrize the
times t4 and t6 in terms of two other variables u and v as:
1 1
t4 D .1  v=3/ ; t6 D  .1  v C 8u3  2vu/:
9t 270t2
Prove that 2 is given by
3t
2 D :
1 C 2u
3.8 Exercises 143

Then prove that

.0/ t  1 24u3  2uv  12u  v  3 1 1  v C 8u3  2uv 

W1 .x/ D 1C 2 3
C :
z 6z .1 C 2u/ 10 z4 .1 C 2u/3

Compute also:

t 12u2  v
y0 .1/ D :
.1 C 2u/2

Conclude that

1 12u2  v
F .1/ D  ln :
12 .1 C 2u/2

Exercise 2 Equation (3.3.5) says that the number of rooted quadrangulations of genus 1
is:
 
3n .2n/
22n  :
6 n n

With n D 2 that gives 15. Find the 15 genus 1 rooted quadrangulations with two
quadrangles (one is marked with a marked edge).
.1/
Exercise 3 Count rooted triangulations of genus 1, i.e. T3 and F .1/ .
Answer:

1
F .1/ D ln 1  v 2
24

where 8tt32 D r  r3 , and

r
1  r2
vD
2r2
.

.1/ 1 1  r2 1 v 2 .1 C 2v 2 /
T3 D D :
2 t3 .3r2  1/2 4 t3 .1  v 2 /2
Chapter 4
Multicut Case

Readers only interested in the combinatorics of maps can easily skip this chapter
and move directly to Chap. 5.
The goal of the present chapter is only to better understand the 1-cut assump-
tion, by providing examples which are not 1-cut, and thus which dont count maps
in the usual sense, or at least not the same types of maps.
In the previous chapter, we have seen that generating functions of maps are
special solutions of loop equations, namely 1-cut solutions. However, loop equations
have other solutions, which are also formal power series. In this chapter, we explore
the other solutions, and their combinatorial meaning.
Beside mathematical curiosity, those other multicut solutions play an important
role in physics (e.g. particularly in string theory) and mathematics (e.g.
asymptotics of orthogonal polynomials and asymptotic expansions of large random
matrices).

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 145

B. Eynard, Counting Surfaces, Progress in Mathematical Physics 70,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7643-8797-6_4
146 4 Multicut Case

4.1 Formal Integrals and Extrema of V

Let us start by an example: the cubic potential:

0 1

M2 M3
V.M/ D  ;
2 3
N
So far, we have defined formal series using the Taylor expansion of e t Tr V.M/ near
the extremum of V.M/ at M D 0, so that V.M/ has no linear term.
However, there is another extremum V 0 .1/ D 0, so there is another possibility of
having no linear term in the Taylor expansion:

1 1 1
V.M/ D  .M  1/2  .M  1/3 ;
6 2 3
where 1 D 1N denotes the N  N identity matrix.
The formal integral definition of Chap. 2 requires to Taylor expand the potential
near a zero of V 0 .M/ so that there is no linear term, thus we may chose another zero
of V 0 .M/, and for instance Taylor expand near M D 1N . One could also expand
around any other zero of V 0 .M/, for instance:

n times Nn times

M0 D diag.0; 0; : : : ; 0; 1; 1; : : : ; 1/

and write M D M0 C A:

A3
N N
Tr . 12 M02  13 M03 /  Nt Tr . 12 M0 /A2 N
e t Tr V.M/
D e t e e t Tr 3 :

In that case, the quadratic form for A is not definite, it has eigenvalues C1; 1; 0:

1 1X
Tr .  M0 /A2 D .1  .M0 /i;i  .M0 /j;j / Ai;j Aj;i
2 2 i;j
4.1 Formal Integrals and Extrema of V 147

1  .M0 /i;i  .M0 /j;j 2 f1; 0; 1g, and it indeed takes the value 0 if there exists i and
j such that .M0 /i;i D 0 and .M0 /j;j D 1, i.e. unless n D 0 or n D N.
R N 1 2
A Gaussian integral dA e t Tr . 2 M0 /A is illdefined when the quadratic form
has null eigenvalues, therefore here it is illdefined unless n D 0 or n D N.
So, for arbitrary n 2 0; N, we cannot define the formal integral as the exchange
of the gaussian integral in A, and the Taylor series, as we did in Chap. 2. However,
there exists another way of defining a formal integral around M0 , it is described
below.

4.1.1 A Digression on Convergent Normal Matrix Integrals

Consider the convergent integral:

Z Y Y N
dx1 : : : dxN .xj  xi /2 e t V.xi /
N i<j i

where we choose a path such that the integral is absoutely convergent, i.e.
approaches 1 in directions such that Re V.x/ ! C1.
We define the set of normal matrices constrained on :

HN . / D M 2 MN .C/ j 9 U 2 U.N/; 9.x1 ; : : : ; xN / 2 n

; M D U diag.x1 ; : : : ; xN / U  :

Notice that HN .R/ D HN is the set of hermitian matrices.

HN . / is equipped with the measure (not necessarily real positive or normalized):

Vol.U.N/=U.1/N / Y
dM D .xj  xi /2 dU dx1 : : : dxN
N j<i

where dU is the Haar measure on U.N/, and dxi is the curvilinear measure along
. When D R, HN .R/ D HN ,Qand the measure
Q dM coincides (see [63]) with the
U.N/ invariant measure dM D i dMi;i i<j dReMi;j dImMi;j , on HN , with which
we computed Wicks theorem in Sect. 2.2.2. The normalization factor is (see [63]):

Y
N1
1
N VN D Vol.U.N/=U.1/N / D  N.N1/=2 :
kD1
k
148 4 Multicut Case

Then, by definition we have:

Z Z Y Y N
N
dMe t Tr V.M/
D VN dx1 : : : dxN .xj  xi /2 e t V.xi / : (4.1.1)
HN . / N i<j i

In our cubic potential example, we may choose two paths D 0 or D 1 for

which the integral is convergent:

More generally, the following integral is absolutely convergent:

Z Y Y N
dx1 : : : dxn dxnC1 : : : dxN .xj  xi /2 e t V.xi / (4.1.2)
0n 1Nn i<j i

which makes sense for any n 2 0; N, but is not a matrix integral of the form of
Eq. (4.1.1), although it is nearly. Let us rewrite it as:
Z Y Y N
dx1 : : : dxn dxnC1 : : : dxN .xj  xi /2 e t V.xi /
0n 1Nn i<j i
Z Y Y
D dx1 : : : dxn dxnC1 : : : dxN .xj  xi /2 .xj  xi /2
0n 1Nn i<jn n<i<jN

Y
n Y
N Y
.xj  xi /2 e t V.xi /
N

iD1 jDnC1 i
Z
1
dA e t dB e t det.A 1Nn  1n B/2
N N
D Tr V.A/ Tr V.B/
Vn VNn Hn . 0 / HNn . 1 /

i.e. we have rewritten it as a 2-matrix integral. 1n denotes the n  n identity matrix.

4.1 Formal Integrals and Extrema of V 149

Now, it is appropriate to Taylor expand near A D 0 and near B D 1Nn , for that
purpose we change B ! 1Nn C i B:
Z
N N
dA e t Tr V.A/
dB e t Tr V.1CiB/
det.1N  A 1Nn C i 1n B/2
Hn . 0 / HNn . 1 /
Z
N.Nn/ N A2 3 B2 B3
  A3 N
De 6t dA e t Tr 2 dB e t Tr 2 Ci 3
Hn . 0 / HNn . 1 /

det.1N  A 1Nn C i 1n B/2 :

The last integral can be defined as a formal matrix integral as in Chap. 2.

4.1.2 Definition of Formal Cubic Integrals

By analogy with what precedes, we are led to the following definition: Let Cj;k be
the following well-defined gaussian integral:
 jCk Z Z
N N A2 N B2
Cj;k .t/ D t dAe t Tr 2 dBe t Tr 2
3 Hn iHNn

. Tr A3 /j . Tr B3 /k det.1n 1Nn  A 1Nn C 1n B/2 :

Although t appears in a denominator, Cj;k .t/ is in fact a polynomial in t, and we

have:

X
m max

Cj;k .t/ D Cj;k;m tm :

mD.jCk/=2

The important feature is the lower bound m D .j C k/=2 in this sum. It comes
from the fact that we have to compute the expectation value of gaussian polynomial
moments with the help of Wicks theorem. For each Feynman graph, the number of
propagators is half the degree of the polynomial whose moment we wish to compute,
that is #propag  3.k C j/=2. On the other hand, the power of t is #propag  .k C j/,
which is thus  .k C j/=2.
Let:
X 1
Cm D Cj;k;m :
jCk2m
jk
150 4 Multicut Case

Then we define the following formal power series in t:

1
X
N2
Zn;Nn .t/ D e 6t Cm tm :
mD0

This definition may look complicated and unnatural. However, one should keep
in mind that all what we have done is mimicking the Taylor expansion and
exchanging sum and integral in Eq. (4.1.2), i.e. Zn;Nn .t/ is nothing but the matrix
integral:

Z 
M2 3
dM e t  M3
N
Tr
Zn;Nn .t/ D 2

formal n;Nn

where n eigenvalues are Taylor expanded near 0, and N n eigenvalues are expanded
near 1, and then we exchange Taylor series expansion and integral. For instance if
n D N, it coincides with the formal integral we introduced in Chap. 2 and which is
the generating function of maps.
The main reason for such a complicated definition, is that Zn;Nn satisfies the
same loop equations independently of n. Indeed, the loop equations are independent
of the integration path, and are independent of the order of sum and integral. In other
words, for every n, we have another solution of the same set of loop equations. We
will discuss that point in Sect. 4.3 below. Those solutions do not satisfy Browns
lemma, i.e. they correspond to multicut solutions of the loop equations.

4.1.3 General Definition of Formal Multicut Integrals

We generalize the previous construction for any potential V.M/ of degree d.

Let X1 ; : : : ; Xd1 be the zeros of V 0 .x/ (supposed distinct for simplicity). Let us
choose d  1 positive integers .n1 ; n2 ; : : : ; nd1 / whose sum is N:

n1 C n2 C    C nd1 D N:

Then we define:

V 00 .Xk / 2 Xd
tj;k j
Uk .x/ D V.x C Xk /  V.Xk /  x D x: (4.1.3)
2 jD3
j
4.1 Formal Integrals and Extrema of V 151

For any set of integers pj;k , the following well defined gaussian integral:

Cfpj;k g .t/
YY
d1 d
1
D
kD1 jD3
pj;k
Z  p3;1  pd;1
NV 00 .X1 / Nt3;1 Ntd;1
M12
dM1 e 2t Tr M13 ::: Tr M1d
p
Hn 1
3t dt
V 00 .X1 /
Z  p3;2  pd;2
NV 00 .X2 / Nt3;2 Ntd;2
M22
dM2 e 2t Tr M23 ::: Tr M2d
p
Hn 2
3t dt
V 00 .X2 /
Z  p3;d1
NV 00 .Xd1 / 2 Nt3;d1
 3
dMd1 e 2t Md1
Tr Md1 :::
p
Hnd1
3t
V 00 .Xd1 /
 pd;d1
Ntd;d1
::: d
Tr Md1
dt
Y  2
1
det 1nk 1nj C .Mk 1nj  1nk Mj /
j<k
Xk  Xj

(4.1.4)

is a polynomial in t of the form:

X
m max

Cfpj;k g .t/ D Cfpj;k g;m tm :

P
mD 12 pj;k

Thus we define:
X
Cm D Cfpj;k g;m
P
j;k pj;k 2m

and
Definition 4.1.1 the formal matrix integral is:

P Y 1
X
N
Zn1 ;:::;nd1 .t/ D e t k nk V.Xk / .Xk  Xj /2nk nj Cm tm :
j<k mD0

Again, this definition may look complicated, but it ensures that Zn1 ;:::;nd1 .t/ satisfies
the same loop equations as ZN;0;0;:::;0 .t/ which we have considered in Chap. 3.
152 4 Multicut Case

4.2 What Are Multicut Formal Integrals Counting?

The coefficients defined in Eq. (4.1.4), and used to define Z, are gaussian expectation
values of matrices M1 ; : : : ; Md1 . As we have seen with the Wicks theorem in
Chap. 2, Sect. 2.2.2, we should associate to each Tr .Mk /j in the exponential, a
vertex with j half-edges, or equivalently a j-gon. Since k may take d  1 values,
we will assign a color k to the corresponding j-gon.
To complete the diagrammatic interpretation, we still have to expand the polyno-
Q  2
1
mial j<k det 1nk 1nj  Xj X k
.Mk 1nj  1nk Mj / into powers of traces.
Let us write:
 2
1
det 1nk 1nj  .Mk 1nj  1nk Mj /
Xj  Xk
  
1
D exp 2 Tr ln 1nk 1nj  .Mk 1nj  1nk Mj /
Xj  Xk
1
!
X 2 1
D exp  Tr .Mk 1nj  1nk Mj /l
lD1
l .Xj  Xk /l
1 X
!
X l
2.1/m l  1 1
D exp  Tr Mk Tr Mj :
lm m

lD1 mD0
m l  m .Xj  Xk /l

In other words we have a multimatrix model

Z Y
d1
NV 00 .Xk /
Tr Mk2
Zn1 ;:::;nd .t/ / e 2t dMk exp S.M1 ; : : : ; Md1 /
formal kD1

with:

S.M1 ; : : : ; Md1 /

N X X tj;k
d1 d
j
D Tr Mk
t kD1 jD3 j
1
XXX nj 1
2 Tr Mkl
k
.Xj  Xk / l
l
jk lD1

XX 1 X 1
l C m  1 .1/m 1 1
2 Tr Mkl Tr Mjm :
j<k lD1 mD1
m  1 l  1 .X j  X k / lCm l m

Now, we have to interpret each term as a face of a map.

4.2 What Are Multicut Formal Integrals Counting? 153

4.2.1 Discrete Surfaces Made of Di-polygons

Let us define the following object:

Definition 4.2.1 A colored di-polygon of degree .l1 ; l2 / and color .c1 ; c2 / (with
c1 c2 ), is a pair of two polygons, one of degree l1  0 and color c1 , and one of
degree l2  0 and color c2 c1 .
It can be represented as two polygons glued by their centers, and which can rotate
independently.
A di-polygon is invariant under cyclic permutations of each of its two polygons.
Comparing with the Definition 1.1.2 of maps from permutations in Chap. 1, we
can say that dipolygons are permutations with two cycles (faces of usual maps are
permutations with one cycle).
Example: A di-polygon of degree .3; 4/ and color (blue,red):

The dotted line should be contracted to only a point, it is drawn only for readability.
Consider discrete surfaces obtained by gluing together polygons and/or di-
polygons by their sides.
Example: A map obtained by gluing together three blue triangles, six red triangles,
and one di-polygon of degree .3; 4/ and color (blue-red):

Again, the dotted line should be contracted to only a point. The Euler characteristics
of this map is:  D 0 (it is a cylinder).
More generally, multicut formal matrix integrals count nodal maps on nodal
surfaces.
154 4 Multicut Case

Example: A nodal-surface with five nodal points, (i.e. maps with five di-polygons
can be drawn on it). It is the gluing of three spheres and two tori. Its genus is g D 3,
and its Euler characteristics is  D 4.

It is encoded by the following graph:

0
1

where each edge represents a nodal point, and vertices represent the surfaces glued
by nodal points, the figure at each vertex is the genus of the corresponding surface.
The genus of the total nodal surface is the sum of the geni at vertices, plus the
number of loops of the graph. In this example, the graph has one loop, and there are
two vertices with genus 1, therefore the total genus is 3.

4.2.1.1 Ensemble of Nodal Surfaces

Let Mg .fnij gI fni;l

j;k g/ be the set of all connected oriented nodal surfaces (not
necessarily stable) obtained by gluing together nij j-gones of color i, and ni;l j;k di-
polygons of degree .j; k/ and color .i; l/, and of total genus g. It is a finite set.
Define the generating function:
Q
X X Y YY
i i
#vertices color i i;l
nij nj;k
Fg .1 ; : : : ; d1 / D Q #edges color i tj;i T.i;l/;.j;k/
i;l i;l #Aut./ i t2;i i;j i<l j;k
fnij g;fnj;k g 2Mg .fnij gIfnj;k g/
4.3 Solution of Loop Equations 155

where the weights tj;i were defined in Eq. (4.1.3), and

j C k  1 .1/k
T.i;l/;.j;k/ D 2 :
j  1 k  1 .Xi  Xl /jCk

4.2.2 Formal Multicut Matrix Integrals and Nodal Surfaces

We define the filling fractions:

ni
i D t
N
We have (in the sense of formal series in t):
Theorem 4.2.1 Multicut formal matrix integrals are generating functions for
counting nodal maps:

1
X
ln Zn1 ;:::;nd1 D .N=t/22g Fg .1 ; : : : ; d1 /
gD0

Proof Just an application of Wicks theorem.

4.3 Solution of Loop Equations

In this section, we compute explicitly the generating functions of nodal maps

Fg .1 ; : : : ; d /. The one cut case involved only rational functions of a variable z,
whereas the multicut case involves higher genus hyperelliptical functions. The tool
kit for this section is algebraic geometry, and we refer the reader to classical
textbooks on theta functions and algebraic geometry, for instance [36, 37].
The multicut formal matrix integrals satisfy the same loop equations as one-cut
formal matrix integrals. The only difference lies in the 1-cut Browns Lemma 3.1.1.

4.3.1 Multicut Lemma and Cycle Integrals

.0/
The loop equation for W1 is Tuttes equation [cf Eq. (3.1.2)]:

.0/ .0/ .0/

W1 .x/2 D V 0 .x/W1 .x/  P1 .x/
156 4 Multicut Case

i.e.
q
.0/ 1 0 .0/

W1 .x/ D V .x/  V 0 .x/2  4P1 .x/
2
.0/
where P1 .x/ is a polynomial of degree d  2, and whose leading coefficient is the
same as that of V 0 .x/. In Chap. 3, this polynomial was determined through Browns
.0/
Lemma 3.1.1, by requiring that V 0 .x/2  4P1 .x/ had only one pair of odd zeros.
Here, instead, we have:
Lemma 4.3.1 Let C be a closed contour independent of t. Order by order in powers
of t we have
I

1 .0/ i D t nNi if C surrounds the point Xi

 W1 .x/dx D
2i C 0 otherwise.

and
I
1 .g/
 Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk /dx1 D 0 if .g; k/ .0; 1/:
2i C

Proof The proof is very similar to that of Lemma 3.1.1. Indeed

X d1 X X Tr M k d1 1
1 1
Tr D Tr D i
:
xM iD1
x  X i  Mi iD1 kD0
.x  X i / kC1

so that to any order in the t expansion, the number of maps is finite, and thus, to
.g/
this order, Wk is a rational fraction of x1 ; : : : ; xk with poles at the Xi s. As soon as
k C g  2, there is no simple poles, and for g D 0; k D 1, the first terms in the
.0/ P i
expansion is W1 .x/  i xX i
Chigher order poles (remember that i =t D ni =N D
O.1/). 
From this lemma, we get:
.0/
Theorem 4.3.1 (Multicut Solution) The polynomial V 0 .x/2 4P1 .x/ has as many
pairs of odd zeros as the number of non-vanishing filling fractions i 0.
If we label the zeros Xi so that i 0 for i D 1; : : : ; gN C 1 and i D 0 for
i > gN C 1, at small t, we have:
v
q u2NgC2
uY
V .x/  4P1 .x/ D M.x/ t
0 2 .0/
.x  ai /
iD1

where M.x/ is some polynomial

p whose coefficients are formal power series in t, and
ai are power series in t. To the first few orders in t we have
4.3 Solution of Loop Equations 157

8 q

a D X C 2i
C o.t/

<
2i1 i 00
q V .Xi /
a2i D Xi  V 002.Xi i / C o.t/ :


: M.x/ D QgNC1 V 0 .x/
C O.t/
iD1 .xXi /

We also have:

.0/
X
d1
V 0 .x/  V 0 .Xi /
P1 .x/ D i C o.t/ (4.3.1)
iD1
x  Xi

(remember that i =t D ni =N D O.1/)

Proof Similar to that of Lemma 3.1.1. Indeed, if there is an odd zero away from
all Xi s of non-vanishing filling fraction, then it is easy to find a contour C which
surrounds that odd zero and contradicts Lemma 4.3.1. To the first orders in t, we
have:
.0/
X i
W1 .x/ D C o.t/
i
x  Xi

which implies
q X
.0/ i
V 0 .x/2  4P1 .x/ D V 0 .x/  2 C o.t/
i
x  Xi

i.e.
!
.0/
X i
0 2 0 2
V .x/  4P1 .x/ D V .x/ 14 C o.t/
i
.x  Xi / V 0 .x/

i.e., since V 0 .Xi / D 0:

.0/
X i V 0 .x/ X V 0 .x/  V 0 .Xi /
P1 .x/ D C o.t/ D i C o.t/:
i
.x  Xi / i
.x  Xi /

.0/
Then, if ai is a zero of V 02  4P1 , it cannot be a zero of V 0 , and thus we must have
X j
0D 14 C o.t/
j
.ai  Xj / V 0 .ai /

p
which is possible only if ai D Xi 2i =V 00 .Xi / C O.t/. 
158 4 Multicut Case

.0/ .0/
This theorem determines P1 .x/ uniquely. Indeed, P1 .x/ is of degree d  2,
.0/
with its leading coefficient fixed (limx!1 x P1 .x/=V 0 .x/ D t), therefore it has
d  2 unknown coefficients. M.x/ is of degree d  gN  2, and its leading coefficient
is known, so it has d  gN  2 unknown coefficients, and ai ; i D 1; : : : ; 2Ng C 2 are
unknown. The total number of unknowns is thus:

d  2 C d  gN  2 C 2Ng C 2 D 2d  2 C gN :

The equation

2N
gC2
Y
0 2 .0/ 2
V .x/  4P1 .x/ D M.x/ .x  ai /
iD1

is of degree 2d  2 in x, therefore it gives 2d  1 equations for the coefficients of

powers of x, but the highest coefficient gives a tautological equation, so we have
2d  2 equations. We also have gN equations saying that
I q
.0/
8 i D 1; : : : ; gN ; V 0 .x/2  4P1 .x/ dx D 4i i
Ai

where Ai is a counterclockwise contour surrounding a2i1 ; a2i .

In other words the number of equations given by Lemma 4.3.1, matches the
.0/
number of unknown coefficients of P1 .
.0/
The solutions for P1 form a discrete set, and only one of them has the small t
behaviour of the form of Eq. (4.3.1).
With a little more algebraic geometry, we can write the relationship between the
.0/
coefficients of P1 and the filling fractions
Let Ai be a small circle independent of t surrounding Xi and no other Xj , oriented
counterclockwise. Order by order in t, it surrounds the segment a2i1 ; a2i .
Algebraic geometry tells us (see for instance [36, 37]), that for each i D 1; : : : ; gN ,
there exists a unique polynomial Li .x/ of degree  gN  1

gN 1
X
Li .x/ D Li;k xk ;
kD0

such that
I
Li .x/
8 j D 1; : : : ; gN q dx D i;j :
Aj
Q2NgC2
kD1 .x  ak /

q
Q2NgC2
The differential form vi .x/ D Li .x/dx= kD1 .x  ak / is called the normalized
holomorphic differential.
4.3 Solution of Loop Equations 159

Theorem 4.3.2 We have

.0/
@P1 .x/
D 2i M.x/ Li .x/;
@i
.0/ P
and, if we write P1 .x/ D k pk xk , we have
I
@i 1 xk dx
D q :
@pk 2i Ai
Q2NgC2
M.x/ kD1 .x  ak /

.0/
In other words, the map P1 ! fi g is locally analytical and invertible.

4.3.2 Disc Generating Function

We thus have found that:

0 v 1
u2NgC2
1 1 u Y
W1 .x/ D V 0 .x/ C y D @V 0 .x/  M.x/t
.0/
.x  ai / A
2 2 iD1

where
2NgC2
1 0 2 .0/ 1 Y
y2 D V .x/  P1 .x/ D M.x/2 .x  ai /
4 4 iD1

Any algebraic equation of the form y2 Dpolynomial.x/ is called an hyperelliptical

.0/
curve. The disc amplitude W1 .x/ is thus an hyperelliptical function of genus gN .
The points ai ; i D 1; : : : ; 2Ng C 2 are called the branch-points:
p p p p
a2i1
Xi  2i =V 00 .Xi /Co. t/ ; a2i
Xi C 2i =V 00 .Xi /Co. t/ ; i D 1; : : : ; gN C1

M.x/ is a polynomial of degree d  2  gN , and its zeros are called double points:

V 0 .x/
M.x/  QgN C1 C O.t/:
iD1 .x  Xi /
160 4 Multicut Case

4.3.3 Higher Genus Algebraic Equations

.0/
Theorem 4.3.1 implies that W1 is an algebraic function, whose genus is the number
of non-vanishing filling fractions minus 1.

genus D gN D #fi 0g  1:

For instance if there is only one non-vanishing filling fraction, we have a 1-cut
solution, which corresponds to a genus zero algebraic curve gN D 0.
Any gN D 0 algebraic curve is conformally equivalent to the Riemann sphere
C [ f1g, and can be parametrized by rational functions of a complex variable z
(role played by the Zhukovsky map x.z/ in Chap. 3).

z g=0

Similarly, any genus gN algebraic curve can be parametrized by a variable z which

lives on a standard genus gN compact Riemann surface.

z g>0

Therefore, there exists a compact Riemann surface L of genus gN  d  2, as well

as d  1 cycles Ai , and two meromorphic functions x and y defined on it, such that:

.0/ 1
8z 2 L; W1 .x.z// D V 0 .x.z// C y.z/
2
I
1
ydx D i :
2i Ai

The branch-points a1 ; : : : ; a2NgC2 are the zeros of the differential form dx, i.e.
the points at which the tangent is vertical, i.e. the points at which y behaves like a
square-root.
4.3 Solution of Loop Equations 161

4.3.4 Geometry of the Spectral Curve

The curve y as a function of x, can be written parametrically as:

1 02 .0/
f.x; y/ 2 C2 j y2 D V .x/  P1 .x/g D f.x.z/; y.z// j z 2 Lg:
4

It is called the spectral curve, it is an hyperelliptical curve1 .

Let us study some of its properties (a more general framework is presented in
Chap. 7).

4.3.4.1 Fundamental Second Kind Form

On any compact Riemann surface L equipped with a symplectic basis (not unique)
of non-contractible cycles

Ai \ Bj D i;j ; Ai \ Aj D 0 ; Bi \ Bj D 0 8 i; j D 1; : : : ; gN ;

is defined the fundamental second kind form:

B.z1 ; z2 /

as the unique bilinear differential of the second kind, having one double pole at
z1 D z2 and no other pole, and such that:
I
dz1 dz2
B.z1 ; z2 / z1 !z2 C reg ; B.z1 ; z2 / D 0:
.z1  z2 /2 Ai

One should keep in mind that the fundamental second kind form depends only
on L, and not on the functions x and y.
It is easy to see that the fundamental second kind form is unique, because the
difference of two of them would be a meromorphic form, with no pole, and with
vanishing A-cycle integrals, i.e. it must vanish.
Examples
if L D C [ f1g Dthe Riemann Sphere, the fundamental second kind form is the
rational fraction:
dz1 dz2
B.z1 ; z2 / D
.z1  z2 /2

1
Any algebraic equation of the form y2 D Pol.x/ is called hyperelliptical. It is called elliptical if
deg Pol D 3 or 4, and it is rational if deg Pol  2.
162 4 Multicut Case

if L D C=.Z C Z/ DTorus of modulus , the fundamental second kind form is

an elliptical function:

 2 E2
B.z1 ; z2 / D .}.z1  z2 ; / C / dz1 dz2
3
where } is the Weierstrass elliptical function:
1 X 1 1
}.z; / D C  (4.3.2)
z2 .z C n C m/ 2 .n C m/2
.m;n/2Z2 n.0;0/

and E2 is the second Eisenstein series

1 X
X
E2 D 1  24 . d/ e2in (4.3.3)
nD1 d j n

if L is a compact Riemann surface of genus gN  1, of Riemann matrix of periods

, the fundamental second kind form is a second derivative of the log of a Theta
function:

B.z1 ; z2 / D dz1 dz2 ln ..u.z1 /  u.z2 /  c; //

where u.z/ is the Abel map, c is a regular odd characteristic, and  is the
hyperelliptical Riemann theta function of genus gN (cf [36, 37] for details).
It can be written as follows: Let
2NgC2
Y p
.x/ D .x  ai /; ; Q.x/ D . .x//C ; R.x/ D .x/  Q.x/2 ;
iD1

so that deg Q D gN C 1 and deg R  gN . We have

dx1 dx2 Q.x1 /Q.x2 / C R.x1 /CR.x

2
2/
dx1 dx2
B.x1 ; x2 / D p 2
C
2 .x1 / .x2 / .x1  x2 / 2 .x1  x2 /2
P.x1 ; x2 / dx1 dx2
C p
.x1 / .x2 /

where P.x1 ; x2 / is the unique symmetric polynomial P.x2 ; x1 / D P.x1 ; x2 /, of

degree gN  1 in each variable, such that
I
B.z1 ; z2 / D 0:
Ai
4.3 Solution of Loop Equations 163

For genus gN D 1, it was written by Akemann [2] as follows:

s
dx1 dx2  .x1  a1 /.x1  a4 /.x2  a2 /.x2  a3 /
B.x1 ; x2 / D
4.x1  x2 /2 .x1  a2 /.x1  a3 /.x2  a1 /.x2  a4 /
s
.x1  a2 /.x1  a3 /.x2  a1 /.x2  a4 / 
C
.x1  a1 /.x1  a4 /.x2  a2 /.x2  a3 /
dx1 dx2
C
2 .x1  x2 /2
dx1 dx2 E.k/  a2 a3 a4 .a2  a4 / a1 a3 a4 .a1  a3 /
C p C
4 .x1 /.x2 / K.k/ .a1  a4 /.a2  a1 / .a1  a2 /.a2  a3 /
a1 a2 a4 .a4  a2 / a1 a2 a3 .a1  a3 / 
C C
.a2  a3 /.a3  a4 / .a1  a4 /.a3  a4 /

where

.a1  a4 /.a2  a3 /
k2 D
.a1  a3 /.a2  a4 /

is the biratio of the branchpoints, and K.k/ is the complete Legendre Elliptic
integral of the 1st kind, and E.k/ is the complete Legendre elliptic integral of the
second kind.

4.3.4.2 Branchpoints and Conjugated Points

Branchpoints are the points with a vertical tangent, i.e. they are the zeros of dx. Let
us write them ai , i D 1; : : : ; 2Ng C 2.

8i; dx.ai / D 0:

For any z away from branchpoints, there is a unique point zN z such that:

x.Nz/ D x.z/ ; y.Nz/ D y.z/:

zN is called the conjugated point of z.

The branchpoints are the points where zN D z.
164 4 Multicut Case

4.3.5 Cylinder Generating Function

Theorem 4.3.3 The cylinder generating function is the fundamental second kind
form:
 
.0/ .0/ 1
!2 .z1 ; z2 / D W2 .x.z1 /; x.z2 // C dx.z1 /dx.z2 / D B.z1 ; z2 /
.x.z1 /  x.z2 //2

where B.z1 ; z2 / is the fundamental second kind form on L.

Proof The proof is very similar to that of Theorem 3.2.6 in Chap. 3. We first show
that this expression is a meromorphic function, and it can have a pole only at z1 D z2
and no other pole, and then that its Ai cycle integral vanish. The only differential
form having those properties is the fundamental second kind form. 

4.3.6 Higher Topologies

It can be seen recursively from the loop equations, that

Lemma 4.3.2 If 2g  2 C k > 0,
.g/ .g/
!k .z1 ; : : : ; zk / D Wk .x.z1 /; : : : ; x.zk //dx.z1 / : : : dx.zk /

is an hyperelliptical meromorphic form on L with poles only at the branch-points.

Proof The proof is quite easy, it proceeds by recursion on 2g  2 C k. The loop
equations says that

.g/
y.z/ Wk .z; z2 ; : : : ; zn / D R:H:S

where the Right hand side RHS is a meromorphic form on L by recursion

hypothesis, having poles only at the branchpoints. Then dividing by y.z/ gives
poles at branchpoints and possibly simple poles at the double zeros [i.e. the
.g/
zeros of M.x.z//]. However, from Lemma 4.3.1, we see that the residues of Wk
.g/
at those simple poles must vanish, and therefore, the only poles of Wk are at
branchpoints. 
Let us define the third kind differential form:
Z z1
dSz1;z2 .z0 / D B.z0 ; z0 /
z2

which is a meromorphic differential form in the variable z0 , with a simple pole

of residue C1 at z0 D z1 , and a simple pole of residue 1 at z0 D z2 , and it is
4.3 Solution of Loop Equations 165

normalized on A-cycles:
I
dSz1;z2 D 0:
Ai

On the other hand, regarded as a function of z1 , dSz1 ;z2 .z0 / is a scalar, and it
is only defined on a fundamental domain (i.e. L=.[i Ai [i Bi / which is simply
connected).
Let o 2 L be an arbitrarily fixed origin on the spectral curve. Since dSz;o .z0 / has
a simple pole at z D z0 , we can write Cauchy theorem
I
.g/ .g/ 1 .g/
!kC1 .z0 ; J/ D  Res dSz;o .z0 / !kC1 .z; J/ D dSz;o .z0 / !kC1 .z; J/
z!z0 2i Cz0

where Cz0 is a small circle surrounding z0 .

We can move the integration contour in the fundamental domain. The only poles
of the integrand are at z D z0 or z D ai , and the Riemann bilinear identity (see for
.g/
instance [36, 37]) says that if the A-cycle integrals of !kC1 and B vanish, then the
boundaries of the fundamental domain dont contribute, therefore:
.g/
X .g/
!kC1 .z0 ; J/ D Res dSz;o .z0 / !kC1 .z; J/:
z!ai
i

Now, we use the loop equation (3.3.1), i.e.

.g/
X dSz;o .z0 /  .g1/
!kC1 .z0 ; J/ D  Res !O nC2 .z; z; J/
i
z!ai 2y.z/dx.z/

X
g 0
X 
.h/ .gh/
C !Q 1CjIj .z; I/ !Q 1CkjIj .z; J=I/
hD0 IJ

where

.g/ .g/ 1 dx.z1 /dx.z2 /

!Q k D !k  k;2 g;0
2 .x.z1 /  x.z2 //2

and

.g/ .g/ dx.z1 /dx.z2 /

!O k D !k  k;2 g;0 :
.x.z1 /  x.z2 //2

One should notice that we have the parity property:

.g/ .g/
!Q kC1 .z; J/ D !Q kC1 .Nz; J/
166 4 Multicut Case

where zN z is solution of x.z/ D x.Nz/. This allows to symmetrize the integrand, and
get:

.g/ 1X dSz;Nz.z0 /  .g1/

!kC1 .z0 ; J/ D Res !nC2 .z; zN; J/
2 i z!ai 2y.z/dx.z/

X 0
g X 
.h/ .gh/
C !Q 1CjIj .z; I/ !Q 1CkjIj .Nz; J=I/ :
hD0 IJ

Because of parity, it is possible to change !Q ! !, and all the generating functions

.g/
!k with 2  2g  k < 0 are given by:
Theorem 4.3.4 The generating functions of nodal maps of genus g with k bound-
aries, obey the topological recursion:

.g/ 1X dSz;Nz.z0 /  .g1/

!kC1 .z0 ; J/ D Res !nC2 .z; zN; J/
2 i z!ai 2y.z/dx.z/

X
g 0
X 
.h/ .gh/
C !1CjIj .z; I/ !1CkjIj .Nz; J=I/ : (4.3.4)
hD0 IJ

This theorem shows that the generating functions of nodal maps are a special
case of the symplectic invariants of [34], presented in Chap. 7.

4.4 Maps Without Boundaries

The generating functions of maps with no boundaries are given by the analogous of
Theorem 3.4.3:
Theorem 4.4.1
1 X .g/
X B2g 22g
8g2 ; Fg D Res .z/ !1 .z/ C i
2  2g i z!ai i
2g.2  2g/

where d D ydx, and Bn is the nth Bernoulli number.

Expressions for F0 and F1 can be found in Chap. 7.
Proof Since the multicut case is not so relevant for the combinatorics of maps, we
let the reader find the proof in the literature [30]. 
Again, the generating functions of nodal maps are a special case of the symplectic
invariants of [34], presented in Chap. 7.
4.5 Exercises 167

4.5 Exercises

Exercise 1 Consider the 2 cuts case, for even maps (V.x/ is even) and with filling
fraction 1=2.
Prove that the disc amplitude is of the form:

.0/ 1 0 p 
W1 .x/ D V .x/  M.x/ .x2  a2 /.x2  b2 /
2

where a2 and b2 are determined as follows:

write a Zhukowski map for x2 :
 
a2 C b2 a2  b2 1
x2 D C zC
2 4 z

and expand V 0 .x/ as:

V0 X
d=21

D uk zk C zk :
x kD0

Determine a and b by:

4t
u0 D 0 ; u1 D :
a2  b2
Exercise 2 Consider again the 2 cuts case for even maps, and with filling fraction
1=2. From Exercise 1, the 2 cuts are then symmetric:

a; b [ a; b:

Define

.x/ D .x2  a2 /.x2  b2 /:

Prove that the cylinder amplitude is

!
a2 Cb2
.0/ 1 x21 x22  2
.x21 C x22 / C a2 b2 C
W2 .x1 ; x2 / D 1 C p Cp
2 .x1  x2 /2 .x1 / .x2 / .x1 / .x2 /

where C is a constant to be computed by requiring

I
.0/
W2 .x1 ; x2 / dx1 D 0:
a;b
168 4 Multicut Case

Akemann [2] writes it

s s !
.0/ 1 .x21  a2 / .x22  b2 / .x21  b2 / .x22  a2 /
W2 .x1 ; x2 / D C
4 .x1  x2 /2 .x21  b2 / .x22  a2 / .x21  a2 / .x22  b2 /

1 a2 E.k/ a C b
 2
C p
2 .x1  x2 / 4 .x1 / .x2 / K.k/ a  b

where
p
2 ab
kD :
aCb

and K.k/ and E.k/ are the elliptical integrals, see [1].
Chapter 5
Counting Large Maps

Initially, in quantum gravity and string theory, the problem of counting maps, i.e.
surfaces made of polygons, was introduced only as a discretized approximation for
counting continuous surfaces. The physical motivation is the following: in string
theory, particles are 1-dimensional loops called strings, and under time evolution
their trajectories in space-time are surfaces. Quantum mechanics amounts to averag-
ing over all possible trajectories between given initial and final states, i.e. all possible
surfaces between given boundaries. However, trajectories should be counted only
once modulo their symmetries, in particular conformal reparametrizations, in other
words, trajectories are in fact Riemann surfaces (equivalence class of surfaces
modulo conformal reparametrizations).
The set of all Riemann surfaces with a given topology and given boundaries, is
called the moduli space, and string theory amounts to counting Riemann surfaces,
i.e. measuring the volume of the moduli space.
Physicists made the guess that in some appropriate limit, the counting function
of discrete surfaces (maps) should tend towards the counting function of Riemann
surfaces. In some sense, surfaces made of a very large number of very small
polygons should be a good approximation of Riemann surfaces in quantum
gravity!

In this chapter, we are going to explain how to find the asymptotic generating
functions of large maps, and then compare with Liouville conformal field theory
of quantum gravity, and in the next chapter we are going to compare it to the
enumeration of Riemann surfaces.

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 169

B. Eynard, Counting Surfaces, Progress in Mathematical Physics 70,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7643-8797-6_5
170 5 Counting Large Maps

5.1 Introduction to Large Maps and Double Scaling Limit

The idea is to count maps made of a very large number of polygons, and send the
size of polygons (the mesh) to zero so that the average area remains finite.

5.1.1 Large Size Asymptotics and Singularities

Let us start with general considerations about large order behaviors.

It is a standard knowledge that there is a relationship between the large order
behavior of a sequence, and singularities of the corresponding generating series.
Consider a sequence fAk gk2N , and the formal series:
1
X
A.t/ D Ak t k :
kD0

Imagine that A.t/ is convergent in a disc jtj < jtc j, for instance assume that it is an
algebraic function of t (which is indeed the case for generating functions for maps).
The basic example is:
1
X .k C /
A.t/ D C .tc  t/ D C tc .t=tc /k :
kD0
k ./

The large order behavior is obtained from Stirlings asymptotic formula:

.k C / tc k 1
Ak D C tck  C t k : (5.1.1)
k ./ k!1 ./ c
More generally, if A.t/ is an analytical function with several algebraic singular-
ities tc1 ; tc2 ; tc3 ; : : : with exponents 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; : : : , the large order behavior of Ak is
dominated by the singularity(ies) tci closest to the origin, those for which jtci j is
minimal.
X tcii k i 1
Ak  Ci t k :
k!1 .i / ci
jtci jDminfjtcj jg

Conversely, if a sequence Ak has a large order behavior of type Eq. (5.1.1) with
rational, then its generating series A.t/ has a singularity of algebraic type.
There is also an intuitive approach to understand the link between singularities
and large order behaviors. The expectation value of k is:
P
k Ak t k t A0 .t/
< k >D Pk k
D
k Ak t A.t/
5.1 Introduction to Large Maps and Double Scaling Limit 171

thus, if we want large values of k to dominate the expectation values, i.e. if we want
< k > to become very large, we need to choose t such that tA0 =A diverges, that is
we need to choose t close to a point where ln A.t/ is not analytical.
A weaker statement would be to require that some moment of k diverges, for
instance:
 p
1 X p 1 d
< kp >D k Ak t k D t A.t/:
A.t/ k A.t/ dt

In other words we want to choose t D tc such that some derivative of A.t/ diverges.
Let us now illustrate those general considerations on some examples.

5.1.2 Example: Quadrangulations

The generating function of quadrangulations of genus g with n4 quadrangular

unmarked faces, and thus v D n4 C 2  2g vertices is:
X X 1
Fg .t4 / D t22g .t t4 /n4 :
n4 .g/
#Aut./
2M0 .n4 C22g/

The average number of faces is thus:

@ ln Fg @ ln Fg
< n4 >D t4 D< v > C2g  2 D t C 2g  2
@t4 @t
where < v > is the average number of vertices.
In order to have < n4 > or < v > very large, one must chose t in the vicinity of
a singularity of Fg . We have seen
p
in Chap. 3, that all the Fg s (except F0 and F1 ) are
rational fractions of 2 D 1 6t112tt 4
, and thus Fg is singular when 2 is singular,
4 p
that is at t D tc D 1=12 t4. For instance, with the notation r D 1  12tt4 , we have
according to Eqs. (3.6.1)(3.6.3):
 
t2 1 5 3 1Cr
F0 D  C  ln
2 3.1 C r/2 3.1 C r/ 4 2
 
t2 1 4 2
D ln 2   4tt4 C 36t2 t42  t .1  t=tc /5=2 C O..1  t=tc /3 /;
2 3 15
1 1Cr 1 ln 2
F1 D ln D  ln .1  12tt4 /  C O..1  t=tc /1=2 /;
12 2r 24 12
 
89r5 C 20r4 C 130r3  100r2  65r C 56 B4
F2 D t2 
5 9 28 r 5 8
7
D .1  t=tc /5=2 C O.1  t=tc /2 :
10 .12 tc /2
172 5 Counting Large Maps

Below, we will prove in Theorem 5.3.1 that in general, for quadrangulations, Fg

is singular at t D tc D 1=12 t4, and behaves (for g  2) like:
5
Fg  FQ g tc22g .1  t=tc / 4 .22g/ C : : : subleading

the constant prefactor FQ g is called the double scaling limit of Fg , and our main
goal from now on, is to compute it, not only for quandrangulations, but for all sorts
of maps. We address that problem below, and the answer is given in Theorem 5.3.1.
For F1 and F0 , to leading order at t ! tc , only the derivatives diverge as a power
law:

@3 F0 1
D .1  t=tc /1=2 C o..1  t=tc /1=2 /
@t3 2 tc
@F1 1
D .1  t=tc /1 C o..1  t=tc /1 /:
@t 24 tc

Let us compute 2 ug D coefficient of the highest power of .1  t=tc / in @2 Fg =@t2

(except 2u0 computed from the highest power of .1  t=tc / in @3 F0 =@t3 ), we have

1 1 49
u0 D  ; u1 D ; u2 D ; :::
2 48 tc2 32 28 tc4
FQ g 5 5
for g  2 ; ug D 2g 4
.2  2g/ . .2  2g/  1/;
tc 4

and define the formal series

X 1 1=2 1 2 49
u.s/ D ug tc2g s.15g/=2 D  s C s C 2 s9=2 C : : :
g
2 48 3 28

The values that we have found for u0 ; u1 ; u2 indicate that u.s/ seems to satisfy the
Painlev I equation to the first few orders

3
3u2 C u00 =2 D s C O.s13=2 /:
4

Our goal in this chapter, is to prove that indeed u.s/ satisfies Painlev I equation to
all orders:
3
3u2 C u00 =2 D s:
4

This Painlev equation determines all the coefficients ug , and thus FQ g , i.e. it gives
the asymptotic numbers of large maps.
5.1 Introduction to Large Maps and Double Scaling Limit 173

The Liouville minimal model of conformal field theory coupled to quantum

gravity, predicts that the generating function of number of surfaces, should satisfy
the Painlev I equation, so what we find is an agreement between the asymptotic
number of large maps, and the Liouville conformal field theory of gravity.

5.1.2.1 Mesh Size

@ ln F
The average number of quadrangles is < n4 >D t4 @t4 g , and thus, if we say that all
quadrangles have the same area  2 (we call mesh size the side of each quadrangle,
that is ), the average area is:

5 2
< Area >D  2 < n4 > .2  2g/ :
4 t
tc
1

If we want to have a good continuous limit of random surfaces, we require the area
to remain finite, and it means that we should choose:

 2  tc  t:

Therefore, the distance to critical point tc  t can be interpreted as the mesh area,
i.e. the area of elementary quadrangles.

5.1.3 About Double Scaling Limits and Liouville Quantum

Gravity
5.1.3.1 Origin of the Name Double Scaling Limit
P 22g
Remember that we have defined ln Z D gN Fg , where Z is the generating
function of all maps of all genus not necessarily connected. Anticipating on
Theorem 5.3.1, we notice that Fg  FQ g tc22g .1  t=tc /.22g/ with the exponent of
.1  t=tc / proportional to 2  2g. Thus, it is possible to define a rescaled parameter
NQ D N tc .1  t=tc / , and a series:
1
X
ln ZQ D NQ 22g FQ g
gD0

such that ZQ is the limit of Z, in the double scaling limit (double because we take
a limit on both N and t):

t ! tc
N tc .1  t=tc / D NQ D finite Q
! Z  Z:
N!1
174 5 Counting Large Maps

This double scaling limit ZQ is to be viewed as the generating series of the

continuous limit of maps.

5.1.3.2 From Large Maps to Liouville Gravity

FQ g is the generating function of asymptotic numbers of large maps of genus g,

rescaled by a power of the mesh size.
.g/
In a similar manner, one is also interested in the double scaling limits of Wn s
counting asymptotic numbers of large maps of genus g with n asymptotically large
marked faces.
The guess made by physicists working in quantum gravity in the 80s and
90s, was that those double scaling limit generating functions FQ g and W Q n.g/ , should
coincide with correlation functions of Liouville conformal field theory coupled to
gravity. This guess was supported by heuristic asymptotics of convergent matrix
integrals, hoped to be valid for formal integrals.
On the conformal field theory side, due to conformal invariance, the correlation
functions of a conformal field theory, must have the symmetry of some representa-
tions of the conformal group, that is they are given in terms of representations of the
Virasoro algebra.
Finite representations of the conformal group were classified (in the famous Kacs
table [41]) and are called minimal models, they are labeled by two integers . p; q/.
For the minimal models, the partial differential equations imply that the partition
function has to satisfy a non-linear ordinary differential equation. For example, the
minimal model .3; 2/ is called pure gravity, and its generating function satisfies the
Painlev I equation.
The minimal models are also related to finite reductions of the KP (Kadamtsev-
Petviashvili) integrable hierarchy.
If the asymptotics generating functions FQ g of large maps were related to Liouville
gravity, that would mean that ZQ would be a tau-function for the KP (Kadamtsev-
Petviashvili) hierarchy of integrable equations, and in particular ZQ should satisfy
some non-linear differential equations with the Painlev property. We shall derive
these differential equations below in Sect. 5.4.
Thus, in principle, if we want to compare large maps to Liouville quantum
gravity, we have to check that the generating function of the FQ g and W Q n.g/ s, satisfy
the differential equations of some . p; q/ minimal model. In particular, we have to
check that ZQ is indeed the tau-function of a minimal model reduction of the KP
hierarchy

ZQ D Tau  function of . p; q/ reduction of KP hierarchy:
5.2 Critical Spectral Curve 175

We also have to check that the scaling exponents of large maps, are those computed
by KPZ (Khniznik Polyakov Zamolodchikov) [55]

2
KPZ exponent D ; Fg  FQ g .1  t=tc /.22g/.1 =2/ :
pCq1

All this was done at a heuristic level by physicists in the 90s. We provide a
mathematical proof below in this chapter.

5.2 Critical Spectral Curve

Here we study what special happens at t D tc ? Why generating functions diverge?

5.2.1 Spectral Curves with Cusps

In Chap. 3, we have seen that the Fg s for g  2 are rational fractions of and
2 (F0 and F1 also contain logarithms of rational fractions of and 2 ). and
themselves are obtained by solving an algebraic equation, and thus they may have
singularities. One can compute (see Theorem 3.4.5, Sect. 3.4.3):
 
d 1 1 1
D C 0
dt 4 y0 .1/ y .1/

and y0 .1/ and y0 .1/ are themselves algebraic functions of t. Therefore we see that
is singular whenever y0 .1/ D 0 or y0 .1/ D 0. Without loss of generality, let us
consider that y0 .1/ vanishes at t D tc .
We are thus led to study the behavior of y.z/ near z D 1. For any t, let us compute
the Taylor expansion of x.z/ and y.z/ at z D 1.
Since x.z/ D C .z C 1=z/ we always have x0 .1/ D 0, and to the order .z  1/2
we have

x.z/  x.1/ C .z  1/2 C O..z  1/3 /;

and thus
r
xa
z1 :

176 5 Counting Large Maps

And y.z/  .z  1/y0 .1/ C 12 .z  1/2 y00 .1/ C 16 .z  1/3 y000 .1/ C : : : . Generically y
behaves like a square root near its branchpoints:
r
0 xa 3
y  y .1/ C O..x  a/ 2 /:

At t D tc , however, since y0 .1/ vanishes, y no longer behaves as a square root, it has

a cusp singularity of the form y  .x  a/3=2 , and if more derivatives of y vanish, it
has a cusp singularity of the form:

y  .x  a/p=q :

Here, for maps, y is always the square root of some polynomial, so that p=q must
be halfinteger, i.e. q D 2 and p D 2m C 1 where m corresponds to the first non-
vanishing derivative of y at z D 1, that is y.z/  O..z  1/2mC1 /.
Remark 5.2.1 In more general maps, for instance colored maps carrying an Ising
model (see Chap. 8), or a O.n/ model, other exponents p=q are possible. The Ising
model allows to reach any rational p=q singularity. The O.n/ model allows to reach
all p=q singularities (not necessarily rational) such that n D 2 cos . pq /.
The integers p and q are going to be related to the . p; q/ minimal model.
If t is close to tc , the curve y.x/ is not singular, but it approaches a singularity.
So, let us zoom into a small region near the branchpoint.

~
y y y

~
x
x x
t=t c t ~ tc

For example, consider that the branchpoint which becomes singular is the one
at z D 1 (in case both branchpoints become singular there are extra factors of 2 in
some formulae, this is the case for even maps).

5.2.1.1 Example: Quadrangulations

If one plots the spectral curve y versus x, one sees that at t tc , the curve .x; y/ is
regular, it behaves generically like a square root near its branch points x D 2 , it
5.2 Critical Spectral Curve 177

has everywhere a tangent (at the branchpoints the tangent is vertical). At t D tc D

1
12t4 : the curve .x; y/ ceases to be regular, it has a cusp singularity, it has no tangent
at z D 1. Indeed, we have [from Eq. (3.1.16)]:
p
t4 2 2  2t p 2 1 1  12tt4
yD .x  4 2 C 3 2 2 / x  4 2 ; 2 D :
2 t 6t4

At t D tc D 1=12t4 we have 2 D 2t and thus:

t4 2
t D tc ) yD .x  8t/3=2 :
2

At t D tc , the square root singularity at x D 2 is replaced by a power 3=2

singularity.

y y y

x x x
t<tc t=tc
t<tc

In a vicinity of the critical point, we parametrize t4 as:

1  2
tt4 D
12
where  is the mesh size.
In the small  limit we have the Taylor expansion:

2  2t .1  / C O. 2 /;

and we reparametrize x in a vicinity of the branch-point x  2 D O./, with an

auxillary variable   O.1/ as:
p 1
xD 8t .1 C . 2  2//
4
we find that y behaves like:
p
t 3 3 5
y  2 .  3/ C O. 2 /:
3
178 5 Counting Large Maps

This corresponds to having reparametrized the Zhukovskys variable near z D 1 as

r

zD1C  C O./:
2

Let us define the parametric curve .Qx; yQ / defined by keeping only the leading
non-trivial behaviors of x and y at small :
( q
xQ ./ D t
2
. 2  2/
p
yQ ./ D  3
t
. 3  3/

it is called the blow up of the curve .x; y/ near its singularity.

This blown up curve is going to play an important role below.

5.2.2 Multicritical Points

The previous example of just quadrangulations is in some way too simple, as it

does not contain any multicritical point. The reason is that it depends only on one
variable tt4 .

5.2.2.1 Example: Quadrangles + Hexagons

In order to illustrate a more general type of mutlicritical behaviour, consider maps

with both quadrangles (weighted by t4 ), and hexagons (weighted by t6 ). Notice that
these are even maps. We have:

V 0 .x/ D x  t4 x3  t6 x5 :

The spectral curve is easily computed with Theorem 3.1.1:

 
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 t p 2
yD t6 .x  4 / C .t4 C 10t6 /.x  4 / C 3t4 C 20t6  2 x  4 2
2

where 2 is the unique solution of the following algebraic equation, that behaves
like t C O.t2 / at small t:

t D 2  3t4 4  10t6 6 ; (5.2.1)

5.2 Critical Spectral Curve 179

i.e. according to Chap. 3, using the Lagrange interpolation method

X .2k C 3l/
2 D tkClC1 .3t4 /k .10 t6 /l :
k;l
.k C 2l C 1/ k l

We have now 2-parameters t4 and t6 . For each t4 , there is a critical value of t6 at

which y has a 32 cusp y  .x  2 /3=2 . This happens when 3t4 2 C 20t6 4  t2 D 0,
i.e.
3
2  27 tt4 2.1  9 tt4 / 2
t6 D : (5.2.2)
270 t2

This draws two critical lines in the .t4 ; t6 / plane.

Then, if in addition to Eq. (5.2.2), we have t4 C 10t6 2 D 0, we have a point (at
the intersection of the two critical lines) where y  .x  2 /5=2 . This point is at

1 1
t4 D ; t6 D  :
9t 270 t2
This is best represented on a phase diagram:

t2 t6

1/2
y~x

t t4

3/2
y~x y~x 5/2

for generic t4 and t6 , y has a 12 edge, along the two critical lines, y has a 32 cusp, and
at the critical point, y has a 52 cusp.
Now, our goal is to consider t4 and t6 a little bit away from the critical point, and
study the limit of generating functions of maps, as we approach the critical point.
Of course, depending on how we approach the critical point, we find different
asymptotic behaviors. The asymptotics for the Fg s are going to be different if we
approach the critical point along a critical line, or from a generic direction.
Let us consider a small vicinity of the critical point, parametrized as:

1 Qt0 1
t4 D .1   2 / ; t6 D  .1   2 Qt0 C  3 s/
9t 3 270t2

where  is small (it is the mesh size), and s; Qt0 are of order O.1/.
180 5 Counting Large Maps

It will be more convenient to use a variable u0 instead of s:

s D 8 u30  2Qt0 u0 :

In some sense u0 measures the distance to critical point along the critical line,
and Qt0  12u20 measures the distance transverse to the critical line.
The Eq. (5.2.1) for gives:

3t
D 1 C 2u0 :
2

Then, reparametrizing x in a vicinity of the branch-point 2 with an auxillary

variable  of order O.1/ as:
p
x 3t .2 C  . 2  2u0 / C O. 2 //

we find that y behaves like:

r  
t 5 8 5 3 2
y 2  C 8 u0  C .Qt0  12 u0 / .1 C O.//:
3 5

The parametric curve .Qx; yQ /

(
xQ ./ D  2  2u0
15 u20
yQ ./ D  85 . 5  5 u0  3 C 2 / C Qt0 

is called the blown up of the curve .x; y/ near its singularity. Again, anticipating
on Sect. 5.4, we notice that the exponents 5 and 2, are a hint that this spectral curve
has to do with the .5; 2/ minimal model.
.g/
The differential form ydx plays a key role in the recursive computations of Wk s,
and it scales like:

ydx  t  7=2 yQ dQx C O. 9=2 /:

Remark 5.2.2 If we would compare the formal matrix model for maps to a
convergent matrix integral, then the large N limit of the density of eigenvalues would
be
.x/dx D 2it
N
y dx. Thus, we see that if we choose

  N 2=7 ;

then a region of size of order  near the edge, contains a finite number of eigenvalues
of the random matrix. This is a hint that the double scaling limit to be considered
will be t ! tc and N ! 1 and N.1  t=tc /7=4 D O.1/.
5.2 Critical Spectral Curve 181

5.2.2.2 Multicritical Points, General Case

More generally, when we consider maps, we have a spectral curve .x; y/ depending
on some parameters t3 ; t4 ; : : : td and t. As we have already noticed, the spectral curve
i
depends only on the rescaled parameters t 2 1 ti , and the parameter t is redundant,
but for further convenience we prefer to keep it.
In the space of parameters ti s, there exists critical sub-manifolds, corresponding
to various singular behaviours for the spectral curves .x; y/, of the form y  .x 
a/p=q , where q D 2 and p D 2m C 1.
1
Consider a critical point ti D tic , at which we have y  .x  a/mC 2 .
When we move away from this point, we may move along various directions, for
0 1
instance along a submanifold where y  .x  a/m C 2 with m0 < m, or we can also
move into a non critical direction m0 D 0.
Therefore, it is better to reparametrize our parameters t; ti s as functions of more
appropriate parameters ; Qti s:

ti D ti .; Qt1 ; : : : ; Qtm / where  2 D tc  t

and in such a way that the spectral curve can be written in the regime  ! 0 and
Qti D O.1/ as:
(
x./  ac C c . 2  2u/ C O. 2 /
1 P 3
y./  tcc  mC 2 . m Q
m0 D0 tm0 Qm0 .// C O. mC 2 /

where

X
m 0
.u/j .2m0 C 1/  
2m0 2jC1 2 m0 C 12
Qm0 ./ D  D .  2u/ (5.2.3)
jD0
j .2m0  2j C 1/ C

is a polynomial of  of degree 2m0 C 1 (it is the polynomial part of the large 

0 1
Laurent series expansion of . 2  2u/m C 2 ).
The first few are

15 u2
Q0 ./ D  ; Q1 ./ D  3  3u; ; Q2 ./ D  5  5u  3 C :
2

The spectral curve now depends on the parameters , u, and Qti , i D 1; : : : ; m.

x, y and the Qm0 are defined with an extra parameter u, but we shall see below,
that u has to be a certain function of the Qti s.
At  0, the spectral curve is regular, its branchpoints are of square root type.
The curve becomes singular in the  ! 0 limit, and depending on the Qti s, it may
become critical or multicritical along some critical submanifolds.
182 5 Counting Large Maps

Our goal is to study how the Fg s diverge in the limit  ! 0 (i.e. t  tc ! 0). We
are going to prove in Theorem 5.3.1 below, that (remember that  2 D tc  t):

Fg  .1  t=tc /.22g/ tc22g FQ g .Qti / .1 C o.1//

the scaling exponent  D 2mC3

2mC2
, and the values of FQ g are computed in Theorem 5.3.1
below, and we shall find that the coefficients FQ g are the symplectic invariants (see
Chap. 7) of the blown up spectral curve:

xQ ./ D  2  2u
P
yQ ./ D m m0 D0 Qtm0 Qm0 ./:

Then, we shall show that the symplectic invariants of that curve, are related to the
.2m C 1; 2/ minimal model, and their generating function satisfies the .m C 1/th
Painlev I equation.

.g/
5.3 Computation of the Asymptotic Wn s

.g/
Here, we compute how the functions Wn .x1 ; : : : ; xn / behave in a small region of
size around a branchpoint (z D C1 for instance). We shall study this behavior
independently of beingpclose to a critical point or not, i.e. whether the curve behaves
like a square root y  x  a or like any other power y  .x  a/p=q .
Also here, we choose a small size on the spectral curve (i.e. in the z variable),
independently of any mesh size . It is only later that we shall relate the two.
We thus reparametrize the Zhukovsky variables zi s with some auxillary variables
i s as

zi D 1 C i

and thus xi D x.zi / D C .zi C 1=zi / gives:

xi D x.1/ C 2 i2 C O. 3 /:

.g/
Our goal is to study the asymptotic behavior of Wn .x1 ; : : : ; xn / in the limit ! 0,
with all i s of order O.1/.
For latter purposes, we will also be interested in situations where the size may
depend (or not depend) on the times t; tk , and thus x.1/ and may also have a small
expansion.
For example, if we are near a critical point, we may want to choose the scale of
the form  .tc  t/ with some appropriate exponent  ( D 0 if is independent
of t).
 .g/
5.3 Computation of the Asymptotic Wn s 183

However, for the moment, we do not assume any particular relationship, in fact
we allow any arbitrary relationship. Thus we find, by doing a Taylor expansion in
powers of :
(
x.z/  x.1/ C q xQ ./ C o. 2 / ; xQ ./ D  2  2u ; qD2
y.z/  t p yQ ./ C o. p /

where p is the leading exponent in powers of , and yQ is, for the moment, an almost
arbitrary function of . For example, if we assume that y would behave locally like
.x  a/p=q then yQ ./ would be a polynomial of  of degree p.
The coefficient u comes from the O. 2 / term in the expansion of x.1/ D x0 C
x1  2 u 2 C O. 3 /, it is related to the choice of relationship between and t; ti s,
and this choice will depend on the kind of critical point under consideration.
We call the curve .Qx; yQ / the blown up of the curve .x; y/ in the region of size :

xQ ./
:
yQ ./

.g/
All the generating functions Fg and Wn are given by Theorem 3.3.1 and
Theorem 3.4.3, i.e. by residue formulae in the vicinity of z D 1. For the residue
at z D C1, we write z D 1 C , and for the residue at z D 1, we have
z C 1 D 2 C O./. Let us study how each term behaves in the small limit. The
fundamental second kind differential B.z0 ; z/ D 1=.z0  z/2 behaves like:

z near C1 z near 1
B.z0 ; z/  z0 near C1 Q 0 ; /
2 B. O.1/  .1 C O.//;
z0 near 1 O.1/ O.1/

Q 0 ; / is the fundamental second kind differential of the curve .Qx; yQ /:

where B.

Q 0 ; / D 1
B. :
.  0 /2

Similarly, the kernel K (see Eq. (3.7.1) in Chap. 3)

!
1 1 1 1
K.z0 ; z/ D  1
2 z0  z z0  z
2y.z/ x0 .1=z/

behaves like:

z near C1 z near 1
K.z0 ; z/  z0 near C1 1 . pCq/ Q  .1 C O.//;
t K.0 ; / O.1/
z0 near 1 O. . pCq1/ / O.1/
184 5 Counting Large Maps

Q 0 ; / is the recursion kernel (see Chap. 7) of the spectral curve .Qx; yQ /:

where K.
 
Q 0 ; / D 1
K.
1

1 1
:
2 0   0 C  2Qy./ xQ 0 ./

.g/
Therefore, we see that the leading contribution to !nC1 .1 C 0 ; : : : ; 1 C n / is
given by the case where all residues are taken near C1, and can be computed only
in terms of BQ and K.
Q By an easy recursion on 2g C n  2, we obtain:

Theorem 5.3.1 Double scaling limits of correlation functions

!n.g/ .1C1 ; : : : ; 1Cn /  t22gn .22gn/. pCq/ n !Q n.g/ .1 ; : : : ; n / .1CO.//

.g/
and !Q n are determined by the recursion relation:

.0/ 1
!Q 2 .1 ; 2 / D
.1  2 /2

h X
g
X .h/ i
.g/ Q .g1/ .gh/
!Q nC1 .0 ; J/ D Res K.0 ; / !Q nC2 .; ; J/C !Q 1CjIj .; I/!Q 1CnjIj .; J=I/
!0
hD0 IJ
(5.3.1)
where
 
Q 0 ; / D 1
K.
1

1 1
:
2 0   0 C  .Qy./  yQ .//Qx0 ./

.g/
Therefore, we have found the scaling limit of Wn in a small region of size .
.g/
Remark 5.3.1 Notice that the recursion relation Eq. (5.3.1) for the !Q n s, is very
.g/
similar to the recursion relation of Theorem 3.3.1 for the !n s themselves. In fact
both are special cases of the general Topological recursion introduced in [34],
which is presented in Chap. 7 in this book. In some sense, the topological recursion
commutes with taking limits.
Then, one could be tempted to apply the same method to the computation of Fg
(with g  2), from Theorem 3.4.3:

.g/ .g/
.2  2g/ Fg D Res .z/!1 .z/dz C Res .z/!1 .z/dz : (5.3.2)
z!C1 z!1

.g/ .g/
Indeed, we have seen that !1 .1 C /  .12g/. pCq/1 !Q 1 ./, whereas near z D
.g/
1 (if z D 1 is not critical) we typically have !1 .z/ D o. .12g/. pCq/1 /. Thus,
naively, one is tempted to write that the leading behavior of Fg would be:

Fg  .22g/. pCq/ t22g FQ g .1 C o.1//

 .g/
5.3 Computation of the Asymptotic Wn s 185

where
1 .g/
FQ g D Res Q ./!Q 1 ./d
2  2g !0

with Q 0 ./ D yQ ./Qx0 ./.

However, this formula can be valid only if FQ g 0, otherwise this means that in
fact Fg is given by subdominant contributions and all what we get is in that case

FQ g D 0 , Fg D o. .22g/. pCq/ /:

This is not surprising, because Fg is not a function of , it is a function of the ti s and

so far we have not considered the relationship between and the ti s. For instance if
one chooses independent of the ti s, then in that case Fg should clearly not depend
on .
Remark 5.3.2 In case where both z D 1 and z D C1 are critical points of the
curve .x; y/, it may happen that the two terms of Eq. (5.3.2) are of the same order of
magnitude.
.g/
For instance this is the case for even maps, where all functions !n have a
symmetry z ! z, and in that case, we get an overall prefactor 2:

Fg  2 .22g/. pCq/ t22g FQ g .1 C O.// :

5.3.1 Double Scaling Limit of Fg

In the case of the spectral curve .x; y/ of the enumeration of maps, which has near a
critical point a cusp singularity of type y  .x  a/p=q (with p D 2m C 1; q D 2)
near its branchpoint, we choose a scale D .1  t=tc / , and the blow up is of the
form
(
x.z/  x.1/ C q .tc /Qx./ C o. q / ; deg xQ D q D 2
y.z/  .tc / yQ ./ C o. /
p tc p
; deg yQ D p D 2m C 1

where yQ ./ is a polynomial of  of degree p. We parametrize the blown up spectral

curve as:

xQ ./ D  2  2u
P
yQ ./ D m Q
kD0 tk Qk ./

where we decompose the polynomial yQ ./ onto the basis of the Qk s defined in
Eq. (5.2.3).
186 5 Counting Large Maps

Moreover, we choose the tk close to their critical value, and we define the Qtj to be
the distance from the critical point, measured in eigendirections, i.e. in the form:
X
tk D tk;c C Ck;j j Qtj :
j

P
It can thus also be written tk D tk;c C j Ck;j .1  t=tc /j Qtj . The jth exponent j
is called the dressed exponent of the flow which moves from the .2m C 1; 2/
singularity to the .2j C 1; 2/ singularity (indeed Qtj is associated to Qj ./):

dressed exponents j :

It remains to determine the exponents  and j (and check that they match with the
KPZ (KnizhnikPolyakovZamolodchikov) formula [55]).
In this purpose, we recall Lemma 3.1.4, we have (at fixed tk ):

@x.z/ @y.z/ @y.z/ @x.z/ 1

 D :
@z @t @z @t z

which can be rewritten, in the regime z D 1 C , and  .1  t=tc / , as:

X 1 1 . pCq1/
Qtk .. pk / xQ 0 ./ Qk ./q Q0k ./ xQ .// D  .1Co.1//: (5.3.3)
k


From their definition [see Eq. (5.2.3)], one sees that the Qk satisfy

.2k C 2/
.2k C 1/Qx0 Qk  2QxQ0k D 2.2k C 3/.u=2/kC1 :
.k C 1/ .k C 1/

Since the Qk form a basis of odd polynomials of degree  2m C 1, the only

possibility for the right-hand-side of Eq. (5.3.3) to be a constant, is to choose
p  k D 2k C 1.
Also, since the left-hand-side of Eq. (5.3.3) is independent of , we must have
1= D p C q  1:

1
D ; k D p  .2k C 1/ D 2.m  k/:
pCq1

We also find that u is solution of a polynomial equation:

X .2k C 3/ pCq1
Qtk 2
.u=2/k D : (5.3.4)
k
.k C 1/ 2

Therefore, the generating functions of large maps are asymptotically given by

 .g/
5.3 Computation of the Asymptotic Wn s 187

Theorem 5.3.2 Double scaling limit of the Fg s enumerating functions of maps, at

a . p; q/ critical point (p D 2m C 1, q D 2), for g  2:
pCq pCq
Fg  .1  t=tc /.22g/ pCq1 tc22g FQ g C O..1  t=tc /C.22g/ pCq1 /

where
C .g/
FQ g D Res Q ./ !Q 1 ./ (5.3.5)
2  2g !0

and where

Q 0 ./ D yQ ./Qx0 ./

and where generically C D 1. For cases where the two branchpoints are critical,
we may have C 1, in particular for even maps we have C D 2.
Therefore, we have computed the double scaling limit FQ g of Fg .

p 5.3.3 If p D 1; q D 2, i.e. if the spectral curve has

Remark pa regular branchpoint
y  x  a, the Blown up spectral curve is simply yQ D xQ C 2u, and one may
check that this spectral curve has FQ g D 0, which is expected since Fg is not divergent
when the spectral curve is regular. In that case, Fg is given by the subdominant
contributions. Therefore Theorem 5.3.2 is useful only when p  3.
Remark 5.3.4 The recursion relations [Eqs. (5.3.1) and (5.3.5)] are very similar to
.g/
the ones for Wn and Fg of Theorems 3.3.1 and 3.4.3 in Chap. 3. We will show in
Chap. 7, that it is possible to define a common framework for both Fg and its double
scaling limit FQ g , namely the notion of a family of symplectic invariants attached
to any spectral curve .x; y/. The counting functions of maps as well as their scaling
limits are special cases of those invariants.
In other words, if Fg is the gth symplectic invariant of the spectral curve .x; y/,
then:
Theorem 5.3.3 FQ g is the gth symplectic invariant of the blown up spectral
curve .Qx; yQ /.
The notion of symplectic invariants of a spectral curve is explained in Chap. 7.

5.3.2 Critical Exponents and KPZ

In this subsection, we mention very briefly the link to KPZ. Readers can easily skip
to the next section. We just sketch without details the link to conformal field theory,
and refer the readers to reference books and reviews on the subject [40, 41].
188 5 Counting Large Maps

Definition 5.3.1 The critical exponents in quantum gravity are defined as:
The string susceptibility exponent (often denoted string in the physics
literature) is such that D 0 and g are related to how the generating function Fg
(generating function for genus g surfaces) diverges when the mesh size .1  t=tc /
tends to 0 (or equivalently, how Fg diverges at large area):

F0  .1  t=tc /2 tc2 FQ 0 C regular

and for higher genus

Fg  .1  t=tc /2 g tc22g FQ g :

The dressing exponents j;1 are related to the scaling behaviors when one
moves away from the .2m C 1; 2/ critical point along a critical submanifold of
codimension r (i.e. a .2r C 1; 2/ critical submanifold), measured in mesh size,
and normalized so that 1;1 D 0 for j D 1. In other words it is related to the
scalings

X j;1 m;1
tk D tk;c C Ck;j .1  t=tc / 1m;1 Qtj :
j

We have thus proved that

Theorem 5.3.4 The critical exponents are:

pCq
2  g D .2  2g/ . p C q/ D .2  2g/ :
pCq1

In particular at genus g D 0:

2
D :
pCq1

The exponents j;1 are related to j D p  .2j C 1/ D 2.m  j/ by:

j;1  m;1 2.m  j/

D j D
1  m;1 pCq1

and since 1;1 D 0:

2  2j jp  qjj  jp  qj
j;1 D D
4 p C q  jp  qj

They are those predicted by the Kacs table [41] and the KPZ formula [55].
 .g/
5.3 Computation of the Asymptotic Wn s 189

5.3.2.1 Kacs Table

We refer the reader to literature on Conformal Field Theory, for example [41].
Finite representations of the conformal group in 2 dimensions, are classified as
the . p; q/ minimal models. The . p; q/ minimal model has central charge
p 2
. p  q/2  2
cD16 D 16 p ;
pq 2 

where we introduced the parameter  D 4q p

. This parameter  is the one that appears
in the famous SLE processes, see the literature [28, 79].
Minimal models have a finite number of possible highest weights. The highest
weights of the . p; q/ minimal models are labeled by two integers .r; s/ with 0 < r <
p and 0 < s < q, and with the identification .r; s/  . p  r; q  s/. Their highest
weights are given by the famous Kacs formula:

. ps  qr/2  . p  q/2
hr;s D :
4pq

The weights hr;s are the exponents that control how the corresponding fields change
under dilatations.
The field .1; 1/ has weight 0, it is called the identity operator:

.1; 1/ field D Identity ; h1;1 D 0:

The value of .r; s/ which gives the minimum of jps  qrj, is called the most
relevant operator, it has the smallest weight hr;s .
The unitary minimal models are those for which jp  qj D 1, and for them, the
most relevant operator is the Identity .1; 1/.
Case . p; q/ D .2m C 1; 2/.
In that case, the central charge is

.2m  1/2
cD13 :
2m C 1

There are m highest weights corresponding to s D 1 and 1  r  m, their weights

are
.r  1/ .r  2m/
hr;1 D :
2.2m C 1/
In that case, the most relevant operator is .r; s/ D .m; 1/, its weight is:

m .m  1/
hm;1 D :
2.2m C 1/
190 5 Counting Large Maps

The only unitary models among the .2m C 1; 2/ models, are the .3; 2/ model
(pure gravity), with central charge c D 0, and the .1; 2/ model (Airy model) with
central charge c D 2.

5.3.2.2 KPZ

Polyakov understood in 1981 [76], that conformal Field theories can be coupled
to gravity, in a way preserving conformal invariance, by adding a new field: the
Liouville field.
The Liouville field is constructed from the Gaussian free field, see [28], and was
recently constructed in probability theory [24].
There are also exponents controlling how the fields change with a dilatation,
however, the coupling to gravity means that the metric itself changes under
dilatations, and thus the exponents get dressed by gravity.
It is customary to measure the behavior under dilatations by measuring how the
fields scale in powers of the area of the surface when the area becomes large, or
equivalently how they scale in powers of the mesh size at small mesh.
Recall that for us the mesh size is .1  t=tc /.
The exponent g controls the scaling of the partition function of genus g. In
Liouville theory, the topology enters only through the integral of the curvature,
which is proportional to the Euler characteristics  D 22g, and thus g is expected
to be a polynomial of degree 1 of the genus. We write it:

2  g D .1  g/.2  /

with D 0 . In other words, the exponent should be such that

Fg  .1  t=tc /2 g tc22g FQ g  .1  t=tc /.1g/.2 / tc22g FQ g :

The KPZ formula, due to Knizhnik, Polyakov, Zamolodchikov [55], computes

the dressing exponents r;s of the weights hr;s . They claim that:
 2  
r;s C 1  r;s D hr;s ;
4 4

where  D 4qp
is the SLE parameter.
For . p; q/ minimal models, this gives:

jps  qrj  jp  qj
r;s D :
p C q  jp  qj

Notice that the identity operator .r; s/ D .1; 1/, is undressed:

1;1 D 0:
 .g/
5.3 Computation of the Asymptotic Wn s 191

The most relevant operator .m; 1/ has the dressing:

1  jp  qj
m;1 D :
p C q  jp  qj

They also found the string exponent , associated to the most relevant operator
.r; s/:

2 jps  qrj
r;s D  :
p C q  jps  qrj

5.3.2.3 KPZ Formulae for the .2m C 1; 2/ Minimal Model

In that case we have:

2  2r 1r
r;s D D ;
pCq1 mC1

and
2 1
D m;1 D  D :
pCq1 mC1

This is in agreement with our direct proof from the generating functions of maps.

5.3.3 Example: Triangulations and Pure Gravity

Consider the generating function for triangulations. The potential is:

x2 x3
V.x/ D  t3
2 3
whose spectral curve was computed in Sect. 3.1.8 of Chap. 3:
(
x.z/ D C .z C 1=z/
y.z/ D 1 .z  1=z/  t3 2 .z2  z2 /

where ; are determined by

t 1r
r  r3 D 8tt32 ; 2 D ; D :
r 2t3
192 5 Counting Large Maps

t/ 2

2
8t t
3

p
The equation for becomes singular at t t3 D tc , where

1 3=4 1
tc D 3 ; rc D p ;
2 3

and one can check that at this point, the spectral curve has a .3=2/ cusp y  .x 
x.1//3=2 . This is the .3; 2/ critical point, p D 3 D 2m C 1 with m D 1, also called
pure gravity.
Near tc we parametrize with a scaling :

p 3
t t3 D tc .1  4 /;
4
so that we obtain
1
 .tc /.1  2 / C O. 3 / ;  .tc /  .tc / 2 C O. 3 /
2
where
p p p
.tc / D 31=4 t ; .tc / D 31=4 t . 3  1/:

If we choose

zD1C 

we have:
( p
x.z/  .t
pc
/ C 2 .tc / C 31=4 t 2 . 2  2/ C o. 2 /
y.z/  31=4t 3 . 3  3/ C o. 3 /
 .g/
5.3 Computation of the Asymptotic Wn s 193

i.e. the blown up curve is

xQ ./ D  2  2
yQ ./ D  3  3:

Not surprisingly, we recognize the polynomial Q1 ./ D  3  3 of Eq. (5.2.3).

Applying Theorem 5.3.1, for example, we find for the first few n and g:

.0/ 1 1
!Q 3 .1 ; 2 ; 3 / D  (5.3.6)
6 12 22 32

.1/ 1 2 C 3
!Q 1 ./ D  (5.3.7)
.12/2  4

.1/ 1514 C 1524 C 912 22 C 614 22 C 612 24 C 214 24
!Q 2 .1 ; 2 / D (5.3.8)
25 33 16 26

.2/ 135 C 87 2 C 36 4 C 12 6 C 4 8

!Q 1 ./ D 7 (5.3.9)
210 35  10
!
.0/ 1 X 1
!Q 4 .1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 / D 1C3
9 12 22 32 42 i
i2
0 1
.0/ 1 X 1 X 1 X 1A
!Q 5 .1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 / D @1 C 3 C6 C5
9 12 22 32 42 52 i
 2
i  2 2
i<j i j
 i
 4
i

etc. . .
Using Theorem 3.4.7, we have

@Fg .g/
D  Res !1 .z/ dz ln z:
@t z!1

To leading order in , only the residue at z D C1 contributes, and writing ln z D

ln.1 C / D  C O./2 , we get

@Fg .g/
  t12g 5.12g/C1 Res !Q 1 ./  d:
@t !0

Similarly, taking a second derivative gives

@2 Fg .g/
 t2g 210g Res Res !Q 2 .1 ; 2 / 1 d1 2 d2 :
@t2 1 !0 2 !0
194 5 Counting Large Maps

and a third derivative

@3 Fg .g/
 t12g 35.1C2g/ Res Res Res !Q 3 .1 ; 2 ; 3 / 1 d1 2 d2 3 d3 :
@t3 1 !0 2 !0 3 !0

From Eq. (5.3.6), we thus get

@3 F0 2 @2 F0 2
  !   ;
@t3 6t @t2 2
and using Eq. (5.3.8):

@2 F1 8

@t2 24 33 t 2
as well as using Eq. (5.3.9):

@F2 7 14 @2 F2 49 18

 8 5 3 !  :
@t 2 3 t @t2 28 36 t 4
We define ug such that

@2 Fg 210g
 u g
@t2 t2g
i.e.
1 1 49
u0 D  ; u1 D ; u2 D ; :::
2 24 33 28 36
We may thus verify that the second derivative of the free energy:
1
X
u.s/ D s.15g/=2 ug
gD0

satisfies the Painlev I equation to the first orders:

1 00 1
2u2 C 3
u D s C o.s4 /:
3 2

Our goal now, is to prove that u.s/ satisfies Painlev I to all orders.
5.4 Minimal Models 195

5.4 Minimal Models

The goal of this section is to prove that the following formal series
X
ln D N 22g FQ g
g

whose coefficients FQ g are the generating functions of large maps, is a formal Tau-
function for the mth reduction of the Kordeweg-De-Vries (KdV) hierarchy of
integrable equations. That reduction of KdV is also called the .2m C 1; 2/ minimal
model in the context of conformal field theory. It can be obtained from Liouville
conformal field theory coupled to 2D gravity.
In some sense, we obtain an argument towards the idea that large maps should be
related to Liouville gravity.

5.4.1 Introduction to Minimal Models

There exists several equivalent definitions of minimal models coupled to gravity.

Here we shall adopt the approach of Douglas and Shenker in 1990 [27]. Minimal
models correspond to representations of the conformal group in 2 dimensions. They
are classified by two integers . p; q/, and their central charge is:

. p  q/2
cD16 :
pq

Some of them have received special names (see [40]):

.1; 2/ D Airy, c D 2 (related to Tracy-Widom law [82])
.3; 2/ D pure gravity, c D 0
.5; 2/ D Lee-Yang edge singularity, c D  22
5
.4; 3/ D Ising, c D 12
.6; 5/ D Potts-3, c D 45
Minimal models can also be viewed as finite reductions of the Kadamtsev-
Petviashvili (KP) integrable hierarchy of partial differential equations [8, 53].
The case q D 2 is a little bit simpler to address, and is a reduction of the Korteweg
de Vries (KdV) hierarchy [8, 47, 58].
The KdV hierarchy, and the minimal models . p; 2/ have generated a huge
amount of works, and have been presented in many different (but equivalent)
formulations. For instance in terms of a string equation for differential operators,
in terms of a Lax pair, in terms of commuting hamiltonians, in terms of Schrdinger
equation, in terms of Hirota equations, in terms of isomonodromic systems, in
terms of Riemann Hilbert problems, in terms of tau functions, in terms of Grasman
196 5 Counting Large Maps

manifolds, in terms of Yang-Baxter equations, . . . etc, see [8] for a comprehensive

lecture.
All those formulations are equivalent, and let us recall some of the well known
features of the . p; 2/ reduction of KdV (see [8, 41]), presented in a way convenient
for our purposes.

5.4.2 String Equation

The KdV minimal model . p; 2/ with p D 2mC1, coupled to gravity, was formulated
in terms of a string equation by Douglas and Shenker in 1990 [27]. Let P, Q two
differential operators of respective orders p and 2, satisfying the so-called string
equation:

1
P; Q D Id (5.4.1)
N
1 d
Q D d2  2u.s/ ; P D dp  p u d p2 C : : : ; dD
N ds
1
N
is a redundant parameter, which can be absorbed by a redefinition of s and u, but
we prefer to keep it to play the role of a scaling parameter which can be sent to zero
to get the classical limit.
In all this chapter, we shall denote with a dot the derivative with respect to s:
df =ds D fP in order to shorten notations. The prime will be reserved to derivatives
with respect to the spectral parameter df =dx D f 0 .

5.4.2.1 Solution of the String Equation

The general solution of the string equation (5.4.1) is known. Let us describe it below.
Definition 5.4.1 Let .QjC1=2 /C be the unique differential operator of order 2j C 1,
such that:

order..QjC1=2 /C /2  Q2jC1   2j:

For example:

3Pu
.Q1=2 /C D d ; .Q3=2 /C D d3  3ud 
;
2N
15 2 15Pu 2 25Ru 15 ::: 15uPu
.Q5=2 /C D d5  5ud3 C u d d  d uC ; :::
2 2N 4N 2 8N 3 2N
5.4 Minimal Models 197

Lemma 5.4.1 It is a classical result (see [40]) that it satisfies:

1 d
.Qj1=2 /C ; Q D .Rj .u.s/// (5.4.2)
N ds
where the right hand side is a function (a differential operator of order 0).
Proof We propose the proof of this lemma as an exercise at the end of this chapter,
and we give some hints of how to do it. 
The coefficients Rj .u/ are called the Gelfand-Dikii differential polynomials [40].
They can be obtained by a recursion.
Definition 5.4.2 (Gelfand-Dikii Polynomials) The Gelfand-Dikii differential
polynomials are defined by the recursion:
1 :::
R0 D 2 ; RP jC1 D 2uRP j  uP Rj C Rj : (5.4.3)
4 N2
and by the condition that Rj is homogenous ofpdegree j in u with the grading
convention thatP D @=@s has the same grading as u.
The first few of them are:

R0 D 2
R1 D 2u
1
R2 D 3 u 2  2 N2
uR
5 5 2 1 ::::
R3 D 5u3 C 2
uRu C 2
uP  u
2N 4N 8N 4
::
:

and in general:

2 .1/j .2j  1/ h j j. j  1/ j2

Rj .u/ D u  u uR
j 12N 2
j. j  1/. j  2/ j3 2 i 2
 u uP C : : :  u.2j2/ : (5.4.4)
24N 2 .2N/2j2

Lemma 5.4.2 Any solution of the string equation

1
P; Q D Id
N

where Q D d2  2u and P D d2mC1 C : : : , can be written:

X
m X
m1
PD Qtj .Q jC1=2 /C C cj Q j ; Qtm D 1
jD0 jD0
198 5 Counting Large Maps

where cj , Qtj are constants (independent of s) and u.s/ is a solution of the non-linear
differential equation:

X
m
Qtj RjC1 .u/ D s:
jD0
(5.4.5)

This equation has the Painlev property

Proof The proof that the solution takes that form is obvious from Lemma 5.4.1.
The fact that the equation satisfies the Painlev property is beyond the scope of this
book, and we shall not use it here. We refer the reader to [23] for more details about
the Painlev property. 
The coefficients cj associated to Q j will play no role in what follows, because
Q ; Q D 0, so from now on, we shall choose cj D 0.
j

Remark 5.4.1 Since R0 D 2, we see that we can identify s with s D 2Qt1 .

Examples
For Airy p D 1, the equation for u is:

 2u D s: (5.4.6)

For pure gravity p D 3, this is the Painlev I equation:

1
3 u2  uR  2Qt0 u D s: (5.4.7)
2N 2
For Lee-Yang p D 5, we have:

5 5 2 1 :::: 1
 5u3 C uRu  uP  u C Qt1 .3 u2  uR /  2Qt0 u D s: (5.4.8)
2N 2 4N 2 8N 4 2N 2

5.4.3 Lax Pair

Consider the following matrices:

Definition 5.4.3
 
0 1
R.x; s/ D ;
x C 2u.s/ 0
5.4 Minimal Models 199

and for any integer k:

 
Ak Bk
Dk .x; s/ D ;
Ck Ak

where Ak .x; s/; Bk .x; s/; Ck .x; s/ are polynomials of respective degree k  1; k; k C 1
in x, which are defined by:

1 X kj
k
1 P 1
Bk .x; s/ D x Rj .u/ ; Ak D  Bk ; Ck D .xC2u/ Bk C AP k :
2 jD0 2N N

The recursion relation Eq. (5.4.3) implies that Bk satisfies the equation:

1 :::
2PuBk C 2.x C 2u/BP k  Bk D RP kC1 .u/
2N 2
and we see that
Lemma 5.4.3 the matrix Dk .x; t/ satisfies:
 
1 @ 1 00
Dk .x; s/ C Dk .x; s/; R.x; s/ D  RP kC1 .u/ ; (5.4.9)
N @s N 10

@
the right hand side is independent of x, and is proportional to @x
R.x; s/.
This equation is called a Lax equation.

5.4.4 Lax Equation

Therefore we have obtained that, if u is a solution of the string equation (5.4.5),

then, the matrix:

X
m
D.x; s/ D Qtj Dj .x; s/ ; Qtm D 1
jD0

satisfies the Lax equation:

Proposition 5.4.1 The matrices D.x; s/ and R.x; s/ form a Lax pair, they satisfy
the Lax equation

1 @ 1 @
D.x; s/ C D.x; s/; R.x; s/ D  R.x; s/ (5.4.10)
N @s N @x
200 5 Counting Large Maps

which can also be written as


1 @ 1 @
C D.x; s/; R.x; s/  D 0: (5.4.11)
N @x N @s

1 @
This relation means that the operator N @x C D.x; s/ is a Lax operator [8].

5.4.5 The Linear System

The Lax equation (5.4.11) is the compatibility condition, which says that the
following two differential systems have a common solution .x; s/:

1 @ 1 @
.x; s/ D  D.x; s/ .x; s/ ; .x; s/ D R.x; s/ .x; s/
N @x N @s
(5.4.12)
and .x; s/ is a matrix such that:
 

.x; s/ D Q Q : (5.4.13)

In particular this implies the Schrdinger equation for :

1 R
.x; s/ D .x C 2u.s// .x; s/ (5.4.14)
N2

where s can be interpreted as the space variable, u.s/ is the potential, and x the
energy. This is why x is often called the spectral parameter. D 1=N can be
interpreted as the Planck constant and this is why the limit N ! 1 is called the
classical limit.
Definition 5.4.4 The wronskian w.x; s/ of .x; s/ is defined as the determinant

w.x; s/ D det .x; s/1 :

It satisfies

@
log w.x; s/ D N Tr D.x; s/ D 0
@x
@
log w.x; s/ D N Tr R.x; s/ D 0
@s
5.4 Minimal Models 201

Remark 5.4.2 Up to right multiplication .x; s/ ! .x; s/C by a constant matrix C

independent of x and s, it is thus possible to normalize w.x; s/ D det .x; s/1 D 1.
Most often we shall make that convenient choice, and assume that the wronskian
is normalized to 1, except when we shall consider the insertion operator in
Definition 5.4.9 and in the proof of Lemma 5.4.5 below.

5.4.6 Kernel and Correlators

In the following sections we chose to normalize det .x; s/ D 1, and we define

Definition 5.4.5 the (generalized) Christoffel-Darboux kernel associated to the
system D.x; s/ is defined as

1 
K.x1 ; x2 ; s/ D .x1 ; s/1 .x2 ; s/ 2;2
x1  x2
Q 2 ; s/  Q .x1 ; s/.x2 ; s/
.x1 ; s/.x
D : (5.4.15)
x1  x2

Most often the s dependence will be implicitly assumed and we shall denote:

K.x1 ; x2 ; s/  K.x1 ; x2 /:

Remark 5.4.3 In fact, the actual

 Christoffel-Darboux
kernel usually considered in
the literature, is often the .x1 ; s/1 .x2 ; s/ 2;1 . It turns out that the two are
related, and this one is more convenient for our purposes.
Remark 5.4.4 If we would not assume w.x; s/ D det .x; s/1 to be normalized to
1, the formula for K would be:

1 
K.x1 ; x2 ; s/ D .x1 ; s/1 .x2 ; s/ 2;2
x1  x2
Q 2 ; s/  Q .x1 ; s/.x2 ; s/
.x1 ; s/.x
D w.x1 ; s/ :
x1  x2

Definition 5.4.6 We define the connected correlators by the determinantal

formulae:

O 1 .x/ D lim K.x; x0 /  1 0 Q s/  Q 0 .x; s/.x; s/

W D .x; s/.x; (5.4.16)
0
x !x x  x0
and for n  2:

n;2 X Y n
O n .x1 ; : : : ; xn / D 
W C .1/ n1
K.xi ; x .i/ / (5.4.17)
.x1  x2 /2  Dcyles iD1
202 5 Counting Large Maps

where we take the sum over all cyclic permutations (i.e.  has only one cycle).
For example:

O 2 .x1 ; x2 / D K.x1 ; x2 /K.x2 ; x1 /  1

W ;
.x1  x2 /2
O 3 .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / D K.x1 ; x2 /K.x2 ; x3 /K.x3 ; x1 / C K.x1 ; x3 /K.x3 ; x2 /K.x2 ; x1 /:
W

On
Although we have not written it explicitly, the kernel K and the correlators W
depend on s.
Remark 5.4.5 Our goal in this section will be to prove that the correlators WOn
Q
defined from the minimal model, coincide with the correlators Wn of Sect. 5.3
defined from the double scaling limit of generating functions of large maps:

On D
W Q n:
W

The W Q n were defined in Sect. 5.3 as formal power series of 1=N, and here, we shall
consider a formal solution of @x .x; s/ D ND.x; s/.x; s/, so that W O n are formal
O Q
power series of 1=N. The equality Wn D Wn , will then be an equality of formal
series in C1=N.
Definition 5.4.7 The non-connected correlators are defined by:

`./
X Y
O n .x1 ; : : : ; xn /n:c: D
W O ji j .i /;
W
`fx1 ;:::;xn g iD1

where the sum is over all partitions  D .1 ; : : : ; `./ / of fx1 ; : : : ; xn g into non-
empty disjoint subsets. In other words, the connected W O n s are the cumulants of the
non-connected ones.
For instance:

O 2 .x1 ; x2 /n:c: D W
W O 2 .x1 ; x2 / C W
O 1 .x1 /W
O 1 .x2 /;

O 3 .x1 ; x2 ; x3 /n:c: D W
W O 3 .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / C W
O 1 .x1 /W
O 2 .x2 ; x3 / C W
O 1 .x2 /W
O 2 .x1 ; x3 /
O 1 .x3 /W
CW O 2 .x1 ; x2 / C W
O 1 .x1 /W
O 1 .x2 /W
Q 1 .x3 /: (5.4.18)

The formula Eq. (5.4.17) is called determinantal formula, because for the non-
connected correlators, the sum over cyclic permutations in Eq. (5.4.17) gets replaced
by a sum over all permutations, with their signature:

0
X Y
0
O n .x1 ; : : : ; xn /n:c: D det.K.xi ; xj // D
W .1/ K.xi ; x .i/ /
 i
5.4 Minimal Models 203

P
where det0 and 0 signify that whenever the permutation  has a fixed point if
.i/ D i we must replace the ill-defined K.xi ; xi / by W O 1 .xi /, and whenever the
permutation  has a cycle of length 2, i.e. .i/ D j and . j/ D i, we replace
O 2 .xi ; xj /, see [10].
K.xi ; xj /K.xj ; xi / by W
O
For instance W3; n:c: is the sum of six terms coming from the six permutations:
0 1
0
K.x1 ; x1 / K.x1 ; x2 / K.x1 ; x3 /
O 3; n:c: .x1 ; x2 ; x3 / D det @K.x2 ; x1 / K.x2 ; x2 / K.x2 ; x3 /A
W
K.x3 ; x1 / K.x3 ; x2 / K.x3 ; x3 /
O 1 .x1 /W
DW O 1 .x2 /W
O 1 .x3 / C W
O 1 .x1 /W
O 2 .x2 ; x3 / C W
O 1 .x2 /W
O 2 .x1 ; x3 /
O 1 .x3 /W
CW O 2 .x1 ; x2 / C K.x1 ; x2 /K.x2 ; x3 /K.x3 ; x1 /

CK.x1 ; x3 /K.x3 ; x2 /K.x2 ; x1 / (5.4.19)

which coincides with Eq. (5.4.18).

5.4.6.1 Alternative Definition of the Correlators

Notice that:
Q 0 ; s/  Q .x; s/.x0 ; s//
. .x; s/.x 1 
K.x; x0 / D D .x; s/ 1
.x 0
; s/ 2;2
x  x0 x  x0
and thus
1 
K.x; x0 /K.x0 ; x00 / D .x; s/1 .x0 ; s/E .x0 ; s/1 .x00 ; s/ 2;2
.x  x0 /.x0  x00 /

where E is a matrix which projects on the .2; 2/ coefficient:

 
00
ED :
01

This leads to define

Definition 5.4.8 The projector M.x; s/:
 
1  Q .x; s/.x; s/ .x; s/.x; s/
M.x; s/ D .x; s/ E .x; s/ D Q s/ :
 Q .x; s/.x;
Q s/ .x; s/.x;

The matrix M.x; s/ is a projector, it satisfies

M.x; s/2 D M.x; s/ ; Tr M.x; s/ D 1 ; det M.x; s/ D 0:

204 5 Counting Large Maps

Thanks to that matrix M.x; s/, we can rewrite any cyclic product of K.xi ; x .i/ / as
a cyclic product of matrices M.x; s/:
Q
Y Tr i M.x i .1/ ; s/
K.xi ; x .i/ / D Q ;
i i .xi  x .i/ /

where  i .1/ means the image of 1 by the ith power of .

For example:

O 2 .x; x0 / D  K.x; x0 /K.x0 ; x/  1 Tr M.x; s/M.x0 ; s/ 1

W 0 2
D 
.x  x / .x  x0 /2 .x  x0 /2

and

Tr M.x; s/M.x0 ; s/M.x00 ; s/

K.x; x0 /K.x0 ; x00 /K.x00 ; x/ D :
.x  x0 /.x0  x00 /.x00  x/

It follows that
0 00 00 0
O 3 .x; x0 ; x00 / D Tr .M.x; s/M.x ; s/M.x ; s/  M.x; s/M.x ; s/M.x ; s//
W
.x  x0 /.x0  x00 /.x00  x/
Tr M.x; s/ M.x0 ; s/; M.x00 ; s/
D :
.x  x0 /.x0  x00 /.x00  x/

And in general the correlators are:

Theorem 5.4.1

O 1 .x/ D N Tr D.x; s/ M.x; s/

W

O 2 .x1 ; x2 / D Tr M.x1 ; s/M.x2 ; s/ 

W
1
.x1  x2 / 2 .x1  x2 /2

and for n  3
Qn1
X Tr iD0 M.x i .1/ ; s/
O n .x1 ; : : : ; xn / D .1/n1
W Qn :
 Dcyclic iD1 .xi  x .i/ /

5.4.6.2 Loop Insertion

We shall define a loop insertion operator x acting as a derivation (i.e. satis-

fying Leibnizs chain rule) on the functions ; Q ; ; ;
Q K; WO n ; : : : , and turning
them into functions of more variables, in particular it will be defined so that
5.4 Minimal Models 205

xnC1 W O nC1 .x1 ; : : : ; xn ; xnC1 /, whence the name insertion oper-

O n .x1 ; : : : ; xn / D W
ator.
In that purpose we first need to define formally the derivative @=@s acting on a set
of functions, without evaluating the derivatives. In other words we shall define some
symbols like .x; s/, @s .x; s/ and so on, assumed to be independent elements in a
ring, and consider differential equations as linear subspaces in that ring. This is the
notion of the Picard-Vessiot differential ring.
In this section, we no longer assume that w.x; s/ D det .x; s/1 be normalized
to 1, because we will find that y w.x; s/ 0.
let Fn D C.x1 ; : : : ; xn / be the field of rational functions of n variables, and F1
its projective limit n ! 1.
Definition 5.4.9 Let A1 be the ring over F1 freely generated by the symbols
1; .x1 ; s/; Q .x1 ; s/; .x1 ; s/; .x
Q 1 ; s/; w.xi ; s/; u.s/, and their multiple derivatives
@ =@s , and quotiented by the relations
k k

Q 1 ; s/  Q .x1 ; s/.x1 ; s// D 1

w.x1 ; s/ . .x1 ; s/.x
@s .x1 ; s/ D N Q .x1 ; s/
Q 1 ; s/
@s .x1 ; s/ D N .x
@s Q .x1 ; s/ D N.x1 C 2u.s// .x1 ; s/
Q 1 ; s/ D N.x1 C 2u.s// .x1; s/
@s .x
@s w.x1 ; s/ D 0:

(We leave the reader to check that these relations are compatible, in fact there is just
to check that the last relation is compatible with the others, which is trivial).
A1 is called a Picard-Vessiot differential ring.
We also define its n-variables analogue, An to be the Picard-Vessiot differential
ring with n variables x1 ; : : : ; xn .
It is the differential ring over Fn freely generated by the symbols .xi ; s/;
Q .xi ; s/; .xi ; s/; .x
Q i ; s/; w.xi ; s/, i D 1; : : : ; n, and u.s/, and their multiple deriva-
tives with respect to s, and quotiented by the relations

Q i ; s/  Q .xi ; s/.xi ; s// D 1

w.xi ; s/ . .xi ; s/.x
@s .xi ; s/ D N Q .xi ; s/
Q i ; s/
@s .xi ; s/ D N .x
@s Q .xi ; s/ D N.xi C 2u.s// .xi ; s/
Q i ; s/ D N.xi C 2u.s// .xi ; s/
@s .x
@s w.xi ; s/ D 0:

Let A1 its n ! 1 projective limit.

206 5 Counting Large Maps

In that ring, we define as before

! !
.xi ; s/ .xi ; s/ 1
Q i ; s/ .xi ; s/
.x
.xi ; s/ D ; .xi ; s/ D w.xi ; s/
Q .xi ; s/ .x
Q i ; s/  Q .xi ; s/ .xi ; s/
!
1 .xi ; s/ Q .xi ; s/ .xi ; s/.xi ; s/
M.xi ; s/ D .xi ; s/E.xi ; s/ D w.xi ; s/
Q i ; s/ .xi ; s/.x
 Q .xi ; s/.x Q i ; s/
!
1 1 0 1
R.xi ; s/ D @s .xi ; s/ .xi ; s/ D :
N xi C 2u.s/ 0

Then, we define a loop insertion operator, as an operator W An ! AnC1 , by:

Definition 5.4.10 We say that , acting in A1 is a loop insertion operator if it
satisfies:
sends An into AnC1 (we shall write it xnC1 ).
annihilates F1 , i.e. 8 n, Fn  Ker .
is a derivation, it satisfies the Leibniz rule . fg/ D f g C gf .
its action on the generators of An is

M.xnC1 ; s/
xnC1 .xi ; s/ D .xi ; s/ C U.xnC1 ; s/ .xi ; s/
xi  xnC1
Q s/ C Q .x; s/.x; s//
x u.s/ D w.x; s/ . .x; s/.x;
1 @
D w.x; s/ .x; s/.x; s/: (5.4.20)
N @s
where
 
0 0
U.x; s/ D w.x; s/
.x; s/.x; s/ 0

it commutes with the derivation @=@s:


@
xnC1 ; D 0;
@s

this is equivalent to requiring


R.xi ; s/  R.xnC1 ; s/
xnC1 R.xi ; s/ D M.xnC1 ; s/;
xi  xnC1
1
CU.xnC1 ; s/; R.xi ; s/ C @s U.xnC1 ; s/:
N
5.4 Minimal Models 207

The xi s commute together:

xi ; xj  D 0

This last requirement is equivalent to demand that

x U. y/  y U.x/ D U.x/; U. y/

and

x y u.s/ D y x u.s/:

For an arbitrary ODE, the existence of an insertion operator is not automatic and
not trivial. However, in our case, such an operator exists:
Proposition 5.4.2 The insertion operator exists and is well defined
Proof In order for the insertion operator to be well defined over An , we need to
know how it acts on a basis. So far we know the action of only on ; ; Q ; Q
and u. First, we derive that

1
xnC1 w.xi ; s/ D w.xi ; s/:
xi  xnC1

In order to define xnC1 over An , we need to know how it acts on the derivatives
of ; ; Q ; ;
Q u with respect to s. This can be done by commuting xnC1 and @s .
Therefore all what we need to check is that @s and commute.
The fact that @s and commute when acting on .xi ; s/, is equivalent to verifying
that

R.xi ; s/  R.xnC1 ; s/
xnC1 R.xi ; s/ D M.xnC1 ; s/;
xi  xnC1
1
CU.xnC1 ; s/; R.xi ; s/ C @s U.xnC1 ; s/:
N
The right hand side is equal to:

R.xi ; s/  R.xnC1 ; s/
M.xnC1 ; s/;
xi  xnC1
1
CU.xnC1 ; s/; R.xi ; s/ C @s U.xnC1 ; s/
N
 
00
D M.xnC1 ; s/;
10
208 5 Counting Large Maps

 
01 1
CU.xnC1 ; s/;  C @s U.xnC1 ; s/
00 N
 
1 0
D w.xnC1 ; s/ .xnC1 ; s/.xnC1 ; s/
0 1
 
Q nC1 ; s/ C Q .xnC1 ; s/.xnC1 ; s// 0 0
Cw.xnC1 ; s/. .xnC1 ; s/.x
10
 
1 0 1
w.xnC1 ; s/ .xnC1 ; s/.xnC1 ; s/ C @s U.xnC1 ; s/
0 1 N
 
Q Q 00
D 2 w.xnC1 ; s/. .xnC1 ; s/.xnC1 ; s/ C .xnC1 ; s/.xnC1 ; s//
10

which indeed coincides with

 
00
xnC1 R.xi ; s/ D 2 xnC1 u.s/ :
10

We also leave to the reader to verify that xi ; xj  D 0, which is equivalent to

verify that

x U. y/  y U.x/ D U.x/; U. y/ D 0

and

x y u.s/ D y x u.s/:


The main properties of the insertion operator are
Proposition 5.4.3 The kernel K is selfreproducing:

x0 K.x; x00 / D K.x; x0 /K.x0 ; x00 /:

This implies that

O nC1 .x1 ; : : : ; xn ; xnC1 / C

O n .x1 ; : : : ; xn / D W n;1
xnC1 W :
.x1  x2 /2

We also have that:

M.x0 /; M.x/
x0 M.x/ D C U.x0 /; M.x/
x  x0

M.x0 /; D.x/ 1 M.x0 /

x0 D.x/ D 0
C U.x0 /; D.x/ C : (5.4.21)
xx N .x  x0 /2
5.4 Minimal Models 209

Proof Those relations are easy to derive from the definition of , we leave it as an
exercise for the reader. 

5.4.6.3 Loop Equations

Theorem 5.4.2 (Loop Equations) (Proved in [10]): the quantity

Pn .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn /
O nC2; n:c: .x; x; x1 ; : : : ; xn /
DW
Xn
@ W O n .x1 ; : : : ; xn /
O n .x; x1 ; : : : ; xj1 ; xjC1 ; : : : ; xn /  W
C
jD1
@xj x  xj

(5.4.22)

is a polynomial (over the ring An ) of the variable x:

Pn .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn / 2 An x:

This assertion is highly non trivial because none of the terms in the right hand
side are polynomials of x, they involve functions .x/ for instance. Only this very
combination is polynomial.
Proof The full proof can be found in [10, 11]. Let us give a hint of the proof.
The case n D 0 is very easy, one can explicitly compute:

O 2 .x; x/ C W
P0 .x/ D W O 1 .x/2
M.x/M.x0 / 1 O 1 .x/2
D lim Tr 0 2
 CW
0
x !x .x  x / .x  x0 /2
1 C Tr M.x/2 Tr M.x/M 0 .x/ 1 O 1 .x/2 :
D lim 0 2
C 0
C Tr M.x/M.x/00 C W
0
x !x .x  x / x x 2

Observe that Tr M.x/2 D Tr M.x/ D 1 and by acting with @x , that Tr M.x/M 0 .x/ D
0, therefore

1 O 1 .x/2 :
P0 .x/ D Tr M.x/M.x/00 C W
2
Then, use that

M 00 .x/ D ND.x; s/0 ; M.x/ C N 2 D.x; s/; D.x; s/; M.x/;

210 5 Counting Large Maps

and thus

N2 O 1 .x/2
P0 .x/ D Tr M.x/D.x; s/; D.x; s/; M.x/ C W
2

D N 2 Tr M.x/2 D.x; s/2  Tr .D.x; s/M.x//2 C . Tr M.x/D.x; s//2 :

Observe that any 2  2 matrix A satisfies:

A2 D A Tr A  Id det A;

Applying it to A D D.x; s/ gives (since Tr D.x; s/ D 0)

D.x; s/2 D Id det D.x; s/;

and thus

Tr M.x/2 D.x; s/2 D 2 det D.x; s/ Tr M.x/2 D 2 det D.x; s/:

And applying it to A D M.x/D.x; s/ gives (since det M.x/ D 0)

.M.x/D.x; s//2 D M.x/D.x; s/ Tr M.x/D.x; s/;

and thus

Tr .M.x/D.x; s//2 D . Tr M.x/D.x; s//2 :

Eventually:

N2
P0 .x/ D N 2 det D.x; s/ D Tr D.x; s/2
2
which is indeed a polynomial of x.
The cases n  1 can be obtained from n D 0 by recursively applying xi . Indeed,
we have:

@ W O n .xnC1 ; x1 ; : : : ; xn /
PnC1 .xI x1 ; : : : ; xnC1 / D xnC1 Pn .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn /  :
@xnC1 x  xnC1

Thus, observing from Eq. (5.4.21) that xnC1 D.x/ is a rational fraction of x, con-
taining only coefficients in An , we obtain by recursion on n that Pn .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn / 2
An .x/ is a rational function of x. Moreover Pn can have no other pole than x D 1,
so it must be a polynomial of x. 
5.4 Minimal Models 211

For example, we have that

@ WO 1 .x1 /
P1 .xI x1 / D x1 P0 .x/ 
@x1 x  x1
N2  @ 1
D x1 Tr D.x; s/2  N Tr D.x1 ; s/ M.x1 /
2 @x1 x  x1
Tr D.x1 ; s/ M.x1 /
D N 2 Tr D.x; s/ x1 D.x; s/  N
.x  x1 /2
Tr D0 .x1 ; s/ M.x1 / Tr D.x1 ; s/ M 0 .x1 /
N N
x  x1 x  x1
 
2 M.x1 /; D.x; s/ 1 M.x1 /
D N Tr D.x; s/ C U.x1 /; D.x; s/ C
x  x1 N .x  x1 /2
Tr D.x1 ; s/ M.x1 / Tr D0 .x1 ; s/ M.x1 /
N  N
.x  x1 /2 x  x1
Tr D.x1 ; s/ D.x1 ; s/; M.x1 /
CN 2
x  x1
M.x1 / Tr D.x1 ; s/ M.x1 / Tr D0 .x1 ; s/ M.x1 /
D N Tr D.x; s/  N  N
.x  x1 /2 .x  x1 /2 x  x1

and one observes that .D.x; s/  D.x1 ; s/  .x  x1 /D0 .x1 ; s//=.x  x1 /2 is indeed a
polynomial of x.

5.4.7 Example: (1,2) Minimal Model, the Airy Kernel

Let us write the .1; 2/ model, i.e. m D 0. We have:

PDd ; Q D d 2  2u

the string equation is:

2 1
P; Q D  uP D
N N
i.e.
s
u.s/ D  D Qt1
2
212 5 Counting Large Maps

(where we have reabsorbed a possible integration constant in a redefinition of s

and Qt1 ).
The Lax pair is:
   
0 1 0 1
D.x; s/ D ; R.x; s/ D
xs 0 xs 0

The differential system is:

 
1 d 0 1
.x; s/ D  .x; s/
N dx xs 0

i.e.
00
D N 2 .x  s/

whose solution is the Airy function (The Airy function is solution of Ai00 .x/ D
x Ai.x/, see textbooks on classical functions [1]) rescaled by N 2=3 :
2
.x; s/ D Ai.N 3 .x  s// ; Q .x; s/ D N 1=3 Ai0 .N 23 .x  s//

and the other independent solution is the BAiry function [1]:

2
.x; s/ D  N 1=3 Bi.N 3 .x  s// ; Q s/ D  Bi0 .N 23 .x  s//
.x;

where in the literature, Bi is normalized so that Ai Bi0  Ai0 Bi D 1=.

The ChristoffelDarboux kernel is thus (up to rescalings by factors N 2=3 ) the
famous Airy kernel [82]:

Ai.x1 /Bi0 .x2 /  Ai0 .x1 /Bi.x2 /

N 2=3 K.sCN 2=3 x1 ; sCN 2=3 x2 / D  D KAiry .x1 ; x2 /
x1  x2

and this is why the .1; 2/ minimal model coupled to gravity, is sometimes called the
Airy model.
Remark 5.4.6 The Airy kernel plays a very important role in many problems, in
particular in the universal laws of extreme eigenvalues, related to the Tracy-Widom
law [82]. We mention this, not as a mere coincidence, but because, as we have seen
in Chap. 2 counting maps is closely related to random matrices, and the asymptotic
limit is closely related to the eigenvalue statistics at the end of the spectrum, i.e. to
the extreme eigenvalues.
So it is very natural that large maps can be related to Tracy-Widom law of
extreme eigenvalues.
5.4 Minimal Models 213

Let us parametrize
p R  1 p 
p  p 
f .x/ 2
3 x
3=2  x 0
1 f .x0 /  x dx
0 f .x/ 23 x3=2CR1
x 1 0
0 /  x dx
0
Ai.x/ D p e ; Bi.x/ D p e f .x :
2  

The Airy equation Ai00 .x/ D x Ai.x/, implies that f .x/ satisfies the differential
equation

f 02 1
xf 2 C  1 D ff 00
4 2

and taking the derivative again, and after dividing by f 0

1 000
f D 2x f 0 C f :
2
p
One easily finds from this linear equation and from the leading behavior f  1= x,
that:
1
X .6k  1/
1 1
f .x/ D p C 5k
x3k 2 :
x kD1
2 3 k
k

Then, from Eq. (5.4.16) we compute the 1-point function


O 1 .s C N 2=3 x/ D  N 2=3 Ai0 .x/Bi0 .x/  x Ai.x/Bi.x/
W
 02 
2=3 1 f .x/ 2
DN  1  x f .x/
2 f .x/ 4
 
1 00
D N 2=3 f .x/  x f .x/ :
4

O 0 .sCN 2=3 x/ D f .x/=2, and therefore

Taking the derivative again implies N 4=3 W 1

X1
p .6k  3/
O
W1 .x/ D N x  s C .x  s/3kC1=2 N 12k :
2 5k 3k k
kD1

We may write it:

1
X
O 1 .x/ D
W O 1.g/ .x/
N 12g W
gD0
214 5 Counting Large Maps

with
p
O .0/ .x/ D  x  s
W ; O .g/ .x/ D .6g  3/ .x  s/3gC1=2 :
W
1 1
25g 3g g

For the Airy system, the polynomial of Theorem 5.4.2 is simply:

Pn .x/ D .x  s/ n;0 :

5.4.8 Tau Function

The notion of Isomonodromic Tau-function was defined for any Lax pair by Jimbo-
Miwa [51, 52]. In this book we shall not study in details why the Tau-function is a
useful notion, we just mention that indeed it encodes most of the properties of an
integrable system, it is a very fundamental notion. We refer the reader to literature
on integrable systems for learning more about Taufunctions and their utility, see
for instance [8, 49, 59, 60].
Let us describe how it is defined in our case. In order to define the Tau-function,
we need to consider the large x formal asymptotic expansion of .x/.
First we define
Z x 
0 0
T.x/ D Y.x / dx
C

p
where Y.x/ D A2 .x/ C B.x/C.x/ is (up to a sign) thepeigenvalue of D.x/, and ./C
means the strictly positive part of the Laurent series in x (and thus it is independent
of a choice of integration constant). By an easy induction, one sees that the large x
formal asymptotics of .x/ is of the form
  1=4   
1 x x1=4 Q .x/ eN3 T.x/ 1 0
.x/  p ; 3 D ;
2 x1=4 x1=4 0 1
p p
and where Q .x/ D Id C O.1= x/ is an analytical function of x near 1:

2  
Q .x/ D Id C pv 3 C v Id C u 01
C O.x3=2 / ;
1
vP D u;
x 2x 2x 10 N
(5.4.23)
Miwa-Jimbo [51, 52] define the Tau-function .s/ and its log, the free energy
function F .s/ D ln .s/ such that:

@F  @T.x/
D  N Res Tr .x/1 0 .x/ 3 dx:
@s x!1 @s
5.4 Minimal Models 215

First notice that

 
 1 0
0
Q C  0 Q  0    0
Tr .x/ .x/ 3 D Tr Q 0 Q C Q 0 Q  Q 0   Q 0

D 0
Q   Q 0 C  0 Q  Q 0
O 1 .x/
D 2W
p
which is a Laurent series in x.
Therefore the definition of the Tau function is equivalent to

FP D 2N Res W P
O 1 .x/ T.x/ dx:
x!1

p q
1
Then, write Y.x/ D  det D D 2
Tr D2 , so that

@Y.x/
2Y.x/ D Tr D DP D Tr D .R0  N D; R/ D  Tr D R0 D B.x/
@s
i.e.

@Y.x/ B.x/ B
D D p
@s 2 Y.x/ 2 B C C A2
1
D q
R 1 BP 2
2 .x C 2u/  2N1 2 BB C 4N 2 B2

1
D p .1 C O.1=x2 //:
2 x C 2u
R x
Then, since T.x/ D Y.x0 /dx0 C , by integration we find

@T.x/ p
D  x:
@s
In our case this leads to
p
O 1 .x/
N 1 @F =@s D 2 Res W x dx
x!1

where WO 1 .x/ D 0 .x/.x/

Q  Q 0 .x/.x/. Taking another derivative with respect to s,
and using the @=@s equation satisfied by .x; s/, we get

O 1 .x/=@s D Q 0 .x/.x/
N 1 @W Q C 0
.x/.x C 2u.s//.x/
..x C 2u.s// .x//0 .x/  Q 0 .x/.x/
Q

D  .x/.x/;
216 5 Counting Large Maps

and therefore:
p
N 2 @2 F =@s2 D 2 Res .x/.x/ x dx:
x!1

From the asymptotic expansion Eq. (5.4.23), one has

1 u
.x/.x/   p .1  C O.x3=2 //
2 x x

and thus
u
N 2 @2 F =@s2 D Res .1  C O.x3=2 // dx D u:
x!1 x
And therefore we find

N 2 @2 F =@s2 D u.s/:

Therefore we have just recovered the Its-Matveevs equation [49]:

Theorem 5.4.3 The Tau-function of the integrable system defined by the Lax pair
.D; R/, is such that u.s/ is the second derivative of ln :

2 @2 h.s/
.s/ D eN h.s/
; D u.s/;
@ s2

and u.s/ is solution of the Gelfan-Dikii equation (5.4.5) of Lemma 5.4.2:

X
m
Qtj RjC1 .u/ D s:
jD0

The Taufunction has many properties, which can be found in textbooks and
classical works on integrable systems [8, 49, 59, 60], but which are beyond the
scope of the present book. In some sense, the Taufunction is the most fundamental
function characterizing an integrable system, it contains all the information about
the integrable system.
Here, for the integrable system satisfied by the .2m C 1; 2/ minimal model, the
Tau function can be computed by integrating twice the function u.s/ solution of a
Painlev type equation.
5.4 Minimal Models 217

5.4.9 Large N Limit

Our goal is to compare the minimal models Tau function with the generating
function of large maps introduced
P in Sect. 5.1.3.1, which is by definition a formal
power series of 1=N, ln ZQ D g N 22g FQ g , where FQ g is the asymptotic generating
function of large maps. The conjecture of topological gravity (proved below) is that:

.s/ D Q
Z:

Therefore, we need to study the formal large N expansion of the minimal model
. p; q/.
The large N limit for minimal models, is also called dispersionless limit.
The parameter 1=N, which we introduced as the coefficient of the identity in the
commutator P; Q D N1 Id, is called the dispersion parameter. In the large N
limit P and Q tend to commute, 1=N plays the role of in quantum mechanics, and
the large N limit is a classical limit.
Intuitively, in this limit, the operators P and Q will be replaced by functions, also
the operator d will be replaced by a function z, and thus P and Q will be replaced by
some functions of z and s.
Taking those observations as a guideline, in analogy with Q D d2  2u.s/, and
P D dp C : : : , we define:
Definition 5.4.11 We define two functions x.z; s/ and y.z; s/ (which will be, as we
shall see later, in some sense the large N limit of Q and P), polynomials in z, of
respective degree 2 and p, of the form:

x.z; s/ D z2  2u0 .s/ ; y.z; s/ D zp C O.zp2 / :

which we require to satisfy the following Poisson bracket equation (the classical
limit of the string equation P; Q D 1=N):

def @y @x @y @x
fy; xg D  D 1: (5.4.24)
@z @s @s @z

Proposition 5.4.4 the general solution of this Poisson equation is:

x.z; s/ D z2  2u0 .s/

  !
X
m
2u0 .s/ jC1=2 X
m1
Qtj 2jC1
y.z; s/ D z 1 2
C cj x.z; s/j ;
z
jD0 jD0 C

X
m X
m1
D Qtj Qj .z/ C cj x.z; s/j ; (5.4.25)
jD0 jD0
218 5 Counting Large Maps

where ./C means the positive part of the large z Laurent series expansion, where
Qj .z/ was introduced in Eq. (5.2.3), and where the function u0 .s/ has to satisfy the
algebraic equation

X
m
.2j C 1/ s
P.u0 .s// D Qtj .u0 .s/=2/jC1 D : (5.4.26)
jD0
j . j C 1/ 4

From now on, we shall always consider cj D 0.

Proof It is very similar to the proof of Lemma 5.4.2, we leave it as an exercise for
the reader.
We just mention that once we have seen that the function y.z; s/ must be of the
form Eq. (5.4.25), the Poisson equation fy; xg D 1, written at z D 0 reduces to:

1
uP 0 .s/ y0 .0; s/ D ;
2
i.e.

X
m
.2j C 1/ 1
Qtj uP 0 .s/ .u0 .s/=2/j 2
D
jD0
. j/ 2

which can be integrated with respect to s and gives a polynomial equation for u0 .s/:

X
m
.2j C 1/ s
P.u0 .s// D Qtj .u0 .s/=2/jC1 D
jD0
j . j C 1/ 4

which is clearly the classical limit of Eq. (5.4.5) (i.e. it coincides with Eq. (5.4.5) by
removing all derivative terms). In other words, formally in the classical limit, the
non-linear differential equation (5.4.5) for u.t/, becomes an algebraic equation for
u0 .s/.
This is the same equation which we encountered for large maps in Eq. (5.3.4). 
For example, for pure gravity m D 1 we have the classical limit of Eq. (5.4.7):

4P.u0/ D 3 u20  2Qt0 u0 D s: (5.4.27)

5.4.10 Topological Expansion

In order to compare minimal models with large maps, we now look for a function
u.s/ which is a formal series in 1=N.
5.4 Minimal Models 219

Proposition 5.4.5 The formal series in 1=N solution u.s/ to the string equa-
tion (5.4.5), can be expanded as an N 2 power series starting with u0 (solution
of P.u0 / D s=4) as a leading order:
X
u.s/ D u0 .s/ C N 2k uk .s/
k

and where all coefficients uk are rational functions of u0 (their denominator is a

power of P 0 .u0 /):

uk 2 C.u0 /:

Proof One notices that the string equation (5.4.5) involves only N 2 and therefore
the expansion is in powers of N 2 instead of N. Almost by definition of u0 , we see
that u0 .s/ satisfies the string equation (5.4.5) at N D 1, and therefore is the first
term of u.s/.
Since

P.u0 / D s=4

we have

1 P 00 .u0 / ::: 3P 00 .u0 /2  P 0 .u0 /P 000 .u0 /

uP 0 D ; uR 0 D ; u0 D ; :::
4P 0 .u 0/ 16 .P 0 .u0 //3 64 .P 0 .u0 //5

and in general, any derivative of u0 with respect to s can be written as a rational

function of u0 , whose denominator is a power of P 0 .u0 /. Solving the string equation
recursively involves derivatives of u0 , and thus each uk is a rational function of u0
whose denominator is a power of P 0 .u0 /. 
Using the expression of Gelfand-Dikii polynomials Eq. (5.4.4), the equation
satisfied by u to order O.1=N 4 / is

s uR 00 uP 2
D P.u/  P .u/  P 000 .u/ C O.1=N 4 /
4 12 N 2 24 N 2
and thus we get
 
uR 0 P 00 .u0 / uP 20 P 000 .u0 / 1 uR 20 u0 :::
u1 D C D  :
0
12 P .u0 / 0
24 P .u0 / 24 uP 20 uP 0

We could easily obtain u2 ; u3 ; : : : by expanding to further orders.

220 5 Counting Large Maps

5.4.10.1 Topological Expansion for the Tau-Function

Proposition 5.4.6 We have:

From the 1=N 2 expansion of u.s/, we get that the free energy F .s/ D ln .s/ such
that u D N12 FR , also has a 1=N 2 expansion:

1
X
ln D F D N 22g Fg .u0 / ; FR g D ug : (5.4.28)
gD0

In particular we have
X j C k C 4 .2j C 2/ .2k C 2/
F0 D 4 Qtj Qtk .u0 =2/kCjC3
j;k
j C k C 3 j . j C 2/ k .k C 1/

1 1
F1 D ln .2 uP 0 / D ln . y0 .0; s//:
24 24
Proof We propose it as an exercise at the end of this chapter. F1 can be easily
derived from the expression of u1 above, and for F0 , see the hints in the exercise.


5.4.10.2 Topological Expansion for the Differential Systems

Since the coefficients of the Lax matrix D.x; s/ depend on u.s/ and its derivatives,
it has a formal 1=N expansion:
  X
A.x; s/ B.x; s/
D.x; s/ D D N k D.k/ .x; s/
C.x; s/ A.x; s/ g

where
X
B.x; s/ D N 2k B2k .x; s/
k

1 R X
C.x; s/ D .z2 C 2u  2u0 /B.x; s/  2
B.x; s/ D N 2k C2k .x; s/
2N k

1 P X
A.x; s/ D B.x; s/ D N 2k1 A2kC1 .x; s/;
2N k

and notice that B2k , and thus C2k and A2kC1 are polynomials of x, i.e. polynomials
of z2 D x C 2u0 .
5.4 Minimal Models 221

To leading order we have:

 
0 B.x; u0 /
D.0/ .x; s/ D (5.4.29)
.x C 2u0 / B.x; u0 / 0

X
m X
j
.1/k .2k  1/
B.x; u0 / D Qtj xjk uk0 :
jD0 kD0
k

The determinant of D.0/ .x; s/ is:

det D.0/ .x; s/ D  .z B.z2  2u0 ; u0 //2 :

This means that the eigenvalues of D.0/ .x; s/ are z B.z2  2u0 ; u0 /.
Notice that z B.z2  2u0 ; u0 / is precisely the function y.z; s/ of Proposition 5.4.4,
in Eq. (5.4.25).
Definition 5.4.12 The classical spectral curve is the eigenvalue locus of the
classical limit D.0/ .x/ of the Lax matrix.
If we parametrize x as x D z2  2u0 , the eigenvalues of D.0/ .x; s/ are:

y D y.z; s/

where y.z; s/ is the function defined in Eq. (5.4.25).

Written in a parametric form where u0 D u0 .s/, the classical spectral curve is
thus:
(
x.z; s/ D z2  2u0
E.2mC1;2/ D P P P :
y.z; s/ D j Qtj Qj .z/ D j l Qtj z2jC12l .u0 =2/l .2jC1/
j
. jl/
l .2jC12l/
(5.4.30)
Remark 5.4.7 It is important to notice that it is a genus 0 hyperelliptical curve,
which is equivalent to saying that it can be parametrized by a complex variable z
(higher genus would be parametrized by a variable z living on a Riemann surface),
and which is equivalent to saying that the polynomial y2 , written as a polynomial
in x, has only one simple zero, located at x D 2u0 , all the other zeroes are double
zeroes:

y2 D z2 .B.x; u0 //2 D .x C 2u0 / .B.x; u0 //2 :

Remark 5.4.8 It is also the same curve as the blown up spectral curve considered
in Sect. 5.2. This is of course not an accident, this is an indication that indeed, large
maps are related to the Tau-function of the . p; 2/ minimal model. Our goal is to
show that not only the large N limits coincide, but the full expansion.
222 5 Counting Large Maps

5.4.11 WKB Expansion

Similarly, we can look for a formal large N asymptotic expansion of the solutions
.x; s/ of the differential system. To leading order, it takes the WKB form:
Rx !
eN 2u0 ydx X
k
.x; s/  p 1
1C N k .x; s/
2 .x  2u0 / 4 k
!
Rx X
Q .x; s/  p1 e N 2u0 ydx .x C 2u0 / 14 1C N k Q k .x; s/
2 k

1
and we recall that z D .x C 2u0 / 2 . The BKW expansion of the other solutions  and
Q are obtained by changing N ! N. For the matrix , we have:
,
!
1
1 p  p1 Rx
.x; s/  p p pz
z O
.x; s/ eN 3 2u0 ydx
2 z z

where 3 D diag.1; 1/, and

1
X
O s/ D Id C
.x; N k k .x; s/:
kD1

where each k .x; s/ is a square matrix independent of N:

 
k .x; s/k .x; s/
k .x; s/ D Q k .x; s/ Q k .x; s/ :

P D NR
The fact that satisfies the differential systems 0 D N D and
O
imply for :
   
O 3  N
O 0 D Ny Bz2 C C Bz2  C  2Az O 1 01 O
 2
2z C  Bz2  2Az Bz2  C 4z 1 0
2   
O 3 C N z C u  u0
PO D  Nz

u0  u
O  uP 0 0 1 :
O
z u  u0 z2 C u0  u 2z2 1 0

Let us expand it into powers of N, we have:

X
B.x; s/ D N 2k B2k .x; s/
k
5.4 Minimal Models 223

1 R X
C.x; s/ D .z2 C 2u  2u0 /B.x; s/  B.x; s/ D N 2k C2k .x; s/
2N 2 k

1 P X
A.x; s/ D B.x; s/ D N 2k1 A2kC1 .x; s/;
2N k

and notice that B2k , and thus C2k and A2kC1 are polynomials of x, i.e. polynomials
of z2 . Notice that

C0 .x; s/ D z2 B0 .x; s/ D z y:

that gives
1 X 2 1 X 2
0
D .z B2j C C2j / kC12j  .z B2j  C2j / Q kC12j
k
2z j1 2z j1
X 1
C A2jC1 Q k2j  2 Q k
j0
4z
X 1 X 2
Q k0 D 2y Q kC1 C A2jC1 k2j C .z B2j  C2j / kC12j
j0
2z j1

1 X 2 1
C .z B2j C C2j / Q kC12j  2 k
2z j1 4z
X
Pk D 1 uj . kC12j
uP 0
 Q kC12j /  2 Q k
z j1 2z

PQ D 2z Q 1X uP 0
k kC1 C uj . kC12j  Q kC12j /  2 k (5.4.31)
z j1 2z

and we have similar equations for k and Qk :

We have the following Lemma:
Lemma 5.4.4 8 k  0, k .x; s/  k;0 and Q k .x; s/ are polynomials of 1=z of the
same parity as k and which behave like O.1=z/ at large z.
Proof We proceed by recursion. We have 0 D 1 and Q 0 D 0, so the recursion
hypothesis holds for k D 0.
Assume the recursion hypothesis at rank k.
Since zP D uP 0 =z, we have that PQ k is a polynomial of 1=z, and thus from the fourth
equation of Eq. (5.4.31), that
 
Q kC1 D 1 Polynomial of 1=z
z2

i.e. z2 Q kC1 is also a polynomial in 1=z, and it has the parity of k C 1.

224 5 Counting Large Maps

0
Then, the first equation of Eq. (5.4.31) written at rank k C 1 implies that kC1
is a Laurent polynomial of 1=z of parity k C 1 (remember that B2j ; C2j ; A2jC1 are
polynomials of z2 and thus contain positive powers of z). After integrating with
respect to x D z2  2u0 , this implies that kC1 must be a Laurent polynomial of 1=z
of parity k C 1, plus possibly a term proportional to ln z when k C 1 is even:
X X
kC1 D akC1;j zj C ckC1 ln z C bkC1;j zj :
j0 j1

However, from the large x behavior Eq. (5.4.23) we know that at large z, we
must have kC1 .z/ D o.1/ and thus the Log term must vanish, and thus z kC1
is a polynomial in 1=z, and the parity is clearly k. We have proved the recursion
hypothesis to rank k C 1.

Examples:
to the first few orders

0 D1 ; Q0 D 0
1 uR 0 uP 0 Q 1 D  uP 0 :
1 D . C 3/ ;
24 uP 0 z z 4z3

5.4.11.1 Topological Expansion of the Kernel

The Christoffel Darboux kernel K.x1 ; x2 / can be rewritten as:

R
OQ /  OQ .z /.z
e N z2 ydx  O .z1 /.z
z1
O
OQ .z /.z O 2/ 
2 1 O 2/ 1 Q 2 /  O .z1 /.z
K.x1 ; x2 / D p C ;
2 z1 z2 z1  z2 z1 C z2

and since each term has an expansion in 1=N, whose coefficients are polynomials
of 1=z1 and 1=z2 , we have:
Rz
1 1
!
e N z2 ydx 1 X
K.x1 ; x2 / D p C N k Kk .x1 ; x2 /
2 z1 z2 z1  z2 kD1

where each Kk .x1 ; x2 / is a polynomial in 1=z1 and in 1=z2 .

This implies that the correlators also have a 1=N expansion:

X1
O 1 .x/ D N y C 1
W N k Kk .x; x/:
2z kD1

O 2 .x1 ; x2 / D 1 1
W  C O.N 1 /:
4z1 z2 .z1  z2 /2 .x1  x2 /2
5.4 Minimal Models 225

5.4.11.2 Topological Expansion of the Projectors M.x/

The projector M.x/ defined in Eq. (5.4.8) also has a large N expansion:

X  
1 1 0 1=z
M.x/ D N k M .k/ .x/ D Id  C O.1=N/
k
2 2 z 0

Notice that we have

  
M .0/ .x2 / 1 00 .0/
8 x1 ; x2 ; C ; M .x1 / D 0
x1  x2 2z2 10

and thus
" ! #
M.x2 / 0 0
8 x1 ; x2 ; C 1 ; M.x1 / D O.1=N/:
x1  x2 2z2
0

O n is a formal power series in pow-

Lemma 5.4.5 (Topological Expansion) N n2 W
2
ers of 1=N
1
X
O n .x1 ; : : : ; xn / D
W O n.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xn /
N 22gn W
gD0

p
where each W O n.g/ is a rational function of the zi D xi C 2u0 , with poles only at
zi D 0, except W O .0/ and W
O .0/ which are:
2 1

O 1.0/ D  y.z; s/
W

O .0/ D 1 1 1 1
W 2 2
 2 2
D :
4z1 z2 .z1  z2 / .z1  z2 / 2 4z1 z2 .z1 C z2 /2

This Lemma makes some non-trivial claims, first that there is no odd power of
1=N, second that W O n starts as N 2n , and third that the coefficients are polynomials
of 1=zi .
Q
Proof Notice that in the products i K.z .i/ ; z .iC1/ /, all the exponentials cancel,
p
and the square roots 1= zi appear only by pairs, so the result is, order by order in
N k , a rational fraction of the zi s having poles at zi D 0, or possibly at zi D zj .
Except for W O .0/ and WO .0/ , the poles at zi D zj are at most simple poles, and it is easy
1 2
to see that in the sum over permutations, the residues cancel, therefore there is no
pole at zi D zj . Thus each W O n.g/ is a rational function of the zi s having poles only at
zi D 0. The cases of W O 2 and W O 1 need to be treated separately, and are easy.
226 5 Counting Large Maps

The fact that W O n has a 1=N 2 expansion instead of 1=N comes from a simple
symmetry argument. In the expression of W O n , changing !  and Q ! , Q can
also be obtained by permuting the xi s, and since we take a symmetric sum, only the
terms which are invariant under the exchange !  and Q ! Q contribute to W O n.
Exchanging the two solutions !  and Q ! , Q is also equivalent to changing
N ! N, and therefore W O n has the parity .1/n , in N.
It remains to prove that the leading order is N 2n . This is obvious for n D 1 or
n D 2. For n  3, we shall proceed by induction, by applying the insertion operator
defined in Sect. 5.4.6.2, which has the property that

O n .x1 ; : : : ; xn / D W
xnC1 W O nC1 .x1 ; : : : ; xn ; xnC1 /:

Let us write:
 
1 @ M.x/ 00
M.x/ D xU.x/ C A.x/ 
N @s 10

where
 
00
U.x/ D w.x/ .x/.x/
10
 
Q Id C w.x/ .x/.x/ 0 1
A.x/ D w.x/ .x/.x/ :
2u 0

Observe that

8 x; y; ; A.x/ C U.x/; A. y/ C U. y/ D 0:

This implies that the insertion operator y acts on M.x/ like

M. y/
y M.x/ D C U. y/; M.x/
xy
! !
1 1  P 0 0 P y/ 0 0 
D xU. y/ C A. y/; M.x/   xU.x/ C A.x/; M. 
N xy 10 10
! ! !
1 1 P P y/; 0 0   M.
P y/M.x/;
P 00  00
C 2 M.x/; M. 
N xy 10 10 10

and it acts on u.s/ by Eq. (5.4.20), i.e.

w. y/ @
y u.s/ D . y/. y/
N @s
5.4 Minimal Models 227

therefore the action of the operator y brings a factor 1=N, and the result is again
expressed in terms of M.x/, M. y/, and u.s/ and their @=@s derivatives, and we recall
that the insertion operator commutes with @=@s.
Since

O 2 .x1 ; x2 / D Tr M.x1 /M.x2 / 

W
1
.x1  x2 /2 .x1  x2 /2

is of order O.1/ and is expressed only in terms of M, and since for n  3

O n .x1 ; : : : ; xn / D xn W
W O n1 .x1 ; : : : ; xn1 /

we see that by recursion:

O n D O.N 2n /:
W


We mention that this theorem is far from being true for any Lax matrix. It holds
because our Lax matrix is related to the . p; 2/ minimal model.

5.4.12 Link with Symplectic Invariants

O n have a formal large N

We have found that the minimal model correlators W
expansion of the form
X
O n .x1 ; : : : ; xn / D
W O n.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xn /
N 22gn W
g

p
where each W O n.g/ with 2  2g  n < 0 is a rational function of the zi D xi C 2u0 ,
with poles only at zi D 0. And we have found that they satisfy loop equations in
Theorem 5.4.2.
Let us define:

Y
n
n;2 g;0 x0 .z1 /x0 .z2 /
O n.g/ .x.z1 /; : : : ; x.zn //
!O n.g/ .z1 ; : : : ; zn / D W x0 .zi / C :
iD1
.x.z1 /  x.z2 //2

The first few are easily computed from the BKW expansion, and one finds:

.0/
!O 1 .z/ D  y.z; s/ x0 .z/
.0/ 1
!O 2 .z1 ; z2 / D
.z1  z2 /2
228 5 Counting Large Maps

.g/
and all the other !O n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / with 2  2g  n < 0 are symmetric polynomials
of 1=zi .
Then, since they satisfy loop equations, we have:
.g/
Theorem 5.4.4 The !O n can be computed by the topological recursion
1 1
 h
.g/ z0 z
z0 Cz .g1/
!O nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn / D Res !O nC2 .z; z; z1 ; : : : ; zn /
z!0 2y.z; t/ x0 .z/

0
X i
.h/ .h0 /
C !O 1C#I .z; I/ !O 1C#I 0 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 Dfz1 ;:::;zn g

P
where we recall that 0 means the sum over all h; h0 ; I; I 0 excluding .h; I/ D .0; ;/
.g/ Q
and .h0 ; I 0 / D .0; ;/. In other words, the differentials !O n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / i dzi , are the
symplectic invariant correlators for the spectral curve of Eq. (5.4.30) (see Chap. 7
for the definition of symplectic invariants of the spectral curve).
.g/
Proof Notice that, since !O nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn / is a polynomial in 1=z0 , we have the
Cauchy identity:

.g/ dz .g/
!O nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn / D  Res !O .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn /
z!z0 z0  z nC1
dz .g/
D Res !O nC1 .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn /
z!0 z0  z
dz .0/ .g/
D  Res 2!O 1 .z/ !O nC1 .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn /:
z!0 .z0  z/y.z/x0 .z/

Then, the loop equations (Theorem 5.4.2) imply that the quantity

0
X
.0/ .g/ .h/ .h0 /
2!O 1 .z/ !O nC1 .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn / C !O 1C#I .z; I/ !O 1C#I 0 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 Dfz1 ;:::;zn g

.g1/
C!O nC2 .z; z; z1 ; : : : ; zn /

is equal to x0 .z/2 times a rational function of x.z/, with no pole at z D 0 (in fact it is
a polynomial of x.z/ plus a rational function of x.z/ with poles at z D zi ), in other
words it cannot contribute to the residue. This shows that
1 h
.g/ .g1/
!O nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn / D Res !O nC2 .z; z; z1 ; : : : ; zn /
z!0 .z0  z/ y.z; t/ x0 .z/
0
X i
.h/ .h0 /
C !O 1C#I .z; I/ !O 1C#I 0 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 Dfz1 ;:::;zn g
5.4 Minimal Models 229

.g/
Then, using the fact that each !O n has a given parity in the zi s, it is easy to complete
the proof.
.1/ .0/
A special care is needed for !O 1 .z0 / because !O 2 .z; z/ is ill-defined, but we leave
to the reader to check that the theorem also holds for that case. 
As an immediate consequence we have that:
.g/
Corollary 5.4.1 The correlation function !O n of the minimal model .2m C 1; 2/,
.g/
coincide with the generating function of large maps !Q n of genus g and n  1
boundaries (defined in Theorem 5.3.1):

!O n.g/ D !Q n.g/ :

Proof The topological recursion Theorem 5.4.4 for the minimal model .2m C 1; 2/,
is identical to the topological recursion of Theorem 5.3.1 for the generating
functions of large maps.
.g/
Therefore, the !O n of the minimal model .2m C 1; 2/ and the generating function
.g/
of large maps !Q n are both equal to the symplectic invariants of the spectral curve
.x.z; s/; y.z; s//, they satisfy the same topological recursion with the same initial
condition. 

5.4.13 Tau Function

Here, we prove that the double scaling limits FQ g of the large maps generating
functions (see Sect. 5.1.3.2), which coincide with the symplectic invariants Fg of
our spectral curve (see Theorem 5.3.3), do also coincide with the coefficients of the
topological expansion of the minimal model Tau-function introduced in Sect. 5.4.8,
i.e. Proposition 5.4.6, Eq. (5.4.28):
X
ln D N 22g FO g ; @2 FO g =@s2 D ug .s/:
g

From the Poisson equation (5.4.24), it is easy to see that our spectral curve has
the property that

@y.z; s/ 1
D
@s x.z;s/ 2z

and thus

0 @ z0 dz0 .0/
x .z/ y.z; s/ D 1 D 0Res D 0Res z0 !O 2 .z; z0 / dz0 :
@s x z !1 .z  z0 /2 z !1
230 5 Counting Large Maps

Knowing that, it follows from general property of symplectic invariants Fg of a

spectral curve (see Chap. 7), that:

@ Q .g/
p
O .g/ .x/ dx:
F g D Res z !O 1 .z/ dz D 2 Res x C 2u0 W 1
@s z!1 x!1

In other words

@ Q p
O .g/ .x/ x dx
Fg D 2 Res W 1
@s x!1

and summing over g:

1 @ FQ p O
O 1 .x/ x dx D 1 @ F
D 2 Res W
N @s x!1 N @s
where the last equality holds by definition of the -function in Sect. 5.4.8.
This proves:
Theorem 5.4.5 Near a mth order critical point, the coefficients of the double
2mC3
scaling limit of large maps FQ g such that Fg  .t  tc /.22g/ 2mC2 FQ g , are the
symplectic invariants of the classical spectral curve Eq. (5.4.30), and are such that
the generating series:
X
D exp N 22g FQ g
g

is the Tau-function of the .2m C 1; 2/ minimal model, or also, u.s/ D d2 ln =ds2

satisfies the m C 1th Gelfand Dikii equation:

RmC1 .u.s// D s:

We have thus seen, that the asymptotic generating function which counts large
maps near a critical point of order m, is the Tau-function for the .2mC1; 2/ reduction
of the KdV hierarchy. In particular, its second derivative satisfies the .m C 1/th
Gelfand-Dikii equation.

5.4.14 Large N and Large s

5.4.14.1 Rescaling N

We have introduced the parameter N as a scaling parameter in order to define formal

power series.
5.4 Minimal Models 231

But notice that N is redundant, it can be absorbed by the change of variable

pC1 2
s D N  pC2 sQ and u.s/ D N pC2 uQ .Qs/. We have
2 p
Q
Q D N pC2 Q ; P D N pC2 PQ

with

Q D dQ 2  2Qu.Qs/ d
Q ; PQ D dQ p  pQudQ p2 C : : : ; dQ D ;
dQs
and they satisfy the string equation without 1=N:
Q Q
P; Q D Id:

5.4.14.2 Homogeneous Case

A case particularly interesting is when all Qtj s with j < m vanish. In that case, the
equation for u0 .s/ is simply:

s .2m C 1/
D P.u0 / D Qtm .u0 =2/mC1 ;
4 m .m C 1/

i.e. P.u0 / is a homogeneous polynomial of u0 .

This implies that the BKW expansion of u.s/ has only homogeneous terms:
1
X 1g.2mC3/
u.s/ D u0 C N 2g cg u0
gD1

where cg are some complex coefficients.

pC1 2
Using the reparametrization s D N  pC2 sQ and u.s/ D N pC2 uQ .Qs/, this amounts to
writing a large sQ expansion for uQ :

1
X   pC1
2
.1g. pC2//
2 .1g. pC2// 2 Qtm .1/m .2m C 1/
uQ .Qs/ D uQ g sQ pC1 ; uQ g D cg :
gD0
.m C 1/

The coefficients uQ g can be found by insertingPthis expansion into the Gelfand

Dikii equation RmC1 .u/ D s, or also, since F D g N 22g FQ g .s/ and FR D u.s/, we
have just shown that, for g  2:

.1  g/ .m C 1/2
uQ g D FQ g D Fg .fx.z; s/; y.z; s/g/:
.2m C 3/ .m C 2  g.2m C 3//

We thus formulate the theorem:

232 5 Counting Large Maps

Theorem 5.4.6 If uQ .Qs/ written as a large sQ series

1
X 2
uQ .Qs/ D uQ g sQ pC1 .1g. pC2//
gD0

is solution of the m C 1th Gelfand Dikii equation (here we choose N D 1)

Qtm RmC1 .Qu/ D sQ;

then

s m .m C 1/
.Qu0 =2/mC1 D
4 Qtm .2m C 1/
m
uQ 1 D 
24 .m C 1/

and for g  2, the coefficients uQ g of the expansion, are related to the symplectic
invariants Fg of the spectral curve SQ
(
x.z/ D z2  2Qu0
SQ D Pm 2mC12j .2mC1/ .mj/
y.z/ D Qtm Qm .z/ D Qtm jD0 z .Qu0 =2/j m j .2mC12j/

as:

.1  g/ .m C 1/2 Q
uQ g D Fg .S/:
.2m C 3/ .m C 2  g.2m C 3//

and as an immediate corollary:

Theorem 5.4.7 Near a mth order critical point, the double scaling limit of the
generating functions of large maps of genus g:
2mC3
FQ g D lim  .2g2/ 2mC2 t2g2 Fg
!0

are related to the coefficients uQ g .Qs/ of the large sQ expansion of the solution of the
m C 1th Gelfand-Dikii equation:

.1  g/ .m C 1/2
uQ g D FQ g :
.2m C 3/ .m C 2  g.2m C 3//

This theorem is an indication that large maps are related to Liouville conformal
quantum field theory coupled to the .2m C 1; 2/ minimal model.
5.4 Minimal Models 233

5.4.15 Example: Pure Gravity Case

Let us illustrate all this on the important example of pure gravity case, m D 1, the
.3; 2/ minimal model.
We have:
3
Q D d 2  2u ; P D d3  3ud  uP :
2N 2
1
The string equation P; Q D N
Id gives the Painlev I equation for u.s/:

1
3u2  uR D s:
2N 2
There is a formal solution of this equation with an expansion in powers of 1=N 2 :
r
s 1 49
u.s/ D   C p 9 C O.1=N 6 /
3 48 N 2 s2 32 N 4 3 s2
which can be written
1 r
X 15g s
2g
u.s/ D cg N u0 ; u0 D  :
gD0
3

With the rescaling

2 4
uDN 5 uQ ; sDN 5 sQ

we have
X 1 5
uQ D uQ g sQ 2  2 g :
g

The free energy F .s/ such that N 2 FR D u.s/ has an expansion:

4 5 ln s 7 X 5
F .s/ D  p N2 s 2 C C p C .N s 4 /22g FQ g :
15 3 48 5
40 3 N 2 s 2 g3

For example, the first few correlators computed from the topological recursion
are

.0/ 1 dz1 dz2 dz3

!Q 3 .z1 ; z2 ; z3 / D
6u0 z21 z22 z23
 
.1/ dz 3 1
!Q 1 .z/ D 2 4 C :
3 2 z4 u0 z2 u20
234 5 Counting Large Maps

5.5 Summary: Large Maps and Liouville Gravity

We have seen that

Large maps are obtained when the weights tk of k-gons are tuned to some critical,
or multi-critical values tk ! tk;c (the subscript c stands for critical). At those
.0/ .0/ 0
critical values, the disc amplitude W1 .x/ has cusps of the form W1 .x/  V 2.x/ C
p
C .x  a/ q , with q D 2 and p D 2m C 1.
The tuning of the tk s
X
tk D tk;c C Ck;j .1  t=tc /j Qtj
j

comes with some critical exponents

1 1
D D ; j D 2.m  j/:
pCq1 2m C 2

We then have the scalings

Fg .t; ftk g/  .1  t=tc /.22g/.1 =2/ tc22g FQ g .fQtj g/

with the exponent (called string susceptibility exponent by physicists)

2 1
D D :
pCq1 mC1

Those exponents agree with the KPZ formula.

The asymptotic generating functions of large maps, are obtained by the topolog-
ical recursion, corresponding to the spectral curve:
(
x.z; s/ D z2  2u0
E.2mC1;2/ D P P P .2jC1/ . jl/
y.z; s/ D j Qtj Qj .z/ D j l Qtj z2jC12l .u0 =2/l j l .2jC12l/

.0/
which is the blow up of the cusp singularity of W1 .x/  .x  a/p=q
This means that when t ! tc
2mC2 2mC2
Fg  .1  t=tc /.22g/ 2mC3 tc22g FQ g D .1  t=tc /.22g/ 2mC3 tc22g Fg .E.2mC1;2/ /:

and 1  t=tc D  2 is the meshsize.

The asymptotic generating functions of large maps, FQ g , are such that
P 22g FQ g
De gN
5.6 Exercises 235

is the Taufunction of the mth reduction of the KdV hierarchy of integrable

equations, called the .2m C 1; 2/ minimal model coupled to gravity.
This means that the second derivative u of ln , satisfies a non-linear differential
equation of Painlev type, namely the m C 1th Gelfand-Dikii equation:

RmC1 .u/ D s:

This means that the asymptotic generating functions of large maps coincide with
those of the Liouville conformal field theory coupled to gravity.

5.6 Exercises

Exercise 1 Prove Proposition 5.4.6, i.e. that

X j C k C 4 .2j C 2/ .2k C 2/
F0 D 4 Qtj Qtk .u0 =2/kCjC3 :
j;k
j C k C 3 j . j C 2/ k .k C 1/

Hint: first look for a polynomial S.u0 / such that d

ds S.u0/ D 4 u0 , and show that

S0 .u0 / D 16u0 P 0 .u0 /:

From there, and from the explicit expression of P.u0 /, deduce S.u0 /.
Then look for a polynomial .u0 /, such that ds
d
.u0 / D S.u0 /, and show that

0 .u0 / D P 0 .u0 / S.u0 /:

From there, deduce the expression of .u0 /. It satisfies d2 =ds2 D u0 , and thus
D F0 .
Exercise 2 Prove Lemma 5.4.1 and the recursion for the Gelfand-Dikii polynomi-
als Eq. (5.4.3).
Hint: To prove Lemma 5.4.1, show that
 1
2 1 1 1 1
.Q j 2 /C ; Q D .Q j 2 /C .Q j 2 /C ; Q C .Q j 2 /C ; Q .Q j 2 /C

1
is an operator of order at most 2j  1, and this implies that .Q j 2 /C ; Q must be an
operator of order 0, i.e. a function of s.
Using .Q1=2 /C D d find R1 D 2u, and then proceed by recursion on j.
236 5 Counting Large Maps

First show (using the recursion hypothesis) that it is possible to choose two
functions j .s/ and j .s/ such that
 1
2
Q .Q j 2 /C C j d C j D Q2jC1 C O.d2j /

i.e. that
1 1 1
.Q jC 2 /C D Q .Q j 2 /C C j d C j D .Q j 2 /C Q C .j C RP j /d C j :
1
Then, writing that .Q jC 2 /C ; Q must be an operator of degree 0, find the coeffi-
cients j , j , and find the recursion relation for Rj .
Chapter 6
Counting Riemann Surfaces

In the previous chapter, we have computed the asymptotic generating functions of

large maps, and we have seen that they are related to the . p; q/ minimal model.
Now, in this chapter, we compute generating functions for counting Rie-
mann surfaces directly. The set of all Riemann surfaces (modulo holomorphic
reparametrizations) of a given topology, called moduli space, is a finite dimensional
complex variety (it is not a manifold because it is not smooth, instead it is called an
orbifold), which can be endowed with some volume form which allows to define
volumes of moduli spaces, i.e. in some sense the number of Riemann surfaces.
In the physics literature, this approach is often called topological gravity, and
it was conjectured by Witten [87], and later proved by Kontsevich [57], that the
limit of large maps, is (in some sense which we make precise below) equivalent to
topological gravity. We shall reprove this theorem in this chapter, using again the
topological recursion.

6.1 Moduli Spaces of Riemann Surfaces

Riemann surfaces are 2-dimensional manifolds, equipped with a complex structure.

They are thus 1-dimensional complex manifolds, and are also called complex
curves. They are defined modulo conformal reparametrization, and since the group
of conformal reparametrizations is very large, there are not so many different
Riemann surfaces, they can be parametrized by a finite number of complex
parameters called moduli.
In all this chapter we shall denote

g;n D 2  2g  n ; dg;n D 3g  3 C n:

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 237

B. Eynard, Counting Surfaces, Progress in Mathematical Physics 70,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7643-8797-6_6
238 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

The classification theorem of surfaces says that the topology of compact

orientable surfaces, is entirely characterized by their genus, i.e. their number of
handles.
Definition 6.1.1 (Moduli Space) The Moduli space of orientable compact Rie-
mann surfaces of genus g, with n distinct labeled marked points is denoted

Mg;n D f.C; p1 ; : : : ; pn /g = automorphisms

where C is a connected smooth orientable compact Riemann surface of genus g, and

p1 ; : : : ; pn are n distinct labeled points on C.
Notice that C n f p1 ; : : : ; pn g is topologically a surface of genus g with n points
removed, it has Euler characteristics

 D g;n D 2  2g  n:

We shall see below that, if 2g  2 C n > 0, i.e. g;n < 0 then Mg;n is locally a
complex manifold of dimension

dim Mg;n D dg;n D 3g  3 C n

i.e. is locally parametrized by dg;n D 3g  3 C n complex numbers (called moduli).

Mg;n is not a manifold, it is an orbifold because surfaces with automorphisms are
divided by their automorphism group.

6.1.1 Examples of Moduli Spaces

6.1.1.1 Example M0;3 Sphere with Three Marked Points

We shall admit, that there is only one (up to conformal bijections) simply connected
(i.e. genus 0) compact Riemann surface, it is called the Riemann sphere, or also the
projective complex plane CP1 , and it is a compactification C N of the complex plane
with a point at 1 added:

C D CP1 D C [ f1g D Riemann sphere:

More precisely, a surface is a manifold, defined by an atlas of charts, that is a

collection of open connected sets in R2 (the charts) together with a set of continuous
transition functions from charts to charts. A compact surface can be realized by
an atlas with a finite set of charts. Orientability requires that the Jacobians of
all transition functions be positive. For defining a Riemann surface, the transition
functions from charts to charts are required to be holomorphic.
6.1 Moduli Spaces of Riemann Surfaces 239

The Riemann sphere can be realized with two charts UC ; U , each being a copy
of a disc of radius R centered at the origin in C, and we assume RC R > 1:

U D fz 2 C j jzj < R g ; RC R > 1 : (6.1.1)

A point z 2 UC and zQ 2 U are identified if zQ D 1=z. The transition function is:

fC W UC \ fz j 1=R < jzj < RC g ! U \ fQz j 1=R C  < jQzj < R g
z 7! 1=z

it is holomorphic and bijective and its inverse is holomorphic.

The Riemann sphere is then the equivalence class of all atlases equivalent to that
one. In particular it is independent of the choice of RC and R provided RC R > 1.
The automorphisms of the Riemann sphere, are analytic bijective functions
whose inverse is analytic, from the Riemann sphere to itself. We leave to the reader
to prove1 that an automorphism of the Riemann sphere is necessarily a Moebius
transformation:
az C b
f W z 7! ; ad  bc D 1 ; .a; b; c; d/ 2 C4
cz C d

in other words Aut.CP1 /  Sl2 .C/, the group of Moebius transformations.

Consider a genus 0 Riemann surface with three marked points p1 ; p2 ; p3 . As a
Riemann surface, it can always be conformally mapped to the Riemann sphere. And
up to composition by some Moebius transformation, we can always assume that the
three points . p1 ; p2 ; p3 / are mapped to .0; 1; 1/.
This means, that there is only one Riemann surface of genus 0 with three marked
points, modulo conformal reparametrization.

M0;3 D singleton D f .C; 0; 1; 1/g:

M0;3 is a point, it is a dimension 0 manifold:

dim M0;3 D d0;3 D 0:

6.1.1.2 Example M0;4 Genus 0 with Four Marked Points

Let .C; p1 ; p2 ; p3 ; p4 / 2 M0;4 . Since C is a genus zero Riemann surface, it can

be mapped to the Riemann sphere, and up to a Moebius transformations, the three

1
Hint: notice that if f is bijective, then exactly one point is sent to 1, and the fact that f is analytic
and bijective means that f can only have one simple pole, and is analytic everywhere else. Then,
use that a holomorphic function with no pole on a compact surface can only be a constant.
240 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

points p1 ; p2 ; p3 can be mapped to 0; 1; 1, and then the fourth point p4 is mapped

to a point of the Riemann sphere different from 0; 1; 1, i.e. to the complex plane
without 0 and 1:

M0;4  C n f0; 1; 1g:

It is locally isomorphic to C  R2 , thus it is a surface, with real dimension 2, and it

is also a complex manifold of complex dimension

dim M0;4 D d0;4 D 1:

Observe that it is not compact.

6.1.1.3 Example M1;1 Torus with a Marked Point

We shall admit that every genus one Riemann surface (torus) can be conformally
mapped to a parallelogram of modulus (with Im > 0) with opposite sides
identified, in other words the complex plane quotiented by the relationships z 
z C 1  z C , and we set the marked point at the origin:

0 1

Two such representations are equivalent (they represent the same Riemann
surface up to a conformal reparametrization which conserves the marked point) if
and only if they have the same modulus modulo an Sl2 .Z/ modular transformation
(see proof as Exercise 1):

a C b
 0 D ; .a; b; c; d/ 2 Z4 ; ad  bc D 1
c C d

Sl2 .Z/ is generated by

1
7! C 1 ; 7! :

Therefore, the fundamental domain for values of is:
n 1 1o n o n o n o
M1;1 D  < Re  \ Im > 0 \ j j > 1 [ D ei ;  2 =3; =2
2 2
6.1 Moduli Spaces of Riemann Surfaces 241

0 1

Each point in that domain corresponds to exactly one Riemann surface of genus one
with a marked point, and that domain is called the moduli space of surfaces of genus
1 with one marked point, and denoted:

M1;1 D CC =Sl2 .Z/

We see that it is a dimension 1 complex orbifold (it inherits its complex structure
from that of CC , and is quotiented by a group, here the upper half complex plane
CC quotiented by Sl2 .Z/). It has a non-trivial topology because of the identifications
 C 1  1= . For instance it has conic singularities at D ei=3 and at D i.
The upper half plane CC is known as the hyperbolic plane, it is endowed with
a metric of constant curvature D 1, whose geodesics are circles or straight lines
orthogonal to the real axis. We thus see that M1;1 is an hyperbolic triangle whose
three boundaries are geodesics. Its three angles are =3; =3; 0. It is well known in
hyperbolic geometry, that the area of a triangle is its deficit angle, that is  minus
the sum of its angles. Here:

Hyperbolic Area.M1;1 / D   .=3 C =3 C 0/ D =3

Moreover, Gauss-Bonnet theorem says that the average curvature is related to the
Euler characteristics by:
Z
curvature D 2 .M1;1 /:
M1;1

Here, the curvature is constant D 1, and thus:

2 .M1;1 / D Area.M1;1 / D =3

i.e.
1
.M1;1 / D  :
6
242 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

One may find this result directly from the Euler formula, indeed an cellular decom-
position of M1;1 is made of a dimension 2 contractible open set  12 < Re <
o n o n o
1
2 \ Im > 0 \ j j > 1 , 2 dimension one contractible open sets the open half-
p n o
line fRe D 1=2g \ fIm > 3=2g and the open arc D ei ;  2=3; =2 ,
and two conical points D i with automorphism of order 2, and the point D ei=3
with automorphism of order 3, i.e. finally:

1 1 1
.M1;1 / D 1  2 C C D :
2 3 6
Remark 6.1.1 M1;1 is not compact. It can be compactified by adding a degenerate
torus where a cycle has been pinched.

We shall identify this degenerate torus with the point D 1 we add to the
hyperbolic upper complex plane CC . This degenerate torus can also be constructed
as a sphere with three marked points, where we identify two marked points together
(they correspond to the pinched cycle), and the third marked point is simply the
initial marked point on the torus. In other words it is an element of M0;3 .
We can thus define M1;1 as the compactification of M1;1 , obtained by adding
this degenerate torus to M1;1 :

M1;1 D M1;1 [ M0;3 ; @M1;1 D M0;3 :

From now on, our goal will be to count the number of Riemann surfaces of a
given genus, or in other words measure the volume of the moduli space Mg;n . In
that purpose we have to define a volume form on it.

6.1.2 Stability and Unstability

Consider a Riemann surface of genus g, with n marked points (or n boundaries). It

is said to be stable if it has a finite group of automorphisms, and unstable if the
group of automorphisms is infinite.
The reason why stability matters, is because we wish to define a volume form,
invariant under automorphisms, and if the automorphism group were infinite, the
volume would unavoidably be infinite.
6.1 Moduli Spaces of Riemann Surfaces 243

For instance the Riemann sphere has genus 0, and no marked point, its Euler
characteristics is  D 2. It can be represented as the complex plane with an
added point at 1. It is clear that any Moebius transformation z 7! azCb czCd with
.a; b; c; d/ 2 C4 , ad  bc D 1, maps the Riemann sphere bijectively onto itself,
and is thus an automorphism. The group of automorphisms in M0;0 is Sl2 .C/, it is
an infinite group.
If we consider the sphere with one marked point (topologically a disc  D 1),
and we choose the marked point to be at 1, then the automorphisms that conserve
the marked point, are bijective maps of the form z 7! az C b. The group of
automorphisms in M0;1 is the set of affine maps, this is still an infinite group of
automorphisms.
If we consider the sphere with two marked points (topologically a cylinder
 D 0), let us say the marked points are at 0 and 1, all the linear transformations
z 7! az or inversions z 7! a=z are automorphisms of the sphere with these two
marked points. The group of automorphisms in M0;2 is still an infinite group.
Then, if we consider the Riemann sphere with three (or more) marked points,
there can be at most a finite number of automorphisms preserving the marked
points. Only the maps z 7! azCb czCd
that map marked points to marked points can
be automorphisms. If the number of marked points is  3, that fixes the coefficients
a; b; c; d. The group of automorphisms of M0;n with n  3 is then a subgroup of the
permutation group of the marked points.
Therefore, the sphere (g D 0) has a finite number of automorphisms only if it
has at least n  3 marked points, i.e.  D 2  2g  n < 0.
Similarly, the torus can be represented as a parallelogram with identified opposite
sides, i.e. the complex plane C quotiented by the lattice Z C Z, however, the origin
is arbitrary, i.e. the complex plane is invariant by translations, so M1;0 has an infinite
number of automorphisms.
A torus with one (or more) marked point is no longer invariant by arbitrary
translations, it has only a finite group of automorphisms.
We shall admit that every Riemann surfaces of genus g  2 can be represented
as a polygon with identified sides, embedded in the hyperbolic plane (the upper half
complex plane, where geodesics are lines or half-circles orthogonal to the real axis),
and using the properties of hyperbolic geometry, it is possible to prove that surfaces
of genus g  2 always have only a finite group of automorphisms, even if they have
no marked points. To summarize:
Unstable surfaces: the sphere  D 2, the disc  D 1, the cylinder  D 0, and the
torus  D 0. They all have non-negative Euler characteristics  D 2  2g  n  0
Stable surfaces: all the others. They all have strictly negative Euler characteris-
tics  D 2  2g  n < 0.
Examples
M0;3 . Every Riemann surface of genus 0 is conformally equivalent to the
Riemann sphere, i.e. the complex plane with an added point at 1. Then, by a
244 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

suitable Moebius map z 7! azCb czCd

, the three marked points can always be sent to
0; 1; 1. In other words, there is a unique element in M0;3 .
M0;3 is a point, it has dimension d0;3 D 0.
M1;1 . See Sect. 6.1.1.3. Every Riemann surface of genus 1 can be mapped to a
parallelogram of modulus , with identified opposite sides. The marked point can
be mapped to the bottom-left corner of the parallelogram. We have

M1;1 D CC =Sl2 .Z/

where CC is the upper half complex plane. Locally (except near the points
D i; ei=3 ) M1;1 looks like a domain of C, it can be described by a complex
number , therefore

dim M1;1 D d1;1 D 1:

The point D ei=3 is a conical singularity with a Z3 automorphism, and D i

is a conical singularity with a Z2 automorphism.

6.1.3 Compactification

Let us consider 2  2g  n < 0.

Similarly to Sect. 6.1.1.3, the moduli space Mg;n of Riemann surfaces of genus
g with n marked points can be compactified by adding degenerate surfaces to it.
Mg;n is not compact because the limit of a family of smooth Riemann surfaces of
genus g with n marked points, might not be in Mg;n . Either the limit is not smooth,
because a cycle gets pinched, or also, two (or more) marked points might collapse
in the limit.

In order to compactify Mg;n , we need to add some degenerate surfaces that

correspond to those limits. Pinched cycles naturally tend to nodal points. For
collapsing marked points, we may, by a suitable conformal transformation, magnify
the vicinity of those marked points, so that they become mutually separated by a
finite distance, but then, they tend to be at a large distance from the other marked
points, and in the limit, the vicinity of the collapsing marked points disconnects from
the rest of the surface. Again, introducing a nodal point can represent this singular
limit.
6.1 Moduli Spaces of Riemann Surfaces 245

The degenerate surfaces we need to add, are thus nodal Riemann surfaces,
i.e. Riemann surfaces with pinched cycles. Nodal Riemann surfaces can also be
obtained by gluing together smooth Riemann surfaces at nodal points. In other
words, a nodal surface is an union of ` smooth Riemann surfaces, each having genus
gi and ni marked points and ki nodal points.
A stable nodal surface, is a nodal surface, whose each component is stable (if a
component is a sphere, it must have at least three marked or nodal points, if it is a
torus, it must have at least one marked or nodal point), i.e.

8 i D 1; : : : ; ` ; i D 2  2gi  ni  ki < 0:
P P
We must have n D i ni , and i ki is even. The total Euler characteristics is:

X
g;n D 2  2g  n D .2  2gi  ni  ki /:
iD1

Example of a nodal surface of M2;5 :

In this example the nodal surface has three components, one torus and two spheres,
glued by three nodal points. The first sphere has one marked point and two nodal
points, so that it is stable it has  D 1, the second sphere has two marked points
and two nodal points i.e.  D 2, and the torus has two marked points and two nodal
points  D 4, i.e. each component is stable i < 0. The total Euler characteristics
is 1  2  4 D 7 D 2  2 2  5, it corresponds to genus g D 2 with n D 5
marked points, so it belongs to M2;5 .
Definition 6.1.2 (Deligne-Mumford Compactification) A stable curve .C; p1 ;
: : : ; pn / is the data of a stable nodal Riemann surface C, with n smooth non-nodal
marked points p1 ; : : : ; pn .
The set of all stable curves .C; p1 ; : : : ; pn /, modulo automorphisms, is called the
compact moduli space Mg;n .
We shall admit here, that Mg;n is compact. Let us check this on examples:
246 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

6.1.3.1 Example: M0;4

An element .C; p1 ; p2 ; p3 ; p4 / of M0;4 is a genus zero smooth Riemann surface (thus

the Riemann sphere), with four labeled marked points.
By a Moebius transformation, we can always assume that p1 D 0; p2 D 1;
p3 D 1, and we call p D p4 . We must have p 0; 1; 1, and each value
of p corresponds uniquely to a Riemann sphere with four distinct marked points.
Therefore M0;4 is isomorphic to a Riemann sphere C with three points removed:

M0;4  C n f0; 1; 1g:

It is a complex manifold of dimension 1, and it is not compact.

Its boundary consists of three limiting cases, p ! 0, p ! 1 and p ! 1.
The limit p ! 0 i.e. p4 ! p1 corresponds to .C; p1 ; p2 ; p3 ; p4 / getting split into
two spheres glued at a nodal point, one sphere containing p1 ; p4 and the nodal point,
and the other containing p2 ; p3 and the nodal point.

Same thing for p4 ! p2 and p4 ! p3 .

We thus have:

@M0;4 D .M0;3  M0;3 / [ .M0;3  M0;3 / [ .M0;3  M0;3 /:

Each M0;3  M0;3 is a point, which we shall identify respectively with the points
p D 0; 1; 1 of the Riemann sphere.
Finally we have:

N n f0; 1; 1g/ [ f0g [ f1g [ f1g  C;

M0;4  .C

i.e. M0;4 is isomorphic to the full Riemann sphere, it is compact, and it is a smooth
complex manifold of dimension d0;4 D 1.

6.1.3.2 Example: M0;5

An element .C; p1 ; p2 ; p3 ; p4 ; p5 / of M0;5 is a genus zero Riemann surface (thus the

Riemann sphere), with five labeled marked points.
6.1 Moduli Spaces of Riemann Surfaces 247

By a Moebius transformation, we can always assume that p1 D 0; p2 D 1;

p3 D 1, and we call p D p4 , q D p5 . We must have p; q 0; 1; 1 and p q, and
each value of . p; q/ corresponds uniquely to a Riemann sphere with five marked
points. Therefore:

M0;5  .C n f0; 1; 1g/  .C n f0; 1; 1g/ n f. p; p/ j p 2 C n f0; 1; 1gg:

M0;5 is thus a complex manifold of dimension d0;5 D 2, and it is not compact.

We see that

M0;5  C  C:

One may wrongly think that the compactification M0;5 would consist in com-
pleting the missing pieces of C  C. The missing pieces consist of:
Seven dimension 1 sub-manifolds . p D 0; q 2 C n f0; 1; 1g/, . p D 1; q 2
C n f0; 1; 1g/, . p D 1; q 2 C n f0; 1; 1g/, . p 2 C n f0; 1; 1g; q D 0/, . p 2
C n f0; 1; 1g; q D 1/, . p 2 C n f0; 1; 1g; q D 1/, . p 2 C n f0; 1; 1g; q D p/,
and nine points . p; q/ D .0; 0/; .1; 0/; .1; 0/; .0; 1/; .1; 1/; .1; 1/; .0; 1/;
.1; 1/; .1; 1/.
However, this is wrong. Indeed, let us now study the boundary of M0;5 in more
details:
A codimension 1 boundary, occurs when two marked points collapse, and the
other points remain distinct. In that limit, the surface C splits into a sphere
with the two collapsing marked points and a nodal point, and a sphere with the
three other marked points and the nodal point, i.e. a codimension 1 boundary is
isomorphic to

M0;3  M0;4  C n f0; 1; 1g:

Notice that M0;4 itself is not compact and has three boundaries which are points.
For example the boundary p4 ! p1 with p2 ; p3 ; p5 distinct, corresponds to p ! 0
and q 0; 1; 1, it can naturally be glued to the corresponding missing Cnf0; 1; 1g
of M0;5 .

2
5

3
248 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

However, observe that there are ten dimension 1 boundaries, because there are ten
possibilities of choosing a pair of collapsing points among five points. Therefore it
is not possible to identify each of them to the seven missing codimension 1 pieces
of C  C.
Seven of the dimension 1 boundaries can be easily identified with the seven
dimension 1 missing submanifolds of C  C.
The three remaining dimension 1 boundaries are more subtle, they cannot be well
described in the coordinates . p; q/, and dont match with missing lines of C  C.
For example p1 ! p2 with p3 ; p4 ; p5 distinct, corresponds to p ! 1; q ! 1, and
thus we can only glue it to the point .1; 1/, we can not glue it to a line of C C.
Codimension 2 boundaries occur when two pairs of points collapse together.
There are 15 possibilities of choosing two pairs of points among five points,
so there are 15 D 9 C 6 dimension 0 boundaries. Some of those points can be
naturally glued to the nine missing points of C  C.
For instance, when p4 ! p1 and p5 ! p2 , but p1 ; p2 ; p3 remain distinct, the
surface C gets split into three spheres, one with p1 ; p4 and a nodal point, one with
p5 ; p2 and a nodal point, both glued by their nodal points to a sphere with p3 and
two nodal points. This corresponds to p ! 0 and q ! 1.

Such a boundary is thus:

M0;3  M0;3  M0;3  point

and must be identified with the point .0; 1/ 2 C  C.

Another example is when p2 ! p3 and p5 ! p4 , but p1 ; p2 ; p4 remain distinct,
the surface C gets split into three spheres, one with p2 ; p3 and a nodal point, one
with p4 ; p5 and a nodal point, both glued by their nodal points to a sphere with p1
and two nodal points. This corresponds to p ! 0 and q ! 0.
6.2 Informal Introduction to Intersection Numbers 249

However, there are three ways to obtain a point corresponding to p ! 0 and q ! 0,

namely: p2 ! p3 , and then two of the points p1 ; p4 ; p5 collapsing together.
Finally we have:

10 copies
10 times

15 times
15 copies

@M0;5 D M0;3  M0;4 [ M0;3  M0;3  M0;3  C n f0; 1; 1g [ point :

By gluing seven of the ten M0;3  M0;4 to the seven missing 1-dimensional
pieces in the . p; q/ plane, and nine of the 15 M0;3 M0;3 M0;3 to the nine missing
points in the . p; q/ plane, we complete the . p; q/ plane into C  C. There remains
three M0;3  M0;4  C n f0; 1; 1g, and six M0;3  M0;3  M0;3 points. For each
C n f0; 1; 1g, we can glue two M0;3  M0;3  M0;3 points into the corresponding
C n f0; 1; 1g, i.e. we get three copies of C n f0; 1; 1g [ fpointg [ fpointg  C.
Therefore, we finally get that:

M0;5  C  C [ C [ C [ C

where the three copies of C D C N n fpointg i.e. three Riemann spheres with a point
removed, are attached to C  C at the points .0; 0/; .1; 1/; .1; 1/.
The topology of M0;5 is already quite non-trivial. Also, this shows that M0;5 is
not a manifold of constant dimension, it has singular points, and it has subsets of
smaller dimensions. It is called a stack.

6.2 Informal Introduction to Intersection Numbers

Some information about the topology of Mg;n (resp. Mg;n ) is provided by character-
istic classes, which, in some sense, generalize the Euler characteristics. Remember
that for a surface, the Euler characteristics is the integral of the curvature (for any
metric) of the surface:
Z Z
2 D d 2 x R.x/;
250 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

(for example for the sphere in R3 of radius r, with the canonical metric of R3 the
curvature is constant R D 1=r2 , the area is 4r2 , which gives  D 2). It is a
topological invariant independent of the choice of a metric on the surface, and it
is worth

 D 2  2g

where g is the genus, i.e. the number of holes of the surface. The Euler charac-
teristics, i.e. the integral of the curvature, thus gives some information about the
topology.
Chern classes generalize this idea, they are curvatures of connections over some
fibre bundles, and again, the integrals of curvatures are topological invariants, called
Chern numbers.

6.2.1 Informal Introduction to Chern Classes

Let us consider a complex manifold X of dimension n, with local coordinates x ,

 D 1; : : : ; n, and a complex line bundle L over X, i.e. to every point x 2 X, we
associate a copy of the complex plane Cx . A non-vanishing section of L, associates
to every x 2 X, a point z.x/ 2 Cx , with z.x/ 0. In order to study the notion of
analyticity, we need to define analytic invertible transition maps fx!x0 W Cx ! Cx0 ,
z.x/ 7! z.x0 /, and such that fx!x0 depends analytically on x and x0 . If x and
x0 D x C dx are infinitesimally close to each other, the transition map has to be
infinitesimally close to identity, and thus belongs to the cotangent space of the
bundle:
X
f W Cx ! CxCdx ; z 7! z .1 C 2i A .x/dx / C O.dx2 /:


The differential forms A .x/dx belong to the cotangent space of X.

If we have an analytic non-vanishing section z.x/, we can compute its derivative,
which contains two types of terms, those coming from the transition between fibres,
and those which compute the derivative of the function z.x/ with respect to the local
coordinates x in one fibre, i.e. the total derivative is:
X @z X

z.x C dx/  z.x/ D 
dx C 2i z A .x/ dx C O.dx2 /

@x 

i.e. we can define the 1-form over the fibre bundle

X X
Dz D dz C 2i z A .x/dx D .d C 2i A .x/dx / z
 
6.2 Informal Introduction to Intersection Numbers 251

P @z 
We emphasize that the notation dz D  @x dx depends on a choice of local
coordinates and an explicit realization of Cx at fixed x, it is not intrinsically defined,
only the sum of the 2-terms, whichP includes the transition map, i.e. Dz has an
intrinsic meaning. A D d C 2i  A .x/dx is called a connection on L.
Since z is nowhere vanishing, we can divide by z and consider the 1-form:

Dz dz X
D D C A .x/dx
2i z 2i z 

which is analytic and well defined over the total space of the line bundle. It has the
property that if we integrate it in a fibre at fixed x, around a non-contractible cycle
of Cx , i.e. over the unit circle Sx1 oriented in the trigonometric direction, we have:
I
D 1:
Sx1

The curvature of is the 2-form d:

X @A
d D dx ^ dx
;
@x

notice that d2 z D 0 so that the coordinate along the fibre has disappeared in the
curvature. The curvature d is thus independent of a choice of section z.x/. Also,
one can symmetrize over  and  and write:
 
1 X @A @A
d D   dx ^ dx :
2 ; @x @x

It can be proved that the cohomology

P class of the 2-form d
H is independent of a
choice of connection A D  A dx , i.e. a contour integral C d depends only on
the homology class of the contour C  X, and not on the choice of connection A,
but this is beyond the scope of this book.
What we would like the reader to retain, is that in order to compute the Chern
class of a complex line bundle L over a manifold X, one has to find a 1-form
well-defined everywhere on the total space of L, whose integral along a circle in a
fibre, is:
I
D1
fibre S1x

and then the Chern class (or more precisely a representative) is defined as its
curvature:

c1 .L/ D d
252 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

and d is a 2-form on T  X, whose cohomology class is independent of a choice of

. The Chern class is a topological invariant of the bundle L.
Remark (Computation of the Chern Class of the Trivial Bundle) The trivial bundle
is the bundle L whose fibre Cx is the same for all x, i.e. L D X  C. The transition
map can be chosen as the identity and we can chose A D 0, and thus c1 .L/ D 0.
Vice-versa, if one finds that the Chern class c1 .L/ 0, this means that the bundle
L is not homeomorphic to a trivial bundle.
The converse is not true, the vanishing of c1 .L/ doesnt imply that the bundle is
trivial.
Remark (Computation of the Chern Class of Product Bundles) Let L1 and L2 be two
line bundles over a manifold X. Then we can define the line bundle L D L1  L2
over X by simply taking the Cartesian product of each fibres. Imagine that we have
a connection A on L1 and AQ on L2 , then A C AQ is a connection on the product L, and
thus the Chern classes add:

c1 .L/ D c1 .L1 / C c1 .L2 /:

In particular if L2 is a trivial bundle then

c1 .L/ D c1 .L1 /:

This remark will be very useful for us, we shall consider line bundles over Mg;n ,
that we shall extend to line bundles over Mg;n RnC , this will not change their Chern
class.

6.2.2 Intersection Numbers of Cotangent Bundles

Let Mg;n be the compact moduli space of stable curves of genus g, with n marked
points. Since each point pi is smooth, we have a natural line bundle Li over Mg;n ,
whose fibre, for each point .C; p1 ; : : : ; pn / 2 Mg;n , is Tpi C the cotangent space of
C at pi . We can consider its first Chern class c1 .Li /, that is the curvature form (in
fact its cohomology class) of an arbitrary connection on that line bundle. c1 .Li / is
a 2-form on Mg;n , and it is a topological invariant, independent of the choice of
connection.
We usually denote

i D c1 .Li /:

Since i is a 2form on Mg;n , the wedge product of dg;n D dim Mg;n such 2forms,
is a top dimensional symplectic volume form on Mg;n , and thus one can compute
its integral on Mg;n .
6.2 Informal Introduction to Intersection Numbers 253

Definition 6.2.1 (Intersection Numbers) Let Li ! Mg;n the cotangent bundle

to the ith marked point pi , and i D c1 .Li / its first Chern class. The intersection
numbers are defined as:
8R P

< Mg;n c1 .L1 / 1 ^    ^ c1 .Ln / n if i ki D dg;n
k k

< 1k1 : : : nkn >g;n WD

: 0 P
if i ki dg;n :

Very often, one uses Wittens notation:

k1
< k1 : : : kn >g WD< 1 ::: kn
n >g;n :

(we dont need to write the subscript n, since n is seen as the number of factors).
Intersection numbers are topological invariants of Mg;n .
We recall that the moduli space Mg;n is not a manifold. It contains non-smooth
points, corresponding to Riemann surfaces with non-trivial automorphisms, and
the moduli space is defined by quotienting with the automorphisms group, this
means that the intersection numbers can be rational numbers instead of integers
(denominators correspond to the order of automorphism groups). Also, since Mg;n
may contain pieces of different dimensions, the notion of cycle is not exactly the
notion of sub-manifolds, instead it is related to the notion of cycles and chains in
DeRham cohomology. However, those notions being beyond the scope of this book,
we shall stay at the intuitive level.

6.2.2.1 Wittens Conjecture and Kontsevich Integral

In order to compute the intersection numbers, Maxim Kontsevich in 1991 [57], used
an explicit foliation of the space Mg;n , already introduced by HarerMumford
StrebelThurstonZagierPenner [45, 75], with an explicit coordinate system, and
he found an explicit connection i , and thus an explicit represent of each Chern
class di D i D c1 .Li / in this coordinate system. In practice that means finding
a 1-form i on Li whose integral around a circle in each fibre is 1, and then its
curvature form di is a representant of the Chern class i .
The explicit foliation of the space Mg;n , is based on graphs, and thus, using
his coordinate system, Kontsevich could reduce the computation of intersection
numbers to combinatorics of graphs, and, using Wicks theorem again (see Chap. 2),
showed that they can be put together to form a generating series which is a formal
matrix integral. He used that to show that the generating series is a Tau-function for
the KdV hierarchy, thus proving Wittens conjecture.
Wittens conjecture came from the problem of enumeration of maps: if maps
could be seen as a good discretization of Riemann surfaces, then the discretized
intersection numbers would just be the number of maps with given boundaries and
given topology, and thus the double scaling limit of the generating function for the
254 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

number of large maps (see Chap. 5), should coincide with the generating function
for intersection numbers. And it was already known from heuristic asymptotic
approximations in matrix models, that the double scaling limits of matrix models
had good chances to be a Tau-function for the KdV hierarchy (proved in Chap. 5).
This led Witten to conjecture [87] that the generating function of intersection
numbers had to be a KdV Taufunction.
The physical idea was clear, the mathematical proof came with the work of
Kontsevich in 1991. Since then, Wittens conjecture has received many other proofs.
In some sense, this Witten-Kontsevich theorem, is the claim that the limit of large
maps, is topological gravity.
What was surprising in Kontsevichs proof, was that the matrix integral he
used, was in fact very different from the formal matrix integrals of Brezin
ItzyksonParisiZuber seen in Chap. 2 for counting discretized surfaces. He used
a formal matrix integral which directly corresponds to Riemann surfaces, not using
a discretization and sending a mesh to 0.

6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces

A point in the moduli space Mg;n is a Riemann surface of genus g with n marked
points, and a Riemann surface is an equivalence class modulo bijective conformal
reparametrizations. In order to describe the moduli space, one needs to find a unique
canonical represent of a Riemann surface for each point in the moduli space. In other
words, if the moduli space is a finite dimensional manifold, parametrized by dg;n
complex moduli, or 2dg;n real moduli, we need to generate a unique surface out of
2dg;n real numbers. The idea is to cut the surface into slices, this is called a foliation
of the surface.
Several methods of foliations have been invented, and here we present two of
them.

6.3.1 Teichmller Hyperbolic Foliation

Consider a smooth surface of genus g, with n boundaries (instead of n marked

points), and assume 2  2g  n < 0, which implies that its average total curvature is
negative:

curvature D 2 D 2.2  2g  n/ < 0:

It is possible to find on that surface, a Riemannian metric of constant negative cur-

vature 1, such that the boundaries are geodesics of prescribed lengths L1 ; : : : ; Ln .
This is called the Poincar metric. The surface can then naturally be embedded
into the hyperbolic plane H, i.e. the upper complex plane CC endowed with the
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 255

hyperbolic geometry (whose geodesics are half-circles or straight lines, orthogonal

to the real axis).
It is then possible to find closed geodesics, cutting the surface into pairs of
pants.

Therefore, any surface of genus g with n boundaries, is conformally equivalent to the

gluing of pairs of pants along circles. The number of pairs of pants and circles can be
computed by the Euler characteristics. Each pair of pants has Euler characteristics
1, therefore the number of pairs of pants is

#pairs of pants D 2g  2 C n:

Moreover, each pair of pants has three boundaries, which implies 3.2g  2 C n/ D
n C 2#inner circles, and thus the number of inner circles is

#inner circles D 3g  3 C n:

Every surface of genus g with n boundaries can be obtained by gluing 2g  2 C n

pairs of pants along 3g  3 C n circles.
A classical result in hyperbolic geometry, is that an hyperbolic pair of pants is
uniquely characterized by the three lengths of its three geodesic boundaries, which
are positive real numbers.

This comes from the fact that in the hyperbolic plane, there is a unique (up to
isometries) right angles hexagon with geodesic boundaries with three given lengths,
256 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

and a pair of pant is obtained by gluing two identical hexagons.

Two pairs of pants can be glued together conformally, if and only if the geodesic
boundaries to be glued together have the same length. However, the boundaries
can be rotated by an arbitrary twist angle before gluing. In other words, a genus g
Riemann surface with n boundaries is entirely characterized by 3g  3 C n positive
real lengths, together with 3g  3 C n gluing angles, i.e. in total by 6g  6 C 2n real
parameters. This shows that:

1
dimR Mg;n D dg;n D 3g  3 C n
2
in agreement with a complex dimension dimC Mg;n D dg;n D 3g  3 C n.
However, this description of Mg;n is valid only locally, indeed the decomposition
into pants is not unique because of Dehn twists and pants flops, for example:

3g3Cn
We dont have a global bijection between Mg;n and RC  0; 23g3Cn , the
bijection is only valid locally, and Mg;n has a non-trivial topology.
Q3g3Cn
Nevertheless one can show that iD1 dli ^ di is a symplectic volume form
well-defined globally (it is invariant under Dehn twists and pants flops, i.e. it is
independent of a choice of cutting into pairs of pants), and which can be used to
define the Weil-Petersson volumes
Z 3g3Cn
Y
Vg;n .L1 ; : : : ; Ln / D dli ^ di
Mg;n .L1 ;:::;Ln / iD1

of the moduli spaces of curves with n boundaries of fixed geodesic lengths

L1 ; : : : ; Ln .
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 257

We are going to compute those volumes in Sect. 6.6. For instance, one easily gets
that:

V0;3 .L1 ; L2 ; L3 / D 1;

(indeed M0;3 is a point, the integral is trivial), and with some efforts using
hyperbolic geometry:

1
V1;1 .L1 / D .4 2 C L21 /:
48
It was proved by Wolpert [88], that this
P symplectic volume form is a topological
class. The Weil-Petersson metric form i dli ^ di , is nothing but the 1 Mumford
class (see Sect. 6.6 below):
X
dli ^ di D 4 2 1
i

which implies, by raising it to the power dg;n D 3g  3 C n:

Y
dg;n
.4 2 1 /dg;n D dg;n dli ^ di :
iD1

We shall admit here, that the boundaries can be encoded into Chern classes, and
we admit the identity:

X .4 2 /d0 Y L2d

n i
Vg;n .L1 ; : : : ; Ln / D 2dg;n i
< 1d0 d1
1 ::: dn
>g;n
d0 Cd1 CCdn Ddg;n
d0 iD1 di n

which is a polynomial in the Li s, and which we can rewrite as:

1 1 X 2 dg;n
Vg;n .L1 ; : : : ; Ln / D < .2 2 1 C L i / >g;n :
dg;n 2 i i

Using the fact that intersection numbers of classes whose dimension is not the
expected dimension dg;n are defined to be vanishing, we may rewrite this as:
D 2 1P 2 E
Vg;n .L1 ; : : : ; Ln / D e2 1 C 2 i Li i :
g;n

We are going to show how to compute it below in Sect. 6.6. In 2004,

M. Mirzakhani found a recursion, based on hyperbolic geometry, and in particular
the Mac-Shane relation among lengths of geodesics, to compute recursively the
258 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

volumes Vg;n .L1 ; : : : ; Ln /. Mirzakhanis recursion is the Laplace transform of the

topological recursion which we derive in Sect. 6.6 below. It earned her the Fields
medal in 2014 [65].

6.3.2 Strebel Foliation

Instead of Teichmller decomposition into pants, Kontsevich used the Strebel

foliation, in his famous article of 1992 [57]. Given n marked points on a Riemann
surface of genus g, and given n positive real numbers L1 ; : : : ; Ln (called perimeters),
Strebels theorem [80] (Theorem 6.3.1 below) asserts that there exists a unique
Strebel quadratic differential  with double poles at the marked points with residues
equal to L2i .
Definition 6.3.1 Let C be a compact Riemann surface of genus g.  is a quadratic
differential, if in every chart U  C, with local coordinate z,  is of the form:

.z/ D f .z/ dz2

where f .z/ is meromorphic in U.

If .z/ has a double pole at p, of the form:

R
.z/  dz2 .1 C O.z  p//;
.z  p/2

the coefficient R 2 C is independent of the choice of a local coordinate, and is called

the residue of  at p.
p
A quadratic differential  is such that  is locally a 1-form p on C, but not
globally (indeed it is not analytic at the zeroes or poles of ).  can be used to
compute integrals along paths.
Definition 6.3.2 Let  be a quadratic differential. Horizontal trajectories of  are
defined as lines
Z x p 
Im  D constant:

Let  be a quadratic differential with a double pole at pi 2 C, with negative

residue Ri D L2i 2 R . We have:

p dz
.z/  i Li .1 C O.z  pi //
z  pi
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 259

and thus
Z zp
  i Li ln .z  pi / C analytic
z!pi

and thus horizontal trajectories of  near the pole pi , are topologically circles
encircling pi :

Near a simple zero of 

p p p
.z/  ca .z  a/ dz2 .1 C O.z  a// ; .z/  ca z  a dz .1 C O.z  a//

and thus
Z zp
p
  ca .z  a/3=2 .1 C O.z  a//
z!a

and thus three horizontal trajectories (called critical) meet at a, at angles 2=3:

Rzp
If a is a higher order zero of , i.e.   .z  a/k dz2 , one has  
.z  a/1Ck=2 and thus k C 2 horizontal trajectories meet at a.
Definition 6.3.3 (Strebel Differential) We say that  is a Strebel differential, if 
is a quadratic differential with at most double poles, with negative residues, and if
the union of all circle trajectories surrounding double poles

U D [ circle trajectories around double poles

is such that

U D C;

In that case, C n U which is the set of horizontal trajectories which are nor circles
(called critical trajectories) is a graph on C, called the Strebel graph.
260 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

Another way to say that, is that the graph of critical trajectories, is a cellular
graph (all the faces are homeomorphic to discs).
Strebels theorem is that:
Theorem 6.3.1 (Strebels Theorem [80]) If .C; p1 ; : : : ; pn / 2 Mg;n , and
L1 ; : : : ; Ln 2 RnC , there exists a unique Strebel differential with double poles at
pi s with residues L2i .
The critical horizontal trajectories of the Strebel differential  form a unique
ribbon graph drawn on the Riemann surface C, whose n faces are topological discs
surrounding
p the marked points pi s, and the perimeter (measured with the metric
1
2 j j) of the ith face is Li .
Example: Consider M0;3 , i.e. the Riemann sphere with three marked points 0; 1; 1.
Choose three positive perimeters L0 ; L1 ; L1 .
The Strebel differential is:

L21 z2  .L21 C L20  L21 /z C L20 2 .z  a/.z  b/ 2

.z/ D  dz D L21 2 dz ;
z2 .z  1/2 z .z  1/2

indeed, it has three poles at z D 0; 1; 1 and behaves like L20 dz2 =z2 near z D 0, like
L21 dz2 =.z  1/2 near z D 1 and like L21 dz2 =z2 near z D 1, and we leave to the
reader to check that this is the unique quadratic differential having those properties.
The vertices are located at the zeroes a; b of :
 q 
1
a; b D 2 L21 C L20  L21 L40 C L41 C L41  2L20 L21  2L20 L21  2L21 L21 :
2L1

Here are the horizontal trajectories and ribbon graphs, for the cases (L1  L0 C L1
and L1  L0 C L1 ):

0 1
0 1

Consider now M0;4 , i.e. the Riemann sphere with four marked points 0; 1; 1; q.
Choose four positive perimeters L0 ; L1 ; L1 ; Lq . Any quadratic differential with
double poles with residues L2i must be of the form:

dz2  qL2 .1  q/L21 q.q  1/L2q 

.z/ D L21 z C 0 C C Cc
z.z  1/.z  q/ z z1 zq
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 261

where c is a constant. For arbitrary values of c, the horizontal trajectories may

be circles which dont surround one pole but two poles, i.e. the complement of
the graph of critical trajectories has a non-simply connected face (a face with the
topology of a cylinder), as follows:

Strebels theorem says that there is a unique value of c 2 C, function of q and of

the Li s (in general this is not an analytic function, it depends separately on Re q and
Im q) such that the union of all circle trajectories surrounding double poles is dense
on the surface, i.e. the graph of critical trajectories is cellular, and we get the Strebel
graph:

Let us return to the general case.

Introduce
p the length le of each edge e of the ribbon graph, measured with the
1
metric 2 j j. Since a generic ribbon graph has only 3-valent vertices (graphs
with higher valency vertices can be viewed as trivalent graphs with some edges of
vanishing lengths), the number of edges and the number of vertices are related by:

2#edges D 3#vertices:

And since the Euler characteristics is

 D 2  2g D #faces  #edges C #vertices

262 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

the number of edges is:

#edges D 3.2g  2 C n/ D n C 2.3g  3 C n/:

Therefore, to a Riemann surface with n marked points, and n perimeters L1 ; : : : ; Ln ,

we can associate a unique metric ribbon graph with n C 2.3g  3 C n/ edge lengths
(positive real numbers) le > 0.
The converse is true as well, i.e. given a ribbon graph of genus g with n faces,
and given the n C 2.3g  3 C n/ lengths of its edges, we can reconstruct a unique
Riemann surface with n marked points, by gluing conformally n discs along the
P as n positive real numbers L1 ; : : : ; Ln which are
edges of the ribbon graph, as well
the perimeters of the discs Li D e7!i le .
Therefore, because of the uniqueness of the Strebel differential, we have a
bijection:
Theorem 6.3.2 We have the isomorphism of orbifolds:

nC2.3g3Cn/
Mg;n  RnC  [ RC :
Ribbon graphs

This is an isomorphism of orbifolds, i.e. modulo automorphisms. This means that for
curves in Mg;n which have a non-trivial automorphism group, the corresponding
ribbon graph has the same automorphism group.
We say that we have a decomposition of our moduli space Mg;n  RnC into cells
nC2.3g3Cn/
(each cell is isomorphic to RC ) labeled by ribbon graphs.
This bijection shows again that the complex dimension of the manifold Mg;n is

1
dg;n D dimC Mg;n D dimR Mg;n D 3g  3 C n:
2
Q
In each cell (for each ribbon graph), e dle is a top-dimensional symplectic
volume form on Mg;n  RnC .

6.3.3 Chern Classes

Thanks to the Strebel foliation, we have for each cell (i.e. each ribbon graph) an
explicit set of coordinates on Mg;n  RnC , given by the lengths le of edges e of the
ribbon graph.
We can also represent the line bundle Li whose fibre is the cotangent space at the
marked point pi . Remember that the point pi is the point at the center of face i of the
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 263

graph. Face i has a total perimeter Li :

X
Li D le :
e around face i

A section of a U.1/ connection on the cotangent bundle on LQi ! Mg;n  RnC ,

consists in choosing an angle e2i' 2 U.1/, or equivalently choosing a point on a
circle, or also choosing a marked point on the boundary of the face:

LQ i
edges
 [ RC :
Ribbon graphs with marked point on boundary of face i

Such a marked point being chosen for each graph, let us define the distances
of vertices of the face to that point. We chose arbitrarily a labeling of vertices
v1 ; v2 ; v3 ; : : : ; vdeg face i around face pi , with a clockwise ordering, in other words
we arbitrarily choose a first vertex v1 . Then we define the distances of the marked
point:
the vertex number 1, is at distance '1 from the marked point,
the vertex number 2, is at distance '2 D '1 C l1 from the marked point,
the vertex number 3, is at distance '3 D '1 C l1 C l2 from the marked point,
and so on, vertex number k is at distance 'k D '1 C l1 C    C lk1 from the
marked point.
And all those distances are computed modulo Li , 'k  'k C Li .

l1
l5
1

l4
l2
l3

Each d'i is a U.1/ connection on the fibre, but is not defined globally on LQi ,
indeed, the labels of vertices are not globally defined, they depend on our arbitrary
choice of v1 . Only quantities which are symmetric in the vertices of a face, can be
globally defined.
264 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

The following 1-form

X le 'e '1 X le le0
i D d Dd C d
Li Li Li 0
Li Li
e around face i e <e

is well defined on LQi , indeed all vertices around the face now play a symmetric role,
it is independent of a choice of v1 .
When we integrate i along the fibre of the U.1/ bundle, i.e. when the marked
point goes around the face counterclockwise, the lengths le andR Li are unchanged, we
only integrate 'e from 0 to Li , and for each vertex we have d'e D Li , therefore
Z
i D 1:

i is thus a 1-form globally defined on LQ i , and it is a U.1/ connection in each fibre.

This implies that its curvature is the Chern class of LQi :
X le le0
Q i D c1 .LQ i / D di D d ^d :
Li Li
e0 <e

Notice that RnC is a trivial bundle, on which we can easily define a trivial connection
whose curvature is zero, and therefore, under the projection Mg;n RnC ! Mg;n , the
line bundle LQ i is pushed to the cotangent bundle Li , and the Chern class Q i D c1 .LQ i /
is pushed to i D c1 .Li /. By abuse of language we shall write that

i D Q i D c1 .Li / D c1 .LQ i /:

Theorem 6.3.3 (Kontsevich 1991 [57]) The 2-form i on Mg;n  RnC , defined in
each cell (each ribbon graph) by:
X le le0
i D d ^d :
Li Li
e0 <e

is the first Chern class of the bundle whose fibre is the cotangent bundle at the ith
marked point:

i D c1 .Li  RnC / D c1 .LQ i /:

Moreover, since LQi is a direct product LQ i D Li  RnC , and since RnC is flat (one can
obviously find a constant connection whose curvature vanishes), the Chern class of
Li is the push forward of the Chern class of LQi , by the projection Mg;n  RnC !
Mg;n .
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 265

Our goal now, is to compute intersection numbers, i.e. integrals of Chern

classes.
Remember that we have defined Intersection numbers in Definition 6.2.1
above:
(R
k1 Mg;n c1 .L1 /k1 : : : c1 .Ln /kn if k1 C    C kn D dg;n
< 1 : : : n >g;n WD
kn
0 if k1 C    C kn dg;n :

And very often, one uses Wittens notation:

k1
< k1 : : : kn >g WD< 1 ::: kn
n >g;n :

In Wittens notation, the index n is not needed, it is encoded as the number of

factors.

6.3.4 Computing Intersection Numbers

Consider the differential form on Mg;n  RnC :

!dg;n
X
n
D L2i i ^ dL1 ^ dL2 ^    ^ dLn :
iD1

P
Since i L2i i is a 2-form,  is of order 2dg;n C n D 3.2g  2 C n/ D dimR Mg;n 
RnC , i.e. it is a top dimensional form on Mg;n  RnC .
Q
Since d Llei D dlLie  le dL
L2
i
and since we multiply by i dLi and dLi ^ dLi D 0, we
i
may drop the le dL L2i
i
term and replace d Llei by L1i dle in the product, i.e. replace L2i i
P
by e0 <e ; in face i dle ^ dle0 , and thus, in each cell given by a ribbon graph, we have
0 1dg;n
X X Y
D@ dle ^ dle0 A dLi
i e0 <e ; in face i i

so that  is a top-dimensional volume form on Mg;n  RnC , and has constant

coefficients in the coordinates le . Therefore, up to a proportionality factor we have:
Y
/ dle :
eDedges

The proportionality factor was computed by Kontsevich [57] (and it is really the
hard part of Kontsevichs computation, see also [21]), and it turns out that it doesnt
depend on the graph, it depends only on g and n.
266 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

Theorem 6.3.4 (Kontsevich 1991)

!dg;n
Y 2g;n dg;n X
n Y
n
dle D L2i i dLi ;
eDedges
dg;n iD1 iD1

where

g;n D 2  2g  n ; dg;n D 3g  3 C n:

Example: for M0;3 , we have 0;3 D 1 and d0;3 D 0, and we have three edge
lengths l1 ; l2 ; l3 .

0 1
0 1

In the first graph we have L0 D l1 C l2 , L1 D l2 C l3 and L1 D l1 C l3 , and thus:

 D dL0 ^ dL1 ^ dL1 D .dl1 C dl2 / ^ .dl2 C dl3 / ^ .dl1 C dl3 / D 2 dl1 ^ dl2 ^ dl3

and for the second graph we have L0 D l1 , L1 D l2 , L1 D l1 C l2 C 2l3 and thus

 D dL0 ^ dL1 ^ dL1 D dl1 ^ dl2 ^ .dl1 C dl2 C 2dl3 / D 2 dl1 ^ dl2 ^ dl3 :

In both cases we get the same factor 2 D 2d0;3 0;3 .

6.3.4.1 Compactification

The Strebel foliation we have described, exists only in Mg;n . However, intersection
numbers should be computed on its compactification M N g;n , and one needs to see
how the Strebel differentials behave at the boundaries of Mg;n .
In Kontsevichs work, this question was ignored, and some have argued that
it was a hole in the proof of Wittens conjecture. Other proofs not using Strebel
differentials have later been found, in particular Okounkov and Pandaripande [69
71], or Looijenga [62], and also, the continuation of Strebels differentials to the
boundary of Mg;n have been studied by [89], and it was proved that Kontsevichs
argument can indeed be made rigorous.
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 267

Here, in this book, we shall work with the same level of rigor as Kontsevich, we
leave to the motivated reader to check that all the computations extend nicely to the
boundary as in [89].
The boundary of Mg;n  RnC , corresponds to ribbon graphs, withQsome edge
lengths vanishing, or some edge lengths going to 1. The volume form dle is well
behaved at vanishing lengths, but is not integrable at large lengths. In other words
6g6C3n
we face the problem that RC is not compact.
One way Kontsevich used to circumvent that difficulty, is to compute Laplace
transforms, i.e. we shall integrate

Y
n Y
ei Li dle
iD1 e

with Re i > 0, and thus the integral converges also at large lengths, even though
we integrate over a non-compact space. In some (heuristic) sense, using the Laplace
transform allows us to ignore the boundary.

6.3.5 Generating Function for Intersection Numbers

In order to compute intersection numbers, we introduce a generating function

through Laplace transform in the Li s:

Ag;n .1 ; : : : ; n /
Z 1 Z 1 Z X
1
D dL1 e1 L1 : : : dLn en Ln . L2i i/
dg;n
dg;n 0 0 Mg;n i

X Z Z
1
L2d1 1 L1
1 e
1
L2dn n Ln
n e d1
D dL1 ::: dLn < 1 ::: dn
>g;n
d1 CCdn Ddg;n 0 d1 0 dn n

X .2d1 / .2dn / d1
D ::: < 1 ::: dn
>g;n :
d1 2d1 C1
dn 2dn C1 n
d1 CCdn Ddg;n 1 n

or using Wittens notations d

i D d ,

X .2d1 / .2dn /
Ag;n .1 ; : : : ; n / D ::: < d1 : : : dn >g :
d1 CCdn Ddg;n d1 2d
1
1 C1
dn 2d
n
n C1
268 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

From the preceding section, we can rewrite it as:

X Z Y Y
n
dg;n g;n 1
Ag;n .1 ; : : : ; n / D 2 dle ei Li :
ribbon graphs
#Aut eDedges iD1

Since every edge e borders two (possibly not distinct) faces:

e D .i; j/

we have that:
X X
i Li D .i C j /l.i;j/
faces i edges .i;j/

and thus:
X Y Z 1
dg;n g;n 1 P
Ag;n .1 ; : : : ; n / D 2 dl.i;j/ e .i;j/ .i Cj /l.i;j/
#Aut
ribbon graphs .i;j/Dedges 0
X 1 Y 1
D 2dg;n g;n
#Aut i C j
ribbon graphs .i;j/Dedges

where the sum is over all ribbon graphs of genus

Q g with n faces, and to each face is
associated a variable i . Notice that 2dg;n D i 2di , and

.2d/
D .2d  1/;
2d d
this gives:
Theorem 6.3.5 (Kontsevich) The generating function of intersection numbers can
be computed as a weighted sum of graphs:
X .2d1  1/ .2dn  1/
2dg;n Ag;n .1 ; : : : ; n / D ::: < d1 : : : dn >g
d1 C:::Cdn Ddg;n 2d
1
1 C1
2d
n
n C1

X 1 Y 1
D 2g;n
#Aut i C j
ribbon graphs .i;j/Dedges

where the sum is over all labeled ribbon graphs of genus g with n faces, and to the
ith face is associated the variable i .
Remark 6.3.1 Remark that the two expressions in the right hand side, are rational
functions of the i s. In the first line, we have poles only at i D 0, whereas in the
second line each term has poles at i D j . There are terms such that i D j, so the
second line also has poles at i D 0. What is remarkable, is that after performing
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 269

the summation over all graphs, all poles at i D j with i j should cancel. This
is very non trivial from the graph point of view.
Example:
For M0;3 , we have four different Strebel graphs, three graphs where one of
perimeters is larger that the sum of the two others Li  Lj C Lk , and one graph
where the three triangular inequalities are satisfied Li  Lj C Lk .

This gives:

1 1 1
A0;3 .0 ; 1 ; 1 / D C
2 .0 C 1 /.1 C 1 /.1 C 0 / 20 .0 C 1 /.0 C 1 /
1 1
C C
21 .1 C 0 /.1 C 1 / 21 .1 C 0 /.1 C 1 /
1
D
2 0 1 1

i.e. the intersection number

< 0 0 0 >0 D 1:

We could have found this result easily, knowing that M0;3 D fpointg and
0
i D 1.
For M1;1 , there is only one Strebel graph, it is an hexagon with opposite sides
identified, it has a Z6 rotation symmetry and thus a symmetry factor of 6.
270 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

It has only one face with label 1 , and three edges whose weight is 1=21, this
gives:

1 1 1
A1;1 .1 / D < 1 > 1
4 2 31
1 1
D
6 .21 /3

this yields the intersection number

1
< 1 > 1 D :
24

6.3.6 Generating Function and Kontsevich Integral

Kontsevichs theorem gives a sum of graphs, where each graph is weighted by its
symmetry factor and by a product of edge weights. This is typically the kind of
graphs obtained from Wicks theorem, and therefore, exactly like in Chap. 2 of this
book, it can be obtained with a Gaussian Hermitian matrix measure, namely:
2
d0 .M/ D eN Tr M dM ; D diag.1 ; : : : ; N /:

Indeed, writing the quadratic form

1X
tr M 2 D .i C j /Mi;j Mj;i ;
2 i;j

Wicks theorem says that the propagator is:

1 1
< Mi;j Mk;l >d0 D i;l j;k :
i C j N

The trivalent ribbon graphs are generated by a cubic formal matrix integral
Z
1 M3
ZKontsevich D R d0 .M/ eN Tr 3
d0 .M/ formal

with the normalization factor

Z Y
2
d0 .M/ D .=N/N =2 .i C j /1=2 :
i;j
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 271

Exactly like in Chap. 2, Wicks theorem decomposition of ZKontsevich , is the sum

over all trivalent ribbon graphs. Each face f carries a matrix index af 2 1; : : : ; N
where N is the size of the matrix. We thus have
X 1 X X 1 Y 1
ZKontsevich D N #vertex#edges
n ribbon graphs; a1 ;:::;an
#Aut .ai C aj /
n .i;j/Dedges
n faces

where the faces are labeled (whence the 1=n automorphism prefactor) and ai is the
index running around the ith face. In that sum, all graphs are included, connected or
not, and with any number n of faces, and any genus g.
Like for maps, since the weights are multiplicative (the weight of a disconnected
graph is the product of weights of its connected components) the logarithm
generates only connected ribbon graphs. For a connected ribbon graph of genus
g with n faces, we have

#vertex  #edges C n D 2  2g

therefore
X 1 X X 1 Y 1
ln ZKontsevich D N 22gn :
n connected graphs; a1 ;:::;an
#Aut .ai C aj /
n .i;j/Dedges
n faces

Keeping only graphs of genus g we write (in the sense of formal power series in
powers of 1 )
1
X
ln ZKontsevich D N 22g Fg
gD0

where
X 1 X X 1 Y 1
Fg D N n
n a1 ;:::;an
#Aut .ai C aj /
n connected graphs; .i;j/Dedges
n faces; genus g

here the sum is over all labeled graphs (faces are labeled) with all possible labelings
a1 ; : : : ; an , we recognize the generating function Ag;n .a1 ; : : : ; an / introduced
earlier:
X 1 X
Fg D N n 2g;n dg;n Ag;n .a1 ; : : : ; an /:
n
n a ;:::;a 1 n
272 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

Thanks to Kontsevichs Theorem 6.3.5, we thus have

X 2g;n X X .2d1  1/ .2dn  1/
Fg D N n ::: < d1 : : : dn >g :
n
n a1 ;:::;an d1 ;:::;dn 2d
a1
1 C1
2d
an
n C1

The sum over labels ai 2 1; : : : ; N can be performed, we denote (our notation

differs slightly from Kontsevichs):

1
tj D Tr j
N
and thus:

X 2g;n X Y
n
Fg D .2di  1/ t2di C1 < d1 : : : dn >g :
n
n d1 CCdn Ddg;n iD1

Notice that for g D 0 there is no planar trivalent graph with n D 1 or n D 2 faces,

so the sum starts at n  3, for which intersection numbers are indeed defined.
So, this shows that the generating functions Fg for intersection numbers of
moduli space of genus g, coincides with the topological expansion of the Kontsevich
matrix integral:
Theorem 6.3.6 (Kontsevich) Let the Kontsevich integral
Yq Z
2 =2 2 M3
ZKontsevich ./ D i C j .=N/N dM eN Tr M eN Tr 3

i;j

be defined as a formal power series at large D diag.1 ; : : : ; N /. Then, in the

sense of formal series at large one has:
1
X
ln ZKontsevich ./ D N 22g Fg .ftk g/
gD0

where Fg .ftk g/ is the generating function of intersection numbers of genus g:

X 2g;n X Y
n
Fg .ftk g/ D .2di  1/ t2di C1 < d1 : : : dn >g ;
n
n d1 CCdn Ddg;n iD1
(6.3.1)
and where
1
tk D Tr k :
N
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 273

It is also common to write:

D 1 P1 E
Fg D 222g e 2 dD0 .2d1/ t2dC1 d
g

where the right hand side means exactly Eq. (6.3.1) afterPexpanding the exponential,
and using the fact that we can ignore the constraint di D dg;n because terms
which dont satisfy the constraint are vanishing by definition.

6.3.6.1 Renormalizing Time t1

Notice that if t1 D 0, only intersection numbers with di > 0 would contribute. In

the next sections we shall always assume t1 D 0 for simplicity. However, here, for
the sake of completeness, let us show how one can reduce t1 0 to a situation
without t1 .
When t1 0, there can be terms with di D 0. Let us say that there are l of them,
with n D l C k (there are n=kl ways of choosing l among n), and we rewrite:
X X 2g;kCl X Y
Fg D t1l .2di 1/ t2di C1 < 0l d1 : : : dk >Mg;kCl :
k l
k l d1 CCdk DlCdg;k ; di >0 i

The characteristic class 0 D .c1 .Li //0 D 1 is trivial, i.e. we dont compute the
Chern class of l marked points among the k C l marked points of a curve in Mg;kCl ,
in other words we can forget those l marked points, and reduce to an integral in
Mg;k . Intersection theory tells us that under the forgetful map, we have:
X
< 0 d1 : : : dk >Mg;kC1 D < d1 : : : dj 1 : : : dk >Mg;k ;
j

(with the convention that d D 0 for d < 0), and by an easy induction
X j
< 0l d1 : : : dk >Mg;kCl D Qk < d1 j1 : : : dk jk >Mg;k :
iD1 ji
P
i ji Dl; ji di
(6.3.2)
This implies

X 2g;k X X j
t1i
Fg D
k P 2 ji ji
k l i ji Dl
X Y
.2di C 2ji  1/ t2di C2ji C1 < d1 : : : dk >Mg;k
d1 CCdk Ddg;k ; di 0 i

X 2g;k X Y
D .2di  1/ Pt2di C1 < d1 : : : dk >Mg;k ;
k
k d1 CCdk Ddg;k i
274 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

where we have defined for every d  0:

1
X .2d C 2j  1/
Pt2dC1 D j
t1 t2dC2jC1  d;0 t1 :
jD0
.2d  1/ 2j j

We see that Pt1 0, and thus we still have terms with di D 0.

We can cure this problem, by splitting t1 into two parts:

t1 D c C Lt1 :

We write:
X X 2g;kCl X Y
Fg D Lt1l .2di  1/..1  di ;0 /t2di C1 C di ;0 c/
k l
k l d1 CCdk DlCdg;k ; di >0 i

< 1l d1 : : : dk >Mg;kCl
X 2g;k X X Lt1ji X
D
k P 2 ji ji d1 CCdk Ddg;k ; di 0
k l i ji Dl
Y
.2di C 2ji  1/ ..1  di ;0 /t2di C1 C di ;0 c/ < d1 : : : dk >Mg;k
i
X 2g;k X Y
D .2di  1/ Lt2di C1 < d1 : : : dk >Mg;k ;
k
k d1 CCdk Ddg;k ; di >0 i

where for d > 0:

1
X .2d C 2j  1/
Lt2dC1 D Lt1j t2dC2jC1 ;
jD0
.2d  1/ 2j j

and now we may chose Lt1 such that the coefficients corresponding to di D 0 vanish,
i.e. Lt1 must be solution of:
1
X .2j  1/
0D cC Lt1j t2jC1 ;
jD1
2j j

i.e., using c D t1  Lt1 :

1
X .2j  1/
Lt1 D Lt1j t2jC1 :
jD0
2j j
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 275

This equation has a unique solution (as a formal powers series of 1 as in all this
chapter), and to the first few orders it is given by:

2 6
Lt1 D t1 C t2 t5 C : : : :
2  t3 .2  t3 /3 1

Then, we also chose to define the even times (they can be chosen arbitrarily since
they dont appear in the generating function of intersection numbers) by
1
X .d C j  1/
Lt2d D Lt1j t2dC2j ;
jD0
.d  1/ j

we see that we have for any k  1:

1
X .1  k=2/ 1
Ltk D .Lt1 / j tkC2j D Tr .2  Lt1 /k=2 ;
jD0
j .1  k=2  j/ N

L
in other words, we have replaced the matrix D diag.i / with a matrix :
p
L D
2  Lt1 :

We have thus obtained that:

Theorem 6.3.7 The generating function Fg of intersection numbers

X 2g;k X Y
Fg D .2di  1/ t2di C1 < d1 : : : dk >g ;
k
k d1 CCdk Ddg;k ; di 0 i

can be rewritten without 0 terms by changing to:

p 1
L D
2  Lt1 ; Lt1 D L 1
Tr
N
i.e. the tk s to

X .1  k=2/ 1
1 L k D
8 k > 1; Ltk D Tr .Lt1 / j tkC2j ;
N jD0
j .1  k=2  j/

i.e. one has

X 2g;k X Y
Fg D .2di  1/ Lt2di C1 < d1 : : : dk >Mg;k ;
k
k d1 CCdk Ddg;k ; di >0 i
276 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

This concludes that, up to a renormalization of the i s, we can always choose:

t1 D 0:

This is what we shall most often assume in the next sections.

6.3.7 Generating Functions with Marked Points

We now assume t1 D 0. In computing Fg s, we summed over all possibilities to

mark points, i.e. we have a sum over n D 0; : : : ; 1, and we have integrated over all
possible perimeters L1 ; : : : ; Ln for the n faces of the Strebel graphs.
One may also be interested in enumerating Strebel graphs, where some faces are
marked and have fixed given perimeters, and other faces are unmarked and summed
over. This can be in principle recovered from the generating function Fg by taking
derivatives with respect to some i s.
But we find it more convenient to encode those intersection numbers into another
generating function.
Consider the following expectation value from the Kontsevich integral:
Z
1 M3
< Ma1 ;a1 Ma2 ;a2 : : : Man ;an >c D d0 .M/ eN Tr 3 Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an
ZKontsevich formal

where we assume that a1 ; : : : ; an are distinct integers between 1 and N, and the
subscript c means cumulant, for instance

< Ma1 ;a1 Ma2 ;a2 >c D< Ma1 ;a1 Ma2 ;a2 >  < Ma1 ;a1 > < Ma2 ;a2 > :

Again, Wicks theorem allows to write this expectation value as a sum of ribbon
graphs. The fact that we divide by ZKontsevich and take cumulants ensures that we get
only connected graphs, as usual when weights are multiplicative.
The only addition compared to the previous sections computation, is that we
need to add n new vertices, which are 1-valent, and which ensure that the lines
arriving on them must have given matrix index aj , with j D 1; : : : ; n.

a1 a an
2
a1 a an
2

Every ribbon graph must contain each such 1-valent vertex exactly once, and may
contain an arbitrary number of trivalent vertices, and an arbitrary number of edges.
A typical ribbon graph then looks like that:
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 277

a8
a
1 a7

a6 a3

a2

a4
a5

In this example, we have n D 2, therefore two faces contain the two 1-valent vertices
and have a fixed index a1 and a2 running around them, and the other faces, labeled
from 3 to 8, have some index aj , j > n, which can take any value in 1; : : : ; N.
We have from Wicks theorem:

< Ma1 ;a1 Ma2 ;a2 : : : Man ;an >c

X 1 X X N #tri:vertex#edges Y 1
D
k connected graphs; anC1 ;:::;anCk
#Aut .ai C aj /
k .i;j/Dedges
nCk faces

where we consider graphs with labeled faces (whence the 1=k). Each 1-valent
vertex is connected to an edge whose both sides have the same label ai , and thus
it contributes a factor
1
:
2ai

Notice that for a graph of genus g, we have

#tri:vertex C n  #edges C n C k D 2  2g:

Thus:

< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c

N n X 1 X X N 22gnk Y 1
D Qn
2n ai k #Aut .ai C aj /
connected graphs0 ; anC1 ;:::;anCk
iD1 k .i;j/Dedges
nCk faces
278 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

where graphs0 means graphs where we have shrinked the edge of the 1-valent
vertices.

a8
a
1 a7

a6 l a3

a2

a4
a5

Now, we use that

Z 1
1
D dl.i;j/ el.i;j/ .ai Caj / ;
.ai C aj / 0

and each time there is a marked point on an edge, the two half edges separated by
the marked point bear the same indices and we have a factor
Z 1 Z
1 l.i;j/
D dl.i;j/ el.i;j/ .ai Caj / d'.i;j/ :
.ai C aj /2 0 0

This shows that the product of propagators can be realized by a Laplace transform
of graphs with lengths on their edges, and some marked points around the marked
faces. l.i;j/ is the length of edge .i; j/ between face i and face j of the graph, and '.i;j/
is the distance of the marked point from the previous vertex along the edge, i.e. the
position of the marked point around the marked face.
Therefore we have:

< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c

N n X 1 X X N 22gnk
D Qn
2n ai k #Aut
connected graphs0 ; anC1 ;:::;anCk
iD1 k
nCk faces

Y Z 1 Y Z le
dl.i;j/ el.i;j/ .ai Caj / d'e
.i;j/Dedges 0 eDedges with marked point 0
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 279

N n X 1 X X N 22gnk
D Qn
2n ai k #Aut
connected graphs0 ; anC1 ;:::;anCk
iD1 k
nCk faces

Y Z 1 Y
nCk P Y Z le
dl.i;j/ e i Li ai
d'e :
.i;j/Dedges 0 iD1 eDedges with marked point 0

If we consider the subset of all graphs where the marked point is on one of the edges
along a given marked face, the integral over the position of the marked point around
a marked face can be performed, it is simply Li :
X X Z le
d'e D Li :
graphs eDedge around i 0

Therefore, we can integrate out marked points, by considering graphs with no

marked points, and with an additional Li factor for each marked face, we thus have:

< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c

N n X 1 X X N 22gnk
D Qn
2n iD1 ai k
k connected graphs; anC1 ;:::;anCk
#Aut
nCk faces

Y Z 1 Y
nCk P Y
n
dl.i;j/ e i Li ai
Li
.i;j/Dedges 0 iD1 1D1

where now, l.i;j/ refers to the length of edges without marked points.
As before, using Kontsevichs Theorem 6.3.4 we have

< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c

N n X 1 X X 2g;nCk dg;nCk N 22gnk
D Qn
2n iD1 ai k
k connected graphs; anC1 ;:::;anCk
dg;nCk #Aut
nCk faces
Z X Y
nCk P Y
n P
. L2i i /dg;nCk dLi e i Li ai
Li dLi e i Li ai

i iDnC1 iD1

N n X 1 X X X
D Qn
2n iD1 ai k
k connected graphs; anC1 ;:::;anCk d1 CCdnCk Ddg;nCk
nCk faces
Z nCk
Y Y
nCk
2g;nCk dg;nCk N 22gnk di P
i
L2di
i dLi e
 i Li ai
#Aut iD1
di iDnC1

Y
n P
L2d
i
i C1
dLi e i Li ai

iD1
280 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

XX 1 X X
D 2n N n 2g;nCk dg;nCk N 22gnk
g k
k anC1 ;:::;anCk d1 CCdnCk Ddg;nCk

Z Y
nCk Y
nCk Y
n
di .2di / .2di C 1/
di 2d i C1
di 2d i C3
i
N g;nCk
M ai ai
iD1 iDnC1 iD1
XX 1 X
D 2n N n 2g;nCk N 22gn
g k
k d1 CCdnCk Ddg;nCk

Y
nCk Y
nCk
.2di / t2di C1 Y .2di C 1/
n
< di >g 2di C3
iD1 iDnC1
2di di iD1 2 di ai
di

XX 1 X
D 2n N n 2g;nCk N 22gn
g k
k d1 CCdnCk Ddg;nCk

Y
nCk Y
nCk Y
n
.2di C 1/
< di >g .2di  1/ t2di C1 :
iD1 iDnC1 iD1 2d
ai
i C3

In fact, the relationship to intersection numbers holds only if n C k C 2g  2 > 0.

For g D 0 and n D 1; 2, we have to treat separately the first few values of k, which
have no interpretation as intersection numbers, namely:

< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c

N 1 X 1
D g;0 n;1
2a1 a a1 C a

N 2 1
Cg;0 n;2
4a1 a2 .a1 C a2 /2
XX 1 X
C2n N n 2g;nCk N 22gn
g k
k d1 CCdnCk Ddg;nCk

Y
nCk Y
nCk Y
n
.2di C 1/
< di >g .2di  1/ t2di C1 :
iD1 iDnC1 iD1 2d
ai
i C3

We thus have
Lemma 6.3.1 If a1 a2    an , the expectation values < Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c
computed with the formal Kontsevichs integral matrix measure, are the following
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 281

generating functions of intersection numbers:

XX 1 X
< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c D 2n N n 2g;nCk N 22gn
g k
k d1 CCdnCk Ddg;nCk

Y
nCk Y
nCk Y
n
.2di C 1/
< di >g .2di  1/ t2di C1
iD1 iDnC1 iD1 2d
ai
i C3

N 1 X 1
Cg;0 n;1
2a1 a a1 C a

N 2 1
Cg;0 n;2 :
4a1 a2 .a1 C a2 /2

One can also write:

X X
< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c D 2n N n 2g;n N 22gn
g d1 ;:::;dn

D 1 P
E Y
n
.2di C 1/
d1 : : : dn e 2 d .2d1/ t2dC1 d
g
iD1 2d
ai
i C3

N 1 X 1
Cg;0 n;1
2a1 a a1 C a

N 2 1
Cg;0 n;2 :
4a1 a2 .a1 C a2 /2

6.3.7.1 Kappa Classes

Cotangent bundle Chern classes i are associated to marked points on a Riemann

surface.
It is also possible to define classes for unmarked points by summing over their
moduli, somehow forgetting them. The  classes, introduced by Mumford, are
defined as the pushforward of d D d classes through the forgetful map.
Let k D k1 C k2 be a number of marked points. Let k1 Ck2 !k1 W Mg;k1 Ck2 !
Mg;k1 be the forgetful projection, which forgets k2 points. Arbarello and Cornalba
showed [6, 7, 87] that the push forward of the classes di D idi , can then be rewritten
in terms of Mumfords classes 0 ; 1 ; 2 ; : : : on Mg;k1 , by the relation:

D dO k2 C1 Y
k1 E X D Y Y
k1 E
dO 1 C1 di di
k1 C1 ::: k1 Ck2 i D Pi2c dO i i
g;k1 Ck2 g;k1
iD1  2Sk2 cDcycles of  iD1
282 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

or with Wittens notations

D Y
k1 E X D Y Y
k1 E
dO 1 C1 : : : dO k di D Pi2c dO i di :
2 C1 g;k1 Ck2 g;k1
iD1  2Sk2 cDcycles of  iD1

This relationship can be used as a definition of  classes, in terms of classes.

Examples:

Qk1 k1 C1!k1 Qk1

k2 D 1 W dC1 iD1 di ! d iD1 di

Qk1 k1 C2!k1 Qk1

k2 D 2 W dC1 d0 C1 iD1 di ! .d d0 C dCd0 / iD1 di

Qk1 k1 C3!k1

k2 D 3 W dC1 d0 C1 d00 C1 iD1 di ! .d d0 d00 C dCd0 d00 C dCd00 d0
Q1
Cd0 Cd00 d C 2 dCd0 Cd00 / kiD1 di :

In some sense it takes into account all possibilities of grouping forgotten points into
clusters.
This definition of  classes from classes can be conveniently written with
generating series, by summing over k2 , with some formal parameters sd , i.e.
P X X sd sd0 X sd sd0 sd00
e d sd dC1 D 1 sd dC1 C dC1 d0 C1  dC1 d0 C1 d00 C1 C: : :
2 6
d d;d0 0 00
d;d ;d

which become under the forgetful map:

P X 1X
 e d sd dC1 ! 1 sd d C sd sd0 .dCd0 C d d0 /
d
2 0
d;d

1 X
 sd sd0 sd00 .2dCd0 Cd00 C 3d d0 Cd00 C d d0 d00 / C : : :
6 0 00
d;d ;d
P 1
P Pd 1
P P
D e d sd d C 2 d . jD0 sj sdj /d  3 d . jCj0 Cj00 Dd sj sj0 sj00 /d C:::

i.e. by defining new times sOd as:

1 X 1 X
sOd D sd C . sj sj0 /  sj sj0 sj00 C : : :
2 0
3
jCj Dd jCj0 Cj00 Dd

we have
P P
 e d sd dC1 !e d Osd d :

More generally we have:

6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 283

P
d Otd d
LemmaP 6.3.2 The formal series of  classes e is the forgetful push forward
of e d sd dC1 , i.e.
* + * +
P Y
n P Y
n
e d Otd d di D  e d sd dC1 di
iD1 g iD1 g

iff the formal times Otd are the Schur transforms of the formal times sd , i.e. they are
related by
!
X X
Otd ud D  ln 1 C sd ud :
d d

For example:

s1 s21 s2
Ot0 D  ln .1 C s0 / ; Ot1 D ; Ot2 D  ; :::
1 C s0 2.1 C s0 /2 1 C s0

Proof By definition we have

P X .1/k X X Y
 e d sd dC1 D 1C sd1 : : : sdk Pi2c di
k1
k d1 ;:::;dk  2Sk cDcycles of 

Let us decompose the sum over permutations  2 Sk as a sum over P conjugacy

classes, indexed by partitions  D .1      m /, of weight jj D i i , i.e.
0 1
P X X .1/jj X X Y
m
B X C
 e d sd dC1 D 1C bj @ sd1 : : : sdj A :
jj
m 1 m  2 b1 ;:::;bm jD1 d1 CCdj Dbj

The size of a conjugacy class is

jj
# D Q Q
j j j #fi ; i D jg

and thus
P X X .1/jj
 e d sd dC1 D 1C Q Q
m 1 m j j j #fi ; i D jg
0 1
X Y m X
bj @ sd1 : : : sdj A
b1 ;:::;bm jD1 d1 CCdj Dbj
284 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

Since the summand is symmetric Q in all j s, we may relax the constraint

1      m , by dividing by m= j #fi ; i D jg and write:

P
0 1
P X 1 X .1/ j j X Y
m X
 e d sd dC1 D 1C Q b j @ sd1 : : : sd j A
m
m j j 1 ;:::;m b1 ;:::;bm jD1 d1 CCdj Dbj

P P P 
.1/
b b d1 CCd Db sd1 :::sd
De  

P
De b Otb b

with
0 1
X .1/ X
Otb D @ sd1 : : : sd A
 d1 CCd Db


P b
whose generating function b Otb u is as announced
X X
Otb ub D  ln .1 C sd ud /:
b d


In our case, we should chose

1
sd D  .2d C 1/ t2dC3 ;
2
that allows to rewrite Lemma 6.3.1 (remember that we chose t1 D 0):
X X
< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c D 2n N n 2g;n N 22gn
g d1 ;:::;dn

D 1 P
E Y
n
.2di C 1/
d1 : : : dn e 2 d .2dC1/ t2dC3 dC1
g
iD1 2d
ai
i C3

X X
D 2n N n 2g;n N 22gn
g d1 ;:::;dn

D P E Y
n
.2di C 1/
d1 : : : dn e d Otd d
g
iD1 2d
ai
i C3
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 285

where the times Otd s are related to the times tk s by:

X 1X
Otd ud D  ln .1  .2d C 1/t2dC3 ud /:
d
2 d

For example the first few of them are

t3
Ot0 D  ln.1  /
2
3 t5
Ot1 D
2  t3
15 t7 9 t52
Ot2 D C
2  t3 2.2  t3 /2

and so on. . .
In Theorem 6.3.9 below, we shall see how the times Otd are related to the spectral
curve through the Laplace transform.
We have thus found that:
Theorem 6.3.8 the formal expectation values < Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c with the
Kontsevich integral measure, are the generating functions for the mixed  and
intersection numbers:
X X
< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c D 2n N n 2g;n N 22gn
g d1 ;d2 ;:::;dn
* n +
Y P Y
n
.2di C 1/
di
e b Otb b
2d i C3
i
ai
iD1 Mg;n iD1

and also when n D 0

D 1P E D P E
Fg D 2g;0 e 2 d .2dC1/ t2dC3 dC1 D 2g;0 e d Otd d
g g

1
where the times Otk are related to the times tk D N
Tr k by

P
k0 Otk x
1 X
e
k
D1 .2k C 1/ t2kC3 xk :
2 k0

6.3.7.2 Simplification 0 and t3

The Mumford class k is a 2k-form on Mg;n , and in particular for k D 0, the

Mumford class 0 is a scalar 2 C, it is in fact the Euler class, up to a sign:

0 D  D 2g  2 C n:
286 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

It can thus be factored out, and we get:

Corollary 6.3.1
X X
< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c D 2n N n .2  t3 /g;n N 22gn
g d1 ;d2 ;:::;dn
* n +
Y P Y
n
.2di C 1/
di
e b>0 Otb b
2d i C3
i
ai
iD1 Mg;n iD1

where
P
k>0 Otk x
1 X
e
k
D1 .2k C 1/ t2kC3 xk :
2  t3 k>0

In particular when n D 0 we have:

Z P
Fg D .2  t3 /22g e k>0 Otk k :
Mg;0

6.3.7.3 Other Rewritings

We can rewrite this expression in many other ways. Write that

X X Z 1
.2d C 1/ 1
d
D d
dL L2dC1 eL
d
2d d 2dC2 d
2 d d
0
Z 1 X d L2d
D L dL eL
0 d
2d d
Z 1
1 2
D L dL eL e 2 L
0

and thus:
Corollary 6.3.2

< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c

2n N n X
D Qn .2  t3 /g;n N 22gn
iD1 ai g
Z 1Y
n Z Pn P
1 2
Li dLi eai Li e2 iD1 Li iC k>0 Otk k :
0 iD1 Mg;n
6.3 Parametrizing Surfaces 287

We may also write

X .2d C 1/ 1 X
d .d C 3=2/ 2
d
d
2dC3
D 2dC3
d
 .3=2/ d 
Z
2 X 1 2
D p d dC1=2 e  2d d
 d 0
Z 1
2 2 1
D p d 1=2 e 
 0 1  2
Z 1
1 1 2 1
D p d 1=2 e 2  
2 0 1

It follows the following corollary:

Corollary 6.3.3 The expectation values < Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c are the Laplace
transforms of classes 1=.1  i i /:
X
< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c D .8/n=2 N n .2  t3 /g;n N 22gn
g
Z * p +
1 Y
n
 12 i 2ai
Y
n
i P
d1 : : : dn e e b>0 Otb b :
0 1  i i
iD1 iD1 Mg;n

Remark 6.3.2 For specialists, we mention that this formula is very similar to the
famous ELSV formula (Ekedahl Lando Shapiro Wainshtein [29]). It is of the same
nature, it expresses combinatorial objects < Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c counting graphs,
in terms of Pintersection numbers, involving the classes 1=.1  i i /, as well as a
bulk class e b>0 Otb b .

6.3.7.4 Spectral Curve and Laplace Transform

P
All the expectation values in Kontsevich integral involve the class e k Otk k , where the
times Otk are computed out of the t2kC3 , i.e. out of the coefficients appearing in the
spectral curve

1X
y.z/ D z  t2kC3 z2kC1 :
2 k

P
Let us see how to express directly the generating function fO .1=u/ D k Otk u
k
from
the spectral curve.
288 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

Let the generating function of the Otk s

O 1 X
f .1=u/ D 1  ef .1=u/ D .2k C 1/ t2kC3 uk :
2 k

Then write
X
y.z/  y.z/ D 2z  t2kC3 z2kC1 :
k

Compute the Laplace transform of the spectral curve with x.z/ D z2 :

Z zD1 Z zD1
u u
y.z/ dx.z/ e 2 x.z/ D .y.z/  y.z// dx.z/ e 2 x.z/
zD1 zD0
Z 1
1 2 u=2
D .y.z/  y.z//2zdz e z
2 1
X Z 1
2 u=2
D .t2kC3  2k;0 / z2kC2 dz e z
k 1
r
2 h t3  2 X .2k C 1/ i
D C t2kC3
u u k1
ukC1
p
2 2 h i
D 3=2 1  f .1=u/
u
p
2 2 fO.1=u/
D 3=2 e :
u
It follows:
P
Theorem 6.3.9 The spectral curves class e k Otk k , is generated by the Laplace
transform of the spectral curve:
Z

P
k Otk u
k u3=2
ydx e 2 x
u
e D p
2 2

where is the steepest descent path going through the branchpoint z D 0, i.e. the
contour of equation Im x.z/ D 0, Re x.z/ > 0.
This theorem is very useful for more complicated examples of topological
recursion, and it is a hint of the deep link between mirror symmetry and Laplace
transform.
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 289

6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions

The purpose of this section is to use graph combinatorics, to derive recursion

relations among intersection numbers, and in particular the topological recursion.
Definition 6.4.1 Let Gg;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / be the set of connected ribbon graphs of genus
g, with n labeled marked faces, and with n one-valent vertices and v trivalent
vertices, and such that:
each face has a label. unmarked faces dont contain a one-valent vertex, and they
carry a label 2 f1 ; : : : ; N g,
the ith marked face contains a unique one-valent vertex, and carries the label zi .
To a graph G 2 Gg;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn /, we associate a weight:

N #unmarked faces Y 1
w.G/ D
#Aut .G/ label.i/ C label. j/
.i;j/Dedges

and we define the following formal series for weighted graphs (graded by inverse
powers of s and zs, i.e. graded by number of edges)
X N #unmarked faces Y 1
g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / D g;0 n;1 z1 C :
G2Gg;n .z1 ;:::;zn /
#Aut .G/ .i;j/Dedges
label.i/ C label. j/

For example, G0;1 .z/ contains only one type of graphs of degree 2 (i.e. with two
edges), it is made of one trivalent vertex, one one-valent vertex, two faces (one with
label z, one with a label a , two edges (one is a .z C z/ edge, the other a .z C a /
edge):

Its weight is

1 1
N 2z .z C a /

and thus contributes to the generating function as

1 X 1
0;1 .z/ D z C C O.deg  5/:
N a 2z .z C a /
290 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

Then G0;1 .z/ contains four graphs of degree 5:

whose total weight is

1 X 1 1
C
N 2 a;b .2z/3 .z C a /.z C b / .2z/2 .z C a /2 .z C b /

1 1
C C
2z .z C a /2 .z C b /.a C b / 2z .z C a /2 2a .a C b /
1 X 1
D
N2 a;b
.2z/3 a b

t12
D
8 z3

and thus:

1X 1 t2
0;1 .z/ D z C C 1 3 C O.deg  8/
N a 2z .z C a / 8z

Remark 6.4.1 Observe that the series g;n is a series whose coefficients are rational
functions of the zi s and s, and there is not a unique way of writing a rational
function, and cancellations may occur. In particular, g;n is NOT a generating series
of graphs in the combinatorial sense, it contains less information than the set of
graphs. This can be best seen on the example of 0;2 :
The lowest degree for graphs in G0;2 .z; z0 / is 4, and there is only one graph of
degree 4 (i.e. with four edges), it is made of two trivalent vertices, two one-valent
vertices, two faces (one with label z, one with a label z0 , four edges (one .z C z/
edge, one .z0 C z0 / edge, and two .z C z0 / edges):
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 291

Then, the next order consists of 19 graphs of degree 7:

1
i:e: 0;2 .z; z0 / D 4zz0 .zCz0 /2 9
1 1 P 1 >
C2 4zz0 .zCz >
P  0 /2 N a 2za .zCa / >
>
>
>
C N1 a 4zz0 .zCa /12 .zCz0 /2 2z C 1
4zz0 .zCa /2 .zCz0 /2 .z
0 C / >
>
a >
>
1 1 >
>
C 4zz0 .zC /2 .zCz0 /.z0 C /2 C 4zz0 .zC /2 .z0 C /2 2 >
>
P 
a a a a a >
>
>
>
C N1 a 4zz0 .zCa1/.zCz0 /3 2z C 4zz0 .zCa1/.zCz0 /3 2z >
>
>
=
1 1
C 4zz0 .zCa /.zCz 0 /3 .z0 C / C 4zz0 .zC /.zCz0 /2 .z0 C /2
a a a D0
1
C 4zz0 .zCa /.zCz 1 >
>
0 /3 .z0 C / C 4zz0 .zC /.zCz0 /2 .z0 C /2 >
a a a >
>
1
C 4zz0 .zCa /.zCz 1 >
>
0 /3 .z0 C / C 4zz0 .zC /.zCz0 /3 .z0 C / >
a a a >
>
C 4zz0 .zC /.zCz 1 1 >
>
0 /3 .z0 C /2z0 C 4zz0 .zC /.zCz0 /2 .z0 C /.2z0 /2 >
a a a a >
>
C 4zz0 .zC /.zCz10 /2 .z0 C /2 2z0 C 4zz0 .zC /.zCz10 /2 .z0 C /.2z0 /2 >
>
 >
>
a a a a
>
>
C 4zz0 .zCa /.zCz1
0 /3 .z0 C /2z0 C 1
0 .zC /.zCz0 /3 .z0 C /2z0
;
a 4zz a a

CO.deg  10/

and observe that the sum of weights of degree 7 graphs cancels! In other words, the
function 0;2 doesnt encode graphs of degree 7 in this example.
By construction we have:
Proposition 6.4.1 The generating functions of intersections numbers, i.e. the
expectation values of type < Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >, with a1 ; : : : ; an all distinct, with
Kontsevich integrals measure, equals the functions g;n with arguments zi D ai :
X
< Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >c D N 22gn g;n .a1 ; : : : ; an /
g
292 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

i.e., for 2  2g  n < 0

X P Y
n
.2di C 1/
g;n .a1 ; : : : ; an / D 2n 222gn < d1 : : : dn e b Otb b >g :
d1 ;:::;dn iD1 2d
ai
i C3

(6.4.1)
The purpose of defining those functions g;n , is that one can easily write Tutte
like recursion relations, which determine them.

6.4.1 Edge Removal and Tuttes Equations

Like in Chap. 1, by recursively removing edges, we get Tuttelike recursions:

Theorem 6.4.1 If n  0 and 2g  2 C .n C 1/ > 0, and J D fz1 ; : : : ; zn g, we have
the Tuttes equations:

g;0 n;0 z2 D g1;nC2 .z; z; z1 ; : : : ; zn /

X
C h;jIjC1 .z; I/ h0 ;jI 0 jC1 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 Dfz1 ;:::;zn g

1 X g;nC1 .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn /  g;nC1 .a ; z1 ; : : : ; zn /

N

N aD1 z2  2a

Xn
1 d g;n .z; z1 ; : : : ; 6 zj ; : : : ; zn /  g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn /
C :
jD1
2zj dzj z2  z2j

(6.4.2)

Proof Let us denote J D fz1 ; : : : ; zn g. Consider a graph in Gg;nC1 .z; z1 ; : : : ; zn /.

Consider its first marked face, it has label z, and it has a one-valent vertex. Attached
to the one-valent vertex is an edge, necessarily with weight 1=.z C z/, and at the end
of that edge, there is necessarily a trivalent vertex (see the figure below).
Consider the edge of this trivalent vertex, located to the right of the edge coming
from the 1-valent vertex.
If we cut that edge, several situations may occur:
the face on the other side of that edge is again the first marked face. Then we
have two possibilities:
cutting that edge disconnects the ribbon graph into two graphs, whose external
face carries the label z. The two subgraphs belong to Gh;jIjC1 .z; I/Gh0 ;jI 0 jC1 .z; I 0 /
with complementary genus h C h0 D g and complementary subsets of marked
faces I ] I 0 D J.
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 293

Also pay attention that we have added a term g;0 n;0 z within the definition of
g;nC1 .z; J/, which doesnt correspond to the weight of a graph.
The corresponding equality of generating functions is thus:
X
2zg;nC1 .z; J/ D .h;jIjC1 .z; I/ C h;0 I;; z/ .h0 ;jI 0 jC1 .z; I 0 / C h0 ;0 I 0 ;; z/
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

Cother possibilities

cutting that edge doesnt disconnect the ribbon graph, this is possible only if there
was a handle relating the subgraphs on the two sides of the edge, i.e. we diminish
the genus by one, and create two marked faces with label z, i.e. we get a graph in
Gg1;nC2 .z; z; J/.
The corresponding equality of generating functions is thus:

2zg;nC1 .z; J/ D g1;nC2 .z; z; J/ C other possibilities

on the other side of that edge, there is an unmarked face, whose label is some a
with a 2 1; N. Cutting the edge, creates a bi-labeled face with two labels z and
a , i.e. some edges have a z, followed by edges with a a . Let ci be the set of
labels of edges adjacent to this bilabeled face, so that c1 ; : : : ; cj are adjacent to
label a and cj ; : : : ; ck are adjacent to label z (notice that label cj appears twice,
because it is adjacent to the trivalent vertex).

The weight associated to all edges of that bilabeled face is:

1 Y Y
j k
1 1
:
z C a iD1 a C ci iDj z C ci

Observe the following equality of rational functions:

294 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

Qk
Lemma 6.4.1 Let F.z/ D iD1 1=.z C ci /, then we have

X
k Y
1 Y 1 F.z/  F.z0 /
D  :
jD1 1ij
z C ci jik z0 C ci z  z0

This (very simple to prove) lemma implies that, the weighted sum over all
possibilities of bi-labeling a face (i.e. the sum over j), can be recovered as a divided
difference of weighted graphs with unilabeled faces:

X 1 Y Y 1 Y 1 Y 1 
k j k k k
1 1 1
D 
jD1
z C a iD1 a C ci iDj z C ci a C z z  a iD1 z C ci iD1 a C ci

Observe that if g D 0 and n D 0, it may happen that there is no other edge, and
after removing the edge, the graph is empty. This corresponds to the degree 2 term
1 P 1
N a 2z.zCa / in 0;1 .z/.
The corresponding equality of generating functions is thus:

1 X .g;nC1 .z; J/ C g;0 n;0 z/  .g;nC1 .a ; J/ C g;0 n;0 a /

N
2zg;nC1 .z; J/ D 
N aD1 z2  2a

2z X g;0 n;0
C C other possibilities
N a 2z.z C a /

i.e. (this is the reason why we conveniently added a zg;0 n;0 term):

1 X g;nC1 .z; J/  g;nC1 .a ; J/

N
2zg;nC1 .z; J/ D  C other possibilities
N aD1 z2  2a

on the other side of that edge, there is another marked face, whose label is some
zj 2 J. We can repeat the same reasoning as for the case of an unmarked face. We
just need to add the 1-valent vertex of face zj in all possible ways, this is done by
taking a derivative.
X 1 d g;n .z; J n fzj g/  g;n .J/
2zg;nC1 .z; J/ D C other possibilities:
z 2J
2zj dzj z2  z2j
j

Finally, one has to pay attention to boundary cases, i.e. the case where after
removing the edge the graph is empty, this contributes a factor z2 for the only case
where this happens, namely g D 0 and n D 0.
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 295

In the end, the equality of generating functions is:

X
2zg;nC1 .z; J/ D h;jIjC1 .z; I/ h0 ;jI 0 jC1 .z; I 0 / C 2zg;nC1 .z; J/
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

Cg1;nC2 .z; z; J/

1 X g;nC1 .z; J/  g;nC1 .a ; J/

N

N aD1 z2  2a
X 1 d g;n .z; J n fzj g/  g;n .J/
C
z 2J
2zj dzj z2  z2j
j

g;0 n;0 z2 :

6.4.2 Disc Amplitude (Rooted Planar Strebel Graphs)

With g D 0 and n D 1, the Tuttes equation reduces to

1 X 0;1 .z/  0;1 .a /

N
z2 D 0;1 .z/2 
N aD1 z2  2a

and we must look for a solution of that equation which is a formal series of 1=z and
1= which behaves at large z; as:

1 X 1
0;1 .z/ D z C C O.deg  3/:
N a 2z.z C a /

Remark 6.4.2 (Unicity) There is a unique formal series of 1=z; 1= solution of this
Tuttes equation. This can be seen by solving the equation degree by degree, and in
fact this is related to the fact that adding edges recursively constructs all graphs in a
unique way. This is similar to the Browns 1-cut lemma of Chap. 3.
The solution (unique) can be explicitly found:
Theorem 6.4.2
p 1 X 1
0;1 .z/ D  z2  Lt1  p
N a 2L a . z2  Lt1 C L a /
296 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

L D diag.L 1 ; : : : ; L N / is the same matrix introduced in

where the diagonal matrix
Theorem 6.3.7:
p 1
L D
2  Lt1 ; Lt1 D L 1
Tr ; L D C O.1=/

N
p
and the sign of the square root is chosen such that z2  Lt1 D z C O.1=z/ at large z.
In particular, if t1 D 0, we have L D , i.e.

1X 1
0;1 .z/ D z C
N a 2z.z C a /

Proof Consider the function

1 X 1
f .z/ D z 
N a 2L a .z C L a /

we have
1 X 1 1 1 X 1
f .z/ C f .z/ D   D
N a 2L a .z C L a / 2L a .z  L a / N a z2  L 2a

and the product f .z/f .z/ is an even rational function, with only simple poles at
z D L a , and which behaves like z2 at large z. Therefore it is of the form:
X Ca
f .z/f .z/ D z2 C C C
a z2  L 2a

where C, and the Ca s are yet to be determined.

At large z we have f .z/  z  Lt1 =2z C O.1=z2 / and thus f .z/f .z/  z2 
Lt1 C O.1=z2 /, i.e. C D Lt1 . The coefficient Ca is related to the residue at the pole of
f .z/f .z/ at z D L a , i.e.

Ca 1
D Res f .z/f .z/ D f .L a /
2L a La
z! 2N L a

i.e. Ca D 1 L
N f .a /, and thus we get the equation for f .z/:
!
1 X 1 1 X f .L a /
f .z/  f .z/ D z2  Lt1 C
N a z2  L 2a N a z2  L 2a
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 297

i.e. f .z/ satisfies:

1 X f .z/  f .L a /
f .z/2  D z2 C Lt1
N a z2  L 2a

and using L 2a D 2a  Lt1 :

1 X f .z/  f .L a /
f .z/2  D z2 C Lt1 :
N a z2 C Lt1  2a
p
We thus see that f . z2  Lt1 / satisfies the same equation as 0;1 .z/, and is a power
series in powers of 1= and 1=z, which behaves at large  and z like

1 X 1
z C C :::
N a 2z.z C a /
p
therefore (using Remark 6.4.2 about unicity) we find that f . z2  Lt1 / D 0;1 .z/.
When t1 D 0, we have Lt1 D 0 and L a D a , and thus

1 X 1
0;1 .z/ D f .z/ D z 
N a 2a .z C a /
1X 1
D z C
N a 2z.z C a /

where the last equality comes from:

X 1 1 X z C a X 1 Nt1
C D D D D 0:
a
a .z C a / z.z C a / a
za .z C a / a
za z

6.4.3 Cylinder Amplitude

The Tutte equation for 0;2 reads:

1 X 0;2 .z; z0 /  0;2 .a ; z0 / 1 d 0;1 .z/  0;1 .z0 /

0 D 20;1 .z/0;2 .z; z0 /  2 2
C 0 0
N a z  a 2z dz z2  z02
298 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

and 0;2 .z; z0 / behaves like

1
0;2 .z; z0 / D C O.deg  5/:
4zz0 .zC z0 /2

Using the expression of 0;1 , rewrite the equation as:

!
0 1 X 1 1 1 X 0;2 .a ; z0 /
2z0;2 .z; z / 1 C D C
N a 2a .z2  2a / 2z0 .z C z0 /2 N a z2  2a

1 X 1 d 1
C :
N a 2z0 dz0 2a .z C a /.z0 C a /.z C z0 /

To the lowest degrees we get

1 1 X 1 1
0;2 .z; z0 / D 
4zz0 .z 0
Cz/ 2 N a 4zz .z C z / 2a .z  2a /
0 0 2 2

1 X 1
C
N a 8zz a .z C a /2 .z2  2a /
0 0

1 X 1 d 1
C
N a 4zz0 dz0 2a .z C a /.z0 C a /.z C z0 /
C:::

Theorem 6.4.3 The solution is

1
0;2 .z; z0 / D p p p p :
4 z C Lt1 z C Lt1 . z2 C Lt1 C z02 C Lt1 /2
2 02

In particular, if t1 D 0 we have

1 1 d d z2  z02
0;2 .z; z0 / D D ln :
4 zz0 .z C z0 /2 4zz0 dz dz0 z  z0

Proof One can easily check that the expression above does satisfy Tuttes equation,
with the correct highest lowest degree term, i.e. it is the unique solution. 
It is remarkable that for 0;2 , contributions of all graphs of higher degrees exactly
cancel when t1 D 0!
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 299

6.4.4 The Pair of Pants (0,3)

From now on, we shall assume

t1 D 0:

For 0;3 , the Tuttes equation is

0 D 2 0;1 .z/ 0;3 .z; z1 ; z2 / C 2 0;2 .z; z1 / 0;2 .z; z2 /

1 d 0;2 .z; z2 /  0;2 .z1 ; z2 / 1 d 0;2 .z; z1 /  0;2 .z1 ; z2 /
C 2
C
2z1 dz1 2
z  z1 2z2 dz2 z2  z22

1 X 0;3 .z; z1 ; z2 /  0;3 .a ; z1 ; z2 /

N
 :
N aD1 z2  2a

Using that 0;2 .z; z0 / D 1=4zz0 .z C z0 /2 , one computes that:

2 0;2 .z; z1 / 0;2 .z; z2 /

1 d 0;2 .z; z2 /  0;2 .z1 ; z2 / 1 d 0;2 .z; z1 /  0;2 .z1 ; z2 /
C C
2z1 dz1 z2  z21 2z2 dz2 z2  z22
1
D
8z2 z31 z32

and thus Tuttes equation for 0;3 can be rewritten

1 X 0;3 .z; z1 ; z2 /  0;3 .a ; z1 ; z2 /

N
1
0 D 2 0;1 .z/ 0;3 .z; z1 ; z2 / C 
8z2 z31 z32 N aD1 z2  2a

i.e.
!
1 X 1 X 0;3 .a ; z1 ; z2 /
N
1 1
2z 1C 0;3 .z; z1 ; z2 / D C :
N a 2a .z  2a /
2 8z2 z31 z32 N aD1 z2  2a
(6.4.3)
This equation determines uniquely 0;3 as a formal series in powers of 1 and z1
i .
For instance to leading order we have:

1
0;3 .z; z1 ; z2 / D C O.deg12 /:
16 z3 z31 z32
300 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

Proposition 6.4.2 We have:

1
0;3 .z; z1 ; z2 / D
8 .2  t3 / z3 z31 z32

Proof First, notice that Tutte equation (6.4.3) determines a unique solution which is
a formal series in powers of 1 and z1i . Therefore, if we can exhibit a solution of
Eq. (6.4.3) which is a formal series in powers of 1 and z1i , then it will be 0;3 .
One can try 0;3 in the form

0;3 .z; z1 ; z2 / D
z3 z31 z32

and insert this into Eq. (6.4.3), that gives:

1
2 D C t3
8

i.e. D 1=8.2  t3 /. 
Using Eq. (6.4.1)

1
0;3 .z1 ; z2 ; z3 / D
8 .2  t3 / z31 z32 z33
X Y 3 Y3
1 1
P
k>0 Otk k >
.2di C 1/
D .2  t3 / < di e 0
23
fd g iD1 iD1 z2d
i
i C3
i

this gives (which we already knew):

< 03 >0 D 1:

6.4.5 The Lid (1,1)

For 1;1 , the Tuttes equation is

1 X 1;1 .z/  1;1 .a /

N
0 D 2 0;1 .z/ 1;1 .z/ C 0;2 .z; z/ 
N aD1 z2  2a
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 301

and using that 0;2 .z; z0 / D 1=4zz0 .z C z0 /2

1 X 1;1 .z/  1;1 .a /

N
1
0 D 2 0;1 .z/ 1;1 .z/ C 
16 z4 N aD1 z2  2a

i.e.
!
1 X 1 X 1;1 .a /
N
1 1
2z 1C 1;1 .z/ D C
N a 2a .z2  2a / 16z4 N aD1 z2  2a

and thus to leading order:

1
1;1 .z/ D C O.deg8 /:
32 z5

Proposition 6.4.3 We have (we assume t1 D 0):

1 t5
1;1 .z/ D 5
C
16 .2  t3 / z 16 .2  t3 /2 z3

Proof It is easy to see that this expression satisfies the Tutte equation, and has
the correct leading degree behavior, therefore it is the unique solution of Tuttes
equation which is a formal series in powers of 1 and z1 . 
Using Eq. (6.4.1)

1 t5
1;1 .z/ D 5
C
16 .2  t3 / z 16 .2  t3 /2 z3
1 X P .2d C 1/
D .2  t3 /1 < d e k>0 Otk k >0
2 z2dC3
fdg

where we had Ot1 D 3t5 =.2  t3 / in Theorem 6.3.8, this gives (which we already
knew):

1
< 1 > 1 D :
24
1 3t5 1
Ot1 < 0 1 >1 D ; i:e: < 0  1 > 1 D :
24 2  t3 24
302 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

6.4.6 Stable Topologies

We have so far computed 0;1 0;2 , 1;1 and 0;3 , now we shall compute g;n for
all n > 0 and 2  2g  n < 0.
First, let us rewrite Tuttes equations Eq. (6.4.2) for 2  2g  n < 0 as (with
J D fz1 ; : : : ; zn g):
!
1X 1
2z 1C g;nC1 .z; J/
N a 2a .z  2a /
2

D g1;nC2 .z; z; J/
X
stable
C h;jIjC1 .z; I/ h0 ;jI 0 jC1 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

1 X g;nC1 .a ; J/
N
C
N aD1 z2  2a
X
C2 0;2 .z; zj / g;n .z; J n fzj g/
zj 2J

X 1 d g;n .z; J n fzj g/  g;n .J/

C
z 2J
2zj dzj z2  z2j
j

(6.4.4)

which shows that there is a unique solution which is a formal large ; z power
series. In fact, since Tuttes equation is a recursion on the number of edges, which
expresses the generating function of graphs with n edges in terms of those with n 1
edges, it necessarily determines uniquely all the generating functions.
Lemma 6.4.2 (Symmetry) If n > 0 and 2  2g  n < 0, the functions g;n are
odd:

g;n .z; z2 ; : : : ; zn / D  g;n .z; z2 ; : : : ; zn /

Proof We know that it is true for 0;3 and 1;1 , i.e. for 2g C n  2 D 1. We shall
proceed by recursion.
Assume that it is already proved for all .g0 ; n0 / such that 0 < 2g0 C n0  2 
2g C n  2, we shall prove it for .g; n C 1/.
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 303

Rewrite Eq. (6.4.4) as

!
1X 1
2z 1C g;nC1 .z; J/
N a 2a .z  2a /
2

D g1;nC2 .z; z; J/
X
stable
C h;jIjC1 .z; I/ h0 ;jI 0 jC1 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

1 X g;nC1 .a ; J/
N
C
N aD1 z2  2a

X z2 C z2j
C g;n .z; J n fzj g/
zj 2J
2zzj .z2  z2j /2
X 1 d g;n .J/

z 2J
2zj dzj z2  z2j
j

P
where in the RHS, the symbol stable means that we sum only over .h; h0 ; I; I 0 / such
that 2  2h  jIj < 0 and 2  2h0  jI 0 j < 0. In particular, by recursion hypothesis,
all terms in the RHS are even functions of z, and thus g;nC1 is odd. 
Before going further, let us define:
Definition 6.4.2 We define:

Y
n 
g;0 n;2
!g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / D 2 n
zi g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / C 2
iD1
.z1  z22 /2

and

1X
N
1
y.z/ D 0;1 .z/ D z C
N aD1 2a .z  a /

and

x.z/ D z2 :

For example we have:

1 X 1
N
!0;1 .z/ D 2z2 C D 2z y.z/
N aD1 z C a
1
!0;2 .z1 ; z2 / D
.z1  z2 /2
304 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

1
!0;3 .z1 ; z2 ; z3 / D
.2  t3 / z21 z22 z23
1 t5
!1;1 .z/ D 4
C
8.2  t3 / z 8.2  t3 /2 z2

Proposition 6.4.4 Using the symmetry lemma, Tuttes equation (6.4.2) for 2g  2 C
n > 1 becomes:
0
X
0 D !g1;nC2 .z; z; J/ C !h;jIjC1 .z; I/ !h0 ;jI 0 jC1 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

C2z.y.z/  y.z// !g;nC1 .z; J/

4z2 X !g;nC1 .a ; J/ X d !g;n .J/

N
2
C  2z : (6.4.5)
N aD1 2a .z2  2a / z 2J
dzj zj .z2  z2j /
j

Proof When 2g  2 C n > 0, the left hand side of Tuttes equation is vanishing, and
Tuttes equation (6.4.2) is:
X
0 D g1;nC2 .z; z; J/ C h;jIjC1 .z; I/ h0 ;jI 0 jC1 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

1 X g;nC1 .z; J/  g;nC1 .a ; J/

N

N aD1 z2  2a
X 1 d g;n .z; J n fzj g/  g;n .J/
C
z 2J
2zj dzj z2  z2j
j

Q
after multiplying by 4z2 i .2zi / we get:
X
0 D !g1;nC2 .z; z; J/ C !h;jIjC1 .z; I/ !h0 ;jI 0 jC1 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

2z X !g;nC1 .z; J/  a !g;nC1 .a ; J/

N z

N aD1 z2  2a

X d !g;n .z; J n fzj g/  z

zj
!g;n .J/
C2z
z 2J
dzj z2  z2j
j

X 4zzj
2 !g;n .z; J n fzj g/:
zj 2J
.z2  z2j /2
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 305

In this equation, all !h;m with .h; m/ .0; 1/; .0; 2/ are even and z can be changed
to z. Only the factors containing !0;1 or !0;2 require some attention.
The factors containing !g;nC1 come with !0;1 , they are:

2z X !g;nC1 .z; J/  a !g;nC1 .a ; J/

N z
2!0;1 .z/ !g;nC1 .z; J/ 
N aD1 z2  2a

which we would like to compare with

4z2 X !g;nC1 .a ; J/

N
!0;1 .z/ !g;nC1 .z; J/ C !0;1 .z/ !g;nC1 .z; J/ C :
N aD1 2a .z2  2a /

The difference is

2z X !g;nC1 .z; J/
N
2!0;1 .z/ !g;nC1 .z; J/ 
N aD1 z2  2a

!0;1 .z/ !g;nC1 .z; J/  !0;1 .z/ !g;nC1 .z; J/

!
2z X
N
1
D !0;1 .z/  !0;1 .z/  !g;nC1 .z; J/
N aD1 z2  2a
D 0:

We also need to compare terms involving !0;2 , i.e. factors of !g;n . We thus need
to compare

X d !g;n .z; J n fzj g/  !g;n .J/

z
zj
2!0;2 .z; zj /!g;n .z; J n fzj g/ C 2z
z 2J
dzj z2  z2j
j

8zzj
 !g;n .z; J n fzj g/
.z2  z2j /2

with
X X d !g;n .J/
!0;2 .z; zj /!g;n .z; Jnfzj g/C!0;2 .z; zj /!g;n .z; Jnfzj g/2z2 :
z 2J z 2J
dzj zj .z2  z2j /
j j

The difference is
!
X d 1 8zzj
!0;2 .z; zj /  !0;2 .z; zj // C 2z  2 !g;n .z; J nfzj g/ D 0:
zj 2J
dzj z2  z2j .z  z2j /2

This concludes the proof. 

306 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

Theorem 6.4.4 For any n > 0 and 2g  2 C n > 0, we have that !g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / is
an even rational function of the zi s, with poles only at zi D 0, and which satisfies
the topological recursion:
h
!g;nC1 .z0 ; J/ D Res K.z0 ; z/ dz !g1;nC2 .z; z; J/
z!0
0
X i
C !h;1C#I .EQK I z; I/ !gh;1Cn#I .EQK I z; J n I/
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

(6.4.6)
P
where 0 means that .h; I/ D .0; ;/ and .h; I/ D .g; J/ are excluded from the sum,
where K is the kernel
Rz 0
z0 Dz !0;2 .z0 ; z /
K.z0 ; z/ WD 
2.y.z/  y.z// x0 .z/

and y.z/ is the formal power series in powers of :

1
1X 1X
N
1
y.z/ D z C Dz tkC2 zk ; x.z/ D z2
N aD1 2a .z  a / 2 kD0

and we have:
* n +
X Y P Y
n
.2di C 1/
!g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / D .2  t3 / 22gn
di e k>0 Otk k

fdi g iD1 g iD1

z2d
i
i C2

Proof The proof proceeds more or less like in Chap. 3. We shall replace the 1-cut
Browns lemma by the following observation:
Tutte equations have a unique solution which is a formal power series in inverse
powers of and zi z. Therefore, exhibiting a solution is enough to claim that it is
the solution.
We proceed by recursion. The theorem holds true for !0;3 and !1;1 . Choose .g; n/
such that 2g  2 C n > 0, and define !O g;nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn / as the right hand side of
Eq. (6.4.6) with J D fz1 ; : : : ; zn g:
h
!O g;nC1 .z0 ; J/ D Res K.z0 ; z/ dz !g1;nC2 .z; z; J/
z!0
0
X i
C !h;1C#I .EQK I z; I/ !gh;1Cn#I .EQK I z; J n I/
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 307

with
1
K.z0 ; z/ D :
2 .z20  z2 / .y.z/  y.z//

By recursion hypothesis, we see that !O g;nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn / is an even rational

function of the zi s with i  1, and with poles only at zi D 0. It is also an even
function of z0 because K.z0 ; z/ is, and since K.z0 ; z/ has a pole at z20 D z2 , it can
diverge only if z0 or z0 pinches the integration contour for z, i.e. only if z0 ! 0.
At z0 ! 0, the singularity is a pole, so that !O g;nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn / is an even rational
function of z0 with poles only at z0 D 0.
Moreover, !O g;nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn / is clearly a power series in inverse powers of
and of the zi s.
It remains to prove that it satisfies Tuttes equation, i.e. Eq. (6.4.4).
Consider the following even function of z:

0
X
f .z/ D !g1;nC2 .z; z; J/ C !h;jIjC1 .z; I/ !h0 ;jI 0 jC1 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

C2z.y.z/  y.z// !O g;nC1 .z; J/

4z2 X !O g;nC1 .a ; J/ X d !g;n .J/

N
2
C  2z
N aD1 2a .z2  2a / z 2J
dzj zj .z2  z2j /
j

We have f .z/ D f .z/. It seems that f .z/ may have poles at z D a , z D zi and
z D 0. The only possible poles at z D a are simple poles and their residue is

4z2 X !O g;nC1 .a ; J/

N
Res f .z/ D Res 2zy.z/ !O g;nC1 .z; J/ C
z!a z!a N aD1 2a .z2  2a /

1 42 !O g;nC1 .a ; J/

D !O g;nC1 .a ; J/ C a
N N 42a
D 0;

i.e. f .z/ has no pole at z D a , and since f .z/ D f .z/ it also has no pole at z D a .
The only possible pole of f .z/ at z D zj are at most double poles and

d !g;n .J/
f .z/ z!zj !0;2 .z; zj / !g;n .z; J n fzj g/  2z2 C O.1/
dzj zj .z2  z2j /
d  1 !g;n .J/ 
z!zj !g;n .z; J n fzj g/  2z2 C O.1/
dzj .z  zj / zj .z2  z2j /
308 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

d 1  !g;n .J/ 
z!zj !g;n .z; J n fzj g/  2z2 C O.1/
dzj .z  zj / zj .z C zj /
z!zj O.1/

i.e. there is no pole at z D zj .

For the pole at z D 0, let us compute Res z!0 K.z0 ; z/ f .z/, for that notice that
the definition of !O g;nC1 amounts to:

!O g;nC1 .z0 ; J/ D Res K.z0 ; z/ f .z/  2z.y.z/  y.z//!O g;nC1 .z; J/
z!0

4z2 X !O g;nC1 .a ; J/

N X d !g;n .J/ 
2
 C 2z
N aD1 2a .z2  2a / z 2J
dzj zj .z2  z2j /
j

and the last two terms have no pole at z D 0 so dont contribute to the residue. This
implies that

Res K.z0 ; z/ f .z/ D !O g;nC1 .z0 ; J/  Res K.z0 ; z/ 2z.y.z/  y.z// !O g;nC1 .z; J/
z!0 z!0
z
D !O g;nC1 .z0 ; J/  Res !O g;nC1 .z; J/:
z!0 .z2  z2 /
0

In the last term, !O g;nC1 .z; J/ is a rational function of z whose only poles are at z D 0,
and thus we can move the integration contour:

Res K.z0 ; z/ f .z/ D !O g;nC1 .z0 ; J/

z!0
z z
C Res !O g;nC1 .z; J/ C Res 2 !O g;nC1 .z; J/
z!z0 .z20  z2 / z!z0 .z  z2 /
0

which implies

8 z0 ; Res K.z0 ; z/ f .z/ D 0

z!0

The fact that this residue vanishes for every z0 , means (by expanding around
z0 D 1), that f .z/ must have no pole at z D 0.
Finally, we have found that f .z/ is a rational function with no pole at all, it must
be a constant, and it vanishes at z ! 1, so that:

f .z/ D 0:
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 309

This implies that !O g;nC1 satisfies the Tuttes equation. And since !O g;nC1 .z0 ; z1 ;
: : : ; zn / is a power series in inverse powers of and of the zi s, we must have

!O g;nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn / D !g;nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn /:

Then, since we now know that !g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / is a rational function of the zi s
with poles only at zi D 0, we can say that Proposition 6.4.1 holds not only at zi D
ai , but holds for every zi .
This concludes our proof. 
Remark 6.4.3 It is quite remarkable, that !g;n which is a sum of graphs weighted
with denominators of the form 1=.zi C a / or 1=.zi C zj /, ends up having no pole at
zi D a or at zi D zj , and eventually it has poles only at zi D 0.
This shows that there are lots of cancellations among graphs. This also means that
!g;n is not a proper generating function of graphs, it is only a sum of weighted
graphs, but it looses information about the graphs, it does not even encode the
number of graphs.
However, !g;n is a good generating function of intersection numbers, it encodes
them completely without any loss of information, it was in fact designed for that
purpose.

6.4.7 Topological Recursion for Intersection Numbers

The topological recursion translates for intersection numbers (by expanding at

a s! 1) into:
D E
.2d0 C 1/ d0 d1 : : : dn
g

1 X hD E
D .2d C 1/.2d0 C 1/ d d0 d1 : : : dn
2 g1
dCd 0 Dd0 2

X
stable D Y E D Y E i
C d di d 0 di
h gh
hCh0 Dg; ItI 0 Df1;:::;ng i2I i2I 0

X .2dj C 2d0  1/ D Y E
n
C d0 Cdj 1 di :
jD1
.2dj  1/ g
ij

Remark 6.4.4 Those equations can be interpreted as a set of Virasoro constraint, as

in Sect. 2.6 in Chap. 2. We shall not elaborate on this, and refer the interested reader
to the works of [67].
310 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

6.4.8 Examples

We assume t1 D 0. Let us show application of Theorem 6.4.4 for the first few values
of n and g:
We have
1
K.z0 ; z/ D
2.z20  z2 / .y.z/
 y.z//
 
1 z2 z4 6
D 1 C 2 C 4 C O.z /
2z.2  t3 / z20 z0 z0
 2 
t5 z t7 z4 t2 z4
1C C C 5 C O.z6
/
2  t3 2  t3 .2  t3 /2

Theorem 6.4.4 easily gives

1 1
!0;3 .z1 ; z2 ; z3 / D
2  t3 z21 z22 z23
 
1 1 t5
!1;1 .z/ D C
8.2  t3 / z4 .2  t3 / z2
!
1 3t5 X 1
!0;4 .z1 ; z2 ; z3 ; z4 / D C3
.2  t3 / z21 z22 z23 z24
2 2  t3 i
z2i

dz1 dz2 h
!1;2 .z1 ; z2 / D .2  t3 /2 .5z41 C 5z42 C 3z21 z22 /
8.2  t3 / z61 z62
i
C6t52 z41 z42 C .2  t3 /.6t5 z41 z22 C 6t5 z21 z42 C 5t7 z41 z42 /

dz h
!2;1 .z/ D  7 10
252t54 z8 C 12t52 z6 .2  t3 /.50t7 z2 C 21t5 /
128.2  t3 / z
Cz4 .2  t3 /2 .252t52 C 348t5 t7 z2 C 145t72 z4 C 308t3 t9 z4 /
i
Cz2 .2  t3 /.203t5 C 145z2 t7 C 105z4 t9 C 105z6 t11 / C 105.2  t3 /4 :

The topological recursion for computing the !g;n s can easily be implemented on
a computer, and gives tables of intersection numbers. For the lowest values of g and
n we get:
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 311

nD 3 4 5 6
< 03 >0 D 1 < 03 1 >0 D 1 < 04 2 >0 D 1 < 05 3 >0 D 1
< 03 12 >0 D 2 < 04 1 2 >0 D 3
< 03 13 >0 D 6
< 04 1 >0 D 1 < 05 2 >0 D 1 < 06 3 >0 D 1
Genus 0 W < 04 1 1 >0 D 3 < 06 1 2 >0 D 9
0s < 05 12 >0 D 5 < 06 13 >0 D 61
< 05 1 2 >0 D 4
< 05 1 12 >0 D 26
< 05 2 1 >0 D 6
< 04 12 1 >0 D 12

In fact for genus zero, all intersection numbers are known by a general formula:

Y
n
.n  3/
< di >0 D Q :
iD1 i di

Genus 1:

nD 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
< 1 > 1 D 24
< 0 2 >1 D 24 < 02 3 >1 D 24 < 03 4 >1 D 24
1 1
< 12 >1 D 24 < 0 1 2 >1 D 12 < 02 1 3 >1 D 18
1
3
< 1 >1 D 12 < 02 22 >1 D 16
< 0 12 2 >1 D 14
< 14 >1 D 14
1 1 1 1
< 0  1 > 1 D 24 < 02 2 >1 D 24 < 03 3 >1 D 24 < 04 4 >1 D 24
< 0 1 >1 D 8 < 0 1 2 >1 D 14
2 2 1 3 4
< 0 1 3 >1 D 12 5
1
< 0 1 1 >1 D 12 < 03 13 >1 D 76 4 2
< 0 2 >1 D 24 13

< 02 1 2 >1 D 18 < 04 12 2 >1 D 83

24
< 02 1 12 >1 D 13
24
< 04 14 >1 D 529
24
< 02 2 1 >1 D 16 < 03 1 3 >1 D 16
< 0 12 1 >1 D 14 < 03 1 1 2 >1 D 3124
 0s < 03 1 13 >1 D 187
24
7
< 03 2 2 >1 D 24
3 2 41
< 0 2 1 >1 D 24
7
< 03 3 1 >1 D 24
< 02 12 2 >1 D 12
< 02 12 12 >1 D 176
< 02 1 2 1 >1 D 23
< 0 13 1 >1 D 1
312 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

In fact for genus 1, all intersection numbers are known by a general formula:

Y
n
n
< di >1 D Q :
iD1
24 i di

nD 1 2 3
1 1 2 1
< 4 > 2 D 1152
< 0 5 >2 D 1152 < 0 6 >2 D 1152
1 1
< 1 4 >2 D 384 < 0 1 5 >2 D 288
29 11
< 2 3 >2 D 5760 < 0 2 4 >2 D 1440
Genus 2 W 1
< 12 4 >2 D 96
29
< 0 32 >2 D 2880
29
< 1 2 3 >2 D 1440
3 7
< 2 >2 D 240

nD 1 2 3
1 1 25889
< 7 > 3 D 82944 < 0 8 >3 D 82944 < 02 9 >3 D 19155502080
5 1597
< 1 7 >3 D 82944 < 0 1 8 >3 D 100818432
77 12097
< 2 6 >3 D 414720 < 0 2 7 >3 D 148262400
503 721
< 3 5 >3 D 1451520 < 12 7 >3 D 5930496
607 32269
< 42 >3 D 1451520 < 0 3 6 >3 D 138378240
Genus 3 W 49
< 1 2 6 >3 D 99840
373
< 0 4 5 >3 D 887040
9059
< 1 3 5 >3 D 7983360
923
< 22 5 >3 D 570240
2 1201
< 1 4 >3 D 725760
443
< 2 3 4 >3 D 145152
3 317
< 3 >3 D 69120

6.4.9 Computation of Fg D !g;0

The previous theorem computes !g;n with n  1. It remains to compute Fg D !g;0

given by
D P E
Fg D .2  t3 /22g e k>0 Otk k :
g

Theorem 6.4.5 Fg is determined by

!
@ Fg 1 X 1
D !g;1 .a / C g;0 22a C :
@a N b a C b

and by the fact that it vanishes at large .

6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 313

More generally we have:

!
@ !g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / 1 X 1
D !g;nC1 .a ; z1 ; : : : ; zn / C g;0 n;0 22a C :
@a N b a C b

Proof We have:
*nCk +
X 1 X Y Y
nCk
n g;nCk
!g;n D .1/ N n
2 di .2di  1/t2di C1
k d
k 1 CCdnCk Ddg;nCk iD1 g iDnC1

Y
n
.2di C 1/
iD1 z2d
i
i C2

1 P
Then notice that td D N a d
a satisfies

@td d
N D dC2
a @a a

that immediately gives

@!g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn /  1 X 1 
D  !g;nC1 .a ; z1 ; : : : ; zn //  g;0 n;0 .22a C /
@a N b a C b


Remark 6.4.5 (Heuristic Derivation from the Matrix Integral) Observe from Theo-
rem 6.3.6, that Kontsevichs integral
Yq Z
Q3
ZKontsevich ./ D
2
i C j .=N/N =2 Q eN Tr 2 MQ eN Tr M3
dM
i;j

is such that:
1 d ln ZKontsevich 1X 1
D 2a < Ma;a > C
N da N b a C b

and thus, using that

X X 1
< Ma;a >D N 12g .g;1 .a / C g;0 a / D Na C N 12g !g;1 .a /
g g
2a
314 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

we get that
!
@ Fg 1 X 1
D !g;1 .a / C g;0 22a C :
@a N b a C b

Before going further, observe that most often, the solution of Tutte equations
involve Ltd instead of td , and they reduce to td only
P when t1 D 0, thus most often
we like to work with the constraint t1 D 0 D a 1=a , but then the a s are not
independent, so it is better to work with t1 0, and come back to L a s. So we shall
first need the lemma:
Lemma 6.4.3 for k 0

N @Ltk LtkC2 1
D 
k a @a L
.Lt3  2/ a a
3 L kC2
!
@L b 1
L b D a a;b  :
@a N .Lt3  2/ L 3a

In particular when we take t1 D 0 after evaluating the derivative:

N @Ltk tkC2 1
D 3
 kC2 :
k a @a t1 D0 .t3  2/ a a

Proof From L 2b D 2b  Lt1 we have

@L b @Lt1
2L b C D 2a;b a ;
@a @a

then multiplying by L k
b and summing over b gives

2 @Ltk2 @Lt1 2 a
C Ltk D :
2  k @a @a N L ka
In particular with k D 3 we get:

@Lt1 2 a
D
@a N .Lt3  2/ L 3a
and thus
!
@Ltk2 a a
D .k  2/ Ltk 
@a N .Lt3  2/ L 3a N L ka


6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 315

Theorem 6.4.6 (Genus 1)

1
F1 D ln .1  t3 =2/
24
Proof Recall that
 
1 1 t5
!1;1 .z/ D  4
C :
8.2  t3 / z .2  t3 / z2

Using Lemma 6.4.3 we have

 
@t3 3 t5 1
D  D 24 .2  t3 / !1;1 .a /:
@a N .t3  2/2a 4a

1
This shows that F1  24 ln .1  t3 =2/ is a constant independent of , which is 0
because F1 is a sum of weighted graphs whose weight goes to zero as ! 1, i.e.
as t3 ! 0. 
Theorem 6.4.7 (Genus 0) When t1 is arbitrary
!
1 1 X L i C L j 2
F0 D  2 ln C .Lt3  t3 / C Lt1 Lt1
N 2N i;j i C j 3

And in particular, if t1 D 0 we find

F0 D 0:

Proof Recall that

p 1X z
!0;1 .z/ D 2z0;1 .z/ D 2z z2  Lt1  p :
N j L j . z2  Lt1 C L j /

i.e. we want to solve

@F0 1 X 1 1
D 2.L a  a / C C
a @a N j L j .L a C L j / a .a C j /

Recall from Lemma 6.4.3:

!
@L b 1
L b D a a;b  :
@a N .Lt3  2/ L 3a
316 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

This gives

@ X X 1 @L i
ln .L i C L j / D 2
2a @a i;j L L 2a @a
i;j i C j
!
X 1 1 1
D2 a;i C
Li C L j 2L i N.2  Lt3 /L 3a
i;j
X 1 1
D
La C L j L a
j
!
X 1 1 1 1
C C
i;j L i C L j 2L i 2L j N.2  Lt3 /L 3a
X 1 1 N 2 Lt12 1
D C
j L a C L j L a 2 N.2  Lt3 /L 3a

N Lt1 X 1 1 N 2 Lt12 1
D  C :
La La C L j L j 2 N.2  Lt3 /L 3a
j

This implies that

0 !1
@ @ 1 X L i C L j A
F0 C ln
a @a 2N i;j i C j

Lt1 Lt2 1
D 2.L a  a / C C 1
L a 2 .2  Lt3 /L 3a

2N @.Lt3  t3 / 2Lt1 Lt1 Lt2 1

D C C C 1 :
3 a @a L
.Lt3  2/ a 3 L
a 2 .2  Lt3 /L 3a

Notice that

Lt1 2Lt1 Lt12 @ Lt1 Lt1

C D CN
La .Lt3  2/aL 3 .Lt3  2/aL 3 a @a

i.e.
0 !1
@ @ 1 X L i C L j A
F0 C ln
a @a 2N i;j i C j

2N @.Lt3  t3 / @ Lt1 Lt1

D CN
3 a @a a @a
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 317

and thus
!
1 1 X L i C L j 2
F0 D  2 ln C .Lt3  t3 / C Lt1 Lt1 :
N 2N i;j i C j 3


Theorem 6.4.8 (Higher Genus) For g  2 we have
1
Fg D Res !g;1 .z/ .z/ dz
2  2g z!0
where d D !0;1 , i.e. when t1 D 0:
1 X 1
.z/ D z2 C ln .z C j / D z2 C ln det.z C /
N j N

and more generally if 2g  2 C n > 0

.2g  2 C n/ !g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / D Res !g;nC1 .z1 ; : : : ; zn ; z/ .z/ dz: (6.4.7)

z!0

Proof We shall first prove Eq. (6.4.7) for n > 0 by recursion on k D g;n D
2g  2 C n.
For k D 0 the only case is .g; n/ D .0; 2/, and we have:
1 1
!0;3 .z1 ; z2 ; z3 / D
2  t3 z1 z22 z23
2

which means that

1 1 .z/
Res !0;3 .z1 ; z2 ; z/ .z/ dz D Res 2 2 2 dz
z!0 2  t3 z!0 z1 z2 z
1 1
D 0 .0/
2  t3 z21 z22
1 1
D y.0/ x0 .0/
2  t3 z21 z22
D 0:

For k > 0, and n  1, we have from Theorem 6.4.4

J

!g;nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn /
 0
X 
D Res K.z0 ; z/ !g1;nC2 .z; z; J/ C !h;1C#I .z; I/!h0 ;1C#I 0 .z; I 0 /
z!0
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ
318 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

and thus
J

Res .z1 / !g;nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn /
z1 !0

D Res Res K.z0 ; z/ !g1;nC2 .z; z; z1 ; J/
z1 !0 z!0

0
X
C !h;2C#I .z; z1 ; I/!h0 ;1C#I 0 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

0
X 
C !h;1C#I .z; I/!h0 ;2C#I 0 .z; z1 ; I 0 / .z1 /:
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

Except for the term with a !0;2 .z; z1 / factor, there is no pole at z D z1 and we can
exchange the order of residues. Then by the recursion hypothesis we have:

J

Res .z1 / !g;nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn /
z1 !0

D Res K.z0 ; z/ .2.g  1/  2 C .n C 1// !g1;nC1 .z; z; J/
z!0
0
X
C .2h  2 C 1 C #I/!h;1C#I .z; I/!h0 ;1C#I 0 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

0
X 
C .2h0  2 C 1 C #I 0 /!h;1C#I .z; I/!h0 ;1C#I 0 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ
 
C2 Res Res K.z0 ; z/ !0;2 .z; z1 /!g;nC1 .z; J/ .z1 /:
z1 !0 z!0

The first three lines add up to make (using Theorem 6.4.4)

.2g  3 C n/!g;n .z0 ; J/:

In the last line, we move the integration contour of z1 , i.e. a small circle around 0,
through that of z, and thus we pick a residue at z D z1 :

Res Res D Res Res C Res Res :

z1 !0 z!0 z!0 z1 !0 z!0 z1 !z

Notice that !0;2 .z; z1 /.z1 / has no pole at z1 D 0, and we have:

Res !0;2 .z; z1 /.z1 / D d.z/=dz D y.z/x0 .z/

z1 !z
6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 319

so it remains
 
Res Res K.z0 ; z/ !0;2 .z; z1 /!g;nC1 .z; J/ .z1 / D Res K.z0 ; z/ !g;nC1 .z; J/ y.z/x0 .z/:
z1 !0 z!0 z!0

1 1
We have that K.z0 ; z/ D z20 z2 2.y.z/y.z//
and, using the parity of !g;n .z; J/ D
!g;n .z; J/, we have
 
Res Res K.z0 ; z/ !0;2 .z; z1 /!g;nC1 .z; J/ .z1 /
z1 !0 z!0

1
D Res K.z0 ; z/ !g;nC1 .z; J/ .y.z/  y.z// x0 .z/
2 z!0
1 z
D Res 2 !g;nC1 .z; J/
2 z!0 z0  z2

the integrands only poles are z D 0 and z D z0 , so we can move the integration
contour:
 
Res Res K.z0 ; z/ !0;2 .z; z1 /!g;nC1 .z; J/ .z1 /
z1 !0 z!0

1 z
D Res !g;nC1 .z; J/
2 z!z0 ;z0 z20  z2
1 1
D !g;nC1 .z0 ; J/ C !g;nC1 .z0 ; J/
4 4
1
D !g;nC1 .z0 ; J/
2
i.e. it remains, as announced for every n  1 and 2g  2 C n > 0:

Res .z1 / !g;nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn /

z1 !0

!g;nC1 .z0 ; J/
D .2g  3 C n/!g;n .z0 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn / C 2
2
D .2g  2 C n/!g;n .z0 ; z2 ; : : : ; zn /:

We have thus proved Eq. (6.4.7) for n > 0.

Then it remains to prove the case n D 0. Let us define for g  2:

1
FQ g D Res .z/ !g;1 .z/
2  2g z!0
320 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

and let us compute @FQ g =@a , we have:

@FQ g @.z/ @!g;1 .z/

.2  2g/ D Res !g;1 .z/ C Res .z/:
@a z!0 @a z!0 @a

From Theorem 6.4.5 we have

@!g;1 .z/
D !g;2 .z; a /
@a

and
Z
@.z/ z
1
D !0;2 .z0 ; a / dz0 D :
@a z  a

Therefore

@FQ g 1
.2  2g/ D Res !g;1 .z/  Res !g;2 .z; a / .z/:
@a z!0 z  a z!0

In the first term, the poles of the integrand are at z D 0 or at z D a , thus moving
the integration contour we trade the residue at z D 0 to a residue at z D a

1 1
Res !g;1 .z/ D  Res !g;1 .z/ D !g;1 .a /;
z!0 z  a z!a z  a

and meanwhile for the second term, we use Eq. (6.4.7) for !g;2

Res !g;2 .z; a / .z/ D .2  2g  1/!g;1 .a /:

z!0

This gives

@FQ g @Fg
.2  2g/ D !g;1 .a /  .1  2g/!g;1 .a / D .2  2g/!g;1 .a / D .2  2g/
@a @a

in other words it implies that Fg  FQ g is independent of , and since it should vanish

at large , it must be identically zero:

1
Fg D FQ g D Res .z/ !g;1 .z/:
2  2g z!0


6.4 Combinatorics of Graphs and Recursions 321

As an example of application, let us compute some intersection numbers. The

topological recursion computation of F2 gives

21 t53 29 t7 t5 35 t9
F2 D C C :
160 .2  t3 / 5 128 .2  t3 / 4 384 .2  t3 / 3

We write it as

Ot13 3
F2 D .2  t3 /2 < Ot3 3 C Ot1 Ot2 1 2 C  >M2;0
6 1
with

Ot12 Ot13
3 t5 D .2  t3 / Ot1 ; 15 t7 D .2  t3 / .Ot2  / ; 105 t9 D .2  t3 / .Ot3  Ot1Ot2 C /
2 6
this gives that

1 1 43
< 3 >M2;0 D ; < 1 2 >M2;0 D ; < 13 >M2;0 D :
27 32 240 2880
Proposition 6.4.5 (Link with Symplectic Invariants) Theorems 6.4.4 and 6.4.8
mean that Fg and the !g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn /dz1 : : : dzn are the symplectic invariants (in the
sense of Chap. 7) of the spectral curve:
(
x.z/ D z2 C Lt1
P P1
y.z/ D z C N1 a
1
L a .z
L a/
Dz 1
2 kD0 LtkC2 z
k
2

i.e. when t1 D 0:
(
x.z/ D z2
1 P 1 1 P1 :
y.z/ D z C N L a/
a 2 .z Dz 2 kD0 tkC2 zk
a

An important remark is the following: the topological recursion Theorem 6.4.4,

shows that only y.z/  y.z/ appears in the computations, this is a special case of
the general symplectic invariance of Chap. 7,and thus:
Corollary 6.4.1 Fg and the !g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn /dz1 : : : dzn are the symplectic invariants
(in the sense of Chap. 7) of the spectral curve (we assume t1 D 0):

x.z/ D z2
P
y.z/ D z  12 1
kD0 t2kC3 z
2kC1
322 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

6.5 Large Maps, Liouville Gravity and Topological Gravity

We assume t1 D 0. From their recursive definition as residues, the symplectic

invariants Fg depend only on a finite number of terms of the Taylor expansion of
y.z/ near the branchpoint z D 0, namely, Fg depends only on:

Fg D Fg .t3 ; : : : ; t6g3 /:

This can also be seen

D P from Ethe definition of Fg in terms of intersection numbers
Fg D .2  t3 / 22g
e k>0 Otk k .
Therefore, for each g, one can compute Fg with only a finite number of ti s non-
vanishing. Choose

tk D 0 when k > 2m C 3:

The spectral curve is then (symplectic invariance allows to add an arbitrary constant
to x without changing the Fg s, and we may ignore the even powers of z for y.z/):

x.z/ D z2  2u0
EOK D P
y.z/ D z  12 m kD0 t2kC3 z
2kC1
:

We can identify it with the spectral curve of Sect. 5.4, upon the identification

1X X
m1 m
y.z/ D z  t2kC3 z2kC1 D Qtj Qj .z/:
2 kD0 jD0

Using the expression of the polynomial Qj .z/ in Eq. (5.2.3) this gives

X
m
.u0 / jk .2j C 1/
t2kC3 D 2k;0  2 Qtj :
jDk
. j  k/ .2k C 1/

For example

t2mC3 D 2 Qtm ; t2mC1 D 2 .2m C 1/ u0 Qtm  2 Qtm1 ; :::

The generating function of the times tk s is:

1 X .2k C 1/ t2kC3 X .2j C 1/ Qtj Xj

P
k Otk u
k .u0 u/k
e D 1  f .1=u/ D 1  D
2 k uk j
uj kD0
k
6.6 Weil-Petersson Volumes 323

thus

1  f .1=u/ D fQ .u/ eu0 u 

where the subscript ./ means that we keep only negative powers of u in the Laurent
series expansion at u ! 0, and where
X .2j C 1/
fQ .u/ D Qtj :
j
uj

Finally, we see that the spectral curve EOK is identical to the spectral curve
E.2mC1;2/ (see Eq. (5.4.30) in Sect. 5.4) of the minimal model .2mC1; 2/ encountered
in the asymptotics of large maps in Sect. 5.4.
Theorem 6.5.1 The asymptotic generating function of large maps FQ g near an mth
order critical point, coincides with the topological expansion of the Tau-function
of the minimal model .2m C 1; 2/, and with the generating function of intersection
numbers:
D P E
FQ g .Qti / D Fg .E.2mC1;2/ / D Fg .EOK / D e k Otk k
Mg;0

provided that we identify the Kontsevich times tk s and .2mC1; 2/-model times Qtj as:

X
m
.u0 / jk .2j C 1/
t2kC3 D 2k;0  2 Qtj :
jDk
. j  k/ .2k C 1/

In other words the limit partition function of large maps, agrees with Liouville
conformal field theory coupled to the minimal model .2m C 1; 2/, and agrees with
topological gravity.

6.6 Weil-Petersson Volumes

Here, we come back to the description of moduli spaces in terms of hyperbolic

geometry, which we evoked in Sect. 6.3.1.
It turns out, that Mumfords class 1 , is closely related to the Weil-Petersson
2-form on Mg;n , by Wolperts relation [88]:
X
dli ^ di D 2 2 1 :
i
324 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

The Weil-Petersson volume form is

Y 1 X 1
dli ^ di D . dli ^ di /dg;n D .2 2 1 /dg;n :
i
dg;n i
dg;n

Thus, the idea is to choose a spectral curve which will lead to intersection numbers
of 1 only.
Let us chose t1 D 0 and:

.1/k .2/2k
t2kC3 D 2k;0  2 ;
.2k C 1/

It induces:
1
1X
y.z/ D z  t2kC3 z2kC1
2 kD0

X1
.2/k z2kC1
D zzC .1/k
kD0
.2k C 1/
1
D sin 2z
2

or in other words the spectral curve EOK is (we denote it EWP ):

x.z/ D z2
EWP D 1
y.z/ D 2 sin .2 z/:

The Schur transformed times Otk are obtained from Theorem 6.3.8 (or also
Theorem 6.3.9), and are such that:

1 X X .1/k .2/2k 2 1
f .1=u/ D .2k C 1/ t2kC3 uk D 1  uk D 1  e2 u
2 k k
2 k
k

and
X
fO .1=u/ D Otk uk D  ln .1  f .1=u// D 2 2 u1 :
k

This implies

Otk D 2 2 k;1
6.6 Weil-Petersson Volumes 325

and therefore

X1
P
k Otk k
2 .2 2 /d0 d0
e D e2 1
D 1 :
d D0
d0
0

We thus have:
* +
X Y
n
.2 2 /d0 Y .2di C 1/
n
!n.g/ .EWP I z1 ; : : : ; zn / D .2/ g;n
1d0 di

d0 ;d1 ;:::;dn
i
d0 iD1 z2d i C2
iD1 Mg;n i

Notice that the intersection number is non-vanishing only if d0 Cd1 C  Cdn D dg;n .
Then, observe that
Z 1
.2d C 1/
L dL L2d ez L D :
0 z2dC2

This allows to rewrite:

!n.g/ .EWP I z1 ; : : : ; zn /
Z 1 Z 1
D .2/g;n L1 dL1 ez1 L1 : : : Ln dLn ezn Ln
0 0
* +
X Y
n
.2 2 /d0 Y L2d
n i
1d0 di i

d0 Cd1 CCdn Ddg;n

i
d0 iD1 2di di
iD1 Mg;n
g;n Z 1 Z 1
.2/
D L1 dL1 ez1 L1 : : : Ln dLn ezn Ln
dg;n 0 0
* +
X dg;n Yn
L2
2
.2 1 / d0
. i i/
di

d0 Cd1 CCdn Ddg;n

d0 d1 : : : dn 2
iD1 Mg;n
g;n Z 1 Z 1
.2/
D L1 dL1 ez1 L1 : : : Ln dLn ezn Ln
dg;n 0 0
* +
1X 2
n
2
.2 1 C L i/
dg;n
:
2 iD1 i
Mg;n

The right hand side

* +
1X 2
n
1 2
Vol.Mg;n .L1 ; : : : ; Ln // D .2 1 C L i/
dg;n
dg;n 2 iD1 i
Mg;n

is the Weil-Petersson volume of Mg;n .L1 ; : : : ; Ln /, see Sect. 6.3.1 for more details.
326 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

We thus get the theorem:

Theorem 6.6.1 The symplectic invariant correlators of the spectral curve

x.z/ D z2
EWP D 1
y.z/ D 2 sin .2 z/

are the Laplace transforms of Weil-Petersson volumes:

.g/ Z 1 Z 1
!n .EWP I 1 ; : : : ; n /
Q D L1 dL1 e1 L1 : : : Ln dLn en Ln Vol.Mg;n .L1 ; : : : ; Ln //:
.2/g;n i di 0 0

It is an immediate corollary, by performing the Laplace transform of the

topological recursion, that:
Corollary 6.6.1 The Weil-Petersson volumes satisfy Mirzakhanis topological
recursion:

2LVg;nC1 .L; LK /
Z L Z 1 Z 1 h
D dt xdx ydyKM .x C y; t/ Vg1;nC2 .x; y; LK /
0 0
P P0 i
g
C hD0 J2K Vh;1CjJj .x; LJ /Vgh;nC1jJj .y; LK=J /
Xn Z L Z 1
C dt xdx.KM .x; t C Lm / C KM .x; t  Lm //Vg;n1 .x; LK n fLm g/
mD1 0 0

with Mirzakhanis recursion kernel given by:

1 1
KM .x; t/ D   C :
1 C e. 2 /
xCt xt
1Ce 2

M. Mirzakhani, fields medalist 2014, first discovered that recursion relation in

2004 [65] from the Mac-Shane identity on geodesic lengths in hyperbolic geometry.
Here, we rederived the same recursion from the combinatorics of intersection
numbers, or more precisely, from the fact that Kontsevichs matrix integral can be
written in terms of symplectic invariants.

6.7 Summary: Riemann Surfaces and Topological Gravity

We have seen that

The space (moduli space) of genus g Riemann surfaces with n labeled marked
points Mg;n , is of dimension 2.3g  3 C n/ D 2dg;n . Mg;n is not a manifold,
it is an orbifold, with singular points quotiented by a group of automorphisms.
6.7 Summary: Riemann Surfaces and Topological Gravity 327

Mg;n is not compact, and can be compactified by adding nodal surfaces. M N g;n is
the DeligneMumford compactification of Mg;n . M N g;n is not a manifold neither
an orbifold, it is a stack, it contains pieces of different dimensions, and singular
points quotiented by some group.
Mg;n is stable iff g;n D 22gn < 0 and unstable otherwise. The only unstable
cases are .g; n/ D .0; 0/; .0; 1/; .0; 2/; .1; 0/.
Using Strebels theorem, we have a bijection (an orbifold homeomorphism)
between Mg;n  RnC with a combinatorial set of metric ribbon graphs:

#edges of G
Mg;n  RnC  [ RC = Aut G:
G2Gg;n

The lengths le of the 6g  6 C 3n edges of G provide a set of coordinates on

Mg;n  RnC . This is an orbifold bijection, it respects the symmetries.
The Chern class c1 .LQi / of the cotangent line bundle LQ i ! Mg;n  RnC whose
fibre is the cotangent plane at the ith marked point, can be written explicitly in
the edge lengths coordinates:

X     X
le le0
i D c1 .Li / D d ^d where Li D le :
Li Li
e0 <e along face i e7!i

Intersection numbers are integrals of product of Chern classes:

(R Qn P
di
def Mg;n if i di D dg;n D 3g  3 C n
< d1 : : : dn >g D iD1 i
0 otherwise:

The Mumfords kappa classes d are push-forwards of Chern classes dC1 under
the forgetful projection Mg;nCm ! Mg;n , forgetting m marked points.
An easy way to relate intersection numbers of kappa classes to those of
classes, is by writing generating functions:
* + * +
P Y
n
1 P Y
n
e k Otk k idi D e 2 k .2kC1/ t2kC3 kC1 idi
iD1 g;n iD1 g

with the times Otk related to the tk s by writing that:

Z
P
k Otk u
k 1X u3=2 u
e D1 .2d C 1/t2dC3 ud D p ydx e 2 x :
2 d 2 2

For example the first few are

t3 3 t5 15 t7 9 t52
Ot0 D  ln.1  / ; Ot1 D ; Ot2 D C ; :::
2 2  t3 2  t3 2.2  t3 /2
328 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

the generating functions of intersection numbers can be written as a sum over

weighted graphs (Theorem 6.3.5):
X .2d1  1/ .2dn  1/
2g;n ::: < d1 : : : dn >g
d1 CCdn Ddg;n 2d
1
1 C1
2d
n
n C1

X 1 Y 1
D
#Aut i C j
ribbon graphs .i;j/Dedges

where the sum is over all labeled ribbon graphs of genus g with n faces, and to
the ith face is associated the variable i .
The sum of weighted graphs can be obtained from a Wick theorem, and can be
written as a formal matrix integral, the Kontsevich integral:
Z Y
1 M3
M2 2 =2
Z./ D dMeN Tr 3 ; Z0 D .=N/N .i C j /1=2 :
Z0 formal i;j

where D diag.1 ; : : : ; N /.
In the sense of formal series (of 1
i ) we have

1
X 1
ln Z./ D N 22g Fg .t/ ; tk D Tr k ; t D .t1 ; t2 ; t3 ; : : : /
gD0
N

where
D 1P E
Fg .t/ D 222g e 2 k .2kC1/ t2kC3 kC1
g
D P E
D e k Otk k
g

X2 22gn X Y
n
D .2di  1/ t2di C1 < d1 : : : dn >g :
n
n d1 ;:::;dn iD1

We define the following weighted sums of graphs:

X N #unmarked faces
g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / D g;0 n;1 z C
#Aut .G/
G2Gg;n .z1 ;:::;zn /

Y 1
label.i/ C label. j/
.i;j/Dedges

summed over all ribbon graphs of genus g, with n labeled faces having a 1-valent
vertex with respective label zi , i D 1; : : : ; n, and an arbitrary number of unmarked
6.7 Summary: Riemann Surfaces and Topological Gravity 329

faces having labels 2 1 ; : : : ; N . They are worth:

g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / C g;0 n;1 z1

X D 1 P E Y
n
.2di C 1/
D 222gn d1 : : : dn e 2 d .2d1/ t2dC1 d

d1 ;:::;dn
g
iD1 z2d
i
i C3

N 1 X
N
1
Cg;0 n;1
2z1 aD1 z1 C a
1 1
Cg;0 n;2 :
4z1 z2 .z1 C z2 /2

They are equal to the expectation values of diagonal entries of M, if a1 ; : : : ; an

are all distinct:

g;n .a1 ; : : : ; an / C g;0 n;1 a1 D N n 2n < Ma1 ;a1 : : : Man ;an >.g/
c :

Tuttes recursion and Virasoro constraints.

By recursively removing edges from the ribbon graphs, we get the identities:
If n  0 and 2g  2 C .n C 1/ > 0, and J D fz1 ; : : : ; zn g, we have the Tuttes
equations:
X
g;0 n;0 z2 D g1;nC2 .z; z; J/ C h;jIjC1 .z; I/ h0 ;jI 0 jC1 .z; I 0 /
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

1 X g;nC1 .z; J/  g;nC1 .a ; J/

N

N aD1 z2  2a
X 1 d g;n .z; J n fzj g/  g;n .J/
C : (6.7.1)
z 2J
2zj dzj z2  z2j
j

This translates into Virasoro constraints for intersection numbers

D E
.2d0 C 1/ d0 d1 : : : dn
g

1 X hD E
D .2d C 1/.2d0 C 1/ d d0 d1 : : : dn
2 g1
dCd 0 Dd0 2

X
stable D Y E D Y E i
C d di d 0 di
h gh
hCh0 Dg; ItI 0 Df1;:::;ng i2I i2I 0

X .2dj C 2d0  1/ D Y E
n
C d0 Cdj 1 di :
jD1
.2dj  1/ g
ij
330 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

The disc amplitude is (we assume t1 D 0)

1 X 1X
N
1
0;1 .z/ D y.z/ D z C D z  .1/k tkC2 zk :
N aD1 2z.z C a / 2 k

The cylinder amplitude is (t1 D 0 assumed)

1
0;2 .z; z0 / D :
4zz0 .z C z0 /2

It is independent of the tk s.
Topological recursion (t1 D 0 assumed)
We define the amplitudes
  Yn
g;0 n;2
!g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / D 2 n
g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / C 2 zi :
.z1  z22 /2 iD1

If 2g  2 C n > 0, they are odd rational functions of each zi , with poles only at
zi D 0, and they satisfy the topological recursion
h
!g;nC1 .z0 ; J/ D Res K.z0 ; z/ dz !g1;nC2 .z; z; J/
z!0
X i
C !h;1C#I .EQK I z; I/ !h0 ;1C#I 0 .EQK I z; I 0 / :
hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ

(6.7.2)
P
where 0 means that .h; I/ D .0; ;/ and .h; I/ D .g; J/ are excluded from the
sum, and where K is the kernel
Rz 0
z0 Dz !0;2 .z0 ; z /
K.z0 ; z/ WD
2.0;1 .z/  0;1 .z// x0 .z/

Fg s (t1 D 0 assumed)

F0 D 0
1 t3
F1 D ln .1  /
24 2
and for g  2

1
Fg D Res !g;1 .z/ .z/ dz ; d=dz D !0;1 .z/:
2  2g z!0
6.8 Exercises 331

Comparison between topological gravity, .2m C 1; 2/ minimal model and large

maps:
The asymptotic generating function of large maps FQ g near an mth order
critical point, coincides with the topological expansion of the Tau-function of
the minimal model .2m C 1; 2/, and with the generating function of intersection
numbers:
D P E
FQ g .Qti / D Fg .E.2mC1;2/ / D Fg .EOK / D e k Otk k
Mg;0

provided that we identify the Kontsevich times tk s and .2m C 1; 2/-model times
Qtj as:

X
m
.u0 / jk .2j C 1/
t2kC3 D 2k;0  2 Qtj :
jDk
. j  k/ .2k C 1/

Weil-Petersson volumes
The choice
.1/k .2/2k
t2kC3 D 2k;0  2
.2k C 1/
1
gives y.z/ D 2 sin 2z, and it computes the Laplace transforms of Weil-
Petersson volumes
Z 1 Z 1
!g;n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / D .2/g;n L1 dL1 ez1 L1 : : : Ln dLn ezn Ln
0 0

Vol.Mg;n .L1 ; : : : ; Ln //:

where
* +
1 X 2 dg;n
n
1 2
Vol.Mg;n .L1 ; : : : ; Ln // D .2 1 C L i/ :
dg;n 2 iD1 i
Mg;n

The fact that !g;n satisfy the topological recursion, implies the Mirzakhanis
recursion for Weil-Petersson volumes.

6.8 Exercises

Exercise 1 (Moduli Space of Genus 1 Surfaces) Consider a torus T of modulus

, with Im > 0, i.e. a parallelogram in the complex plane with opposite sides
identified:

T D C=.Z C Z/:
332 6 Counting Riemann Surfaces

0 1

Prove that two Torus T and T 0 are in conformal bijection if and only if 0 
mod Sl2 .Z/, i.e.

a C b
0 D ; ad  bc D 1 ; .a; b; c; d/ 2 Z4 :
c C d

Hint:
sufficient condition: prove that it is possible to find a piecewise affine function
f W C ! C, of the form f .z/ D z C , such that f .z C 1/  f .z/ mod Z C 0 Z
and f .z C /  f .z/ mod Z C 0 Z. In other words determine and .
converse, necessary condition: assume that there exists a conformal bijection f W
T ! T 0 . It can be lifted to a piecewise analytic function f W C ! C, which has
to satisfy f .z C 1/  f .z/ mod Z C 0 Z and f .z C /  f .z/ mod Z C 0 Z. Show
that this implies that f 0 .z/ has to be bi-periodic. Since any bi-periodic function
without pole must be a constant, deduce that f 0 .z/ has to be a constant, and thus
f is piecewise affine. Then by studying f .0/; f .1/; f . /; f .1 C /, show that 0 D
.a C b/=.c C d/.
Exercise 2 (The Strebel Differential on M0;4 ) Let p 2 C n f0; 1; 1g and let
L0 ; L1 ; L1 ; Lp be four positive real numbers.
Find the general form of a quadratic differential on C with double poles at z D
0; 1; 1; p and respective residues L20 ; L21 ; L21 ; L2 .
Answer:
 
1 2 p L20 .1  p/ L21 p. p  1/ L2
.z/ D L1 z C C C  dz2
z.z  1/.z  p/ z .z  1/ .z  p/

where 2 C is an arbitrary constant.  has four zeroes a; b; c; d, we have D

a C b C c C d. Then chose such that
Z b p Z cp
Im .z/ D 0 ; Im .z/ D 0
a a

Exercise 3 (Number of Triangulations in Terms of Intersection Numbers)

Choose the matrix D  IdN , i.e. tk D k , and relate Kontsevichs matrix integral
to the cubic formal matrix integral which enumerates triangulations. Then show that
the number of rooted triangulations (where all faces including the marked one are
6.8 Exercises 333

triangles) of genus g with v vertices is

#frooted triangulations; genus g; #vertices D vg

24g4C2v X
D 6 .2g  2 C v/ < d1 : : : dv >g;v
v d CCd D3g3Cv
1 v

Exercise 4 For M1;1 , there is only one Strebel graph. Write the Chern class in
terms of edge lengths, and compute directly the integral of the Chern class. Recover
1
< 1 >1 D 24 .
Exercise 5 Prove that all intersection numbers of genus 0 are given by:

.n  3/ P
< d1 : : : dn >0 D Qn i di ;n3 ;
iD1 di

Hint: use the fact that if g D 0, necessarily some di D 0, and one can use
equation Eq. (6.3.2).
Exercise 6 Prove that all intersection numbers of genus 1 are given by:

1 n
< d1 : : : dn >1 D Qn Pi di ;n :
24 iD1 di

Hint: Use the fact that if g D 1, then either some di D 0 and one can use equation
Eq. (6.3.2), or some di D 1, and the forgetful pushforward of 1 is 0 , and 0 is the
Euler class 0 D 2g  2 C n.
Chapter 7
Topological Recursion and Symplectic
Invariants

We have seen, in almost all previous chapters, that symplectic invariants and
topological recursion play an important role. They give the solution to Tuttes
recursion equation for maps, they give the formal expansion of various matrix
integrals, including Kontsevich integral, and they also give the asymptotics of large
maps.
The goal of this chapter is to give their general definition, which is an algebraic
geometry notion, and exists beyond the context of combinatorics, and beyond matrix
models.

7.1 Symplectic Invariants of Spectral Curves

Building on works in matrix models, an axiomatic definition of the symplectic

invariants was first introduced in [34]. At that time, the goal was to have a common
framework for the solution of loop equations of several matrix models: 1-matrix,
2-matrix, matrix with external field (in particular Kontsevich integral), chain of
matrices,. . . , as well as their scaling limits. Then it was discovered that they have
many nice properties, in particular symplectic invariance (whence their name), and
that they appear in other problems of enumerative geometry.
Here we only briefly summarize the construction of [34], and we refer the reader
to the original article for more details.

7.1.1 Spectral Curves

Definition 7.1.1 A spectral curve E D .L; x; y; B/, is the data of a Riemann surface
L (not necessarily compact nor connected), and two analytic functions x and y from

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 335

B. Eynard, Counting Surfaces, Progress in Mathematical Physics 70,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7643-8797-6_7
336 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

some open domain of L to C, and a symmetric meromorphic 2-form B on L  L

having a double pole on the diagonal (in any choice of local coordinates):

dp dq
B. p; q/  C analytic:
. p  q/2

Remark 7.1.1 In fact, the most general definition of symplectic invariants needs
only that L be a collection of formal neighborhoods of some points, and y and
B be germs of analytic functions on those formal neighborhoods.1 However, the
symplectic invariants will obey more properties when L is compact, connected, and
y and B are globally meromorphic. This is the case for all spectral curves considered
in this book, related to maps.
The maps x W L ! C and y W L ! C provide an immersion of L ,! C  C. If L
is compact, and x and y are both meromorphic, they must be related by an algebraic
equation E.x; y/ D 0. The locus in C  C of the solutions of an algebraic equation,
is called a plane curve.
x and y thus provide a parametric representation of a plane curve of some
equation E.x; y/ D 0, where the space of the parameter z is a Riemann surface
L, i.e.

f.x.z/; y.z// j z 2 Lg D f.x; y/ j E.x; y/ D 0g

B1 y

A1 B2
A2
y(z)

z
x
x(z)

Definition 7.1.2 If L is a compact Riemann surface of genus gN , and x and y are

meromorphic functions on L, we say that the spectral curve is algebraic. If L D
C D C [ f1g is the Riemann sphere (thus gN D 0), we say that the spectral curve is
rational.
Indeed, for a compact Riemann surface L, it is always possible to find a
polynomial relationship between any two meromorphic functions x and y, and there

1
Roughly speaking, y and B are defined as formal series, whose radius of convergency can be
vanishing, i.e. any truncation of the formal series is defined in some disk around a point, called a
formal neighbourhood of the point. We shall not go further, as this notion is beyond the scope of
this book.
7.1 Symplectic Invariants of Spectral Curves 337

always exists a polynomial E such that

8z 2 L; E.x.z/; y.z// D 0:

Moreover, on the Riemann sphere, meromorphic functions are rational functions,

i.e. for a rational spectral curve we can chose x; y 2 C.z/.
Definition 7.1.3 A spectral curve .L; x; y; B/ is called regular if:
the differential form dx has a finite number (non vanishing) of zeros dx.ai / D 0,
and all zeros of dx are simple zeros.
The differential form dy does not vanish at the zeros of dx, i.e. dy.ai / 0.
p
This means that near x.ai /, x.z/  x.ai / has a double zero, and thus x.z/  x.ai / is
a good local coordinate. If dy doesnt vanish it means that
p
y.z/  y.ai / C y0 .ai / .x.z/  x.ai / C O.x.z/  x.ai // ; y0 .ai / 0;

in other words y behaves locally like a square-root, or also the curve x 7! y has a
vertical tangent at ai .
From now on, we assume that we are considering only regular spectral curves
(the symplectic invariants for non-regular spectral curves can be defined in a similar
manner, see [18]). Symplectic invariants defined for regular spectral curves, may
diverge when the curve becomes singular. Examples of singular spectral curves
appeared in Chap. 5, where they play a central role in the double scaling limit, i.e.
the limit of large maps.
Definition 7.1.4 We say that two spectral curves E D .L; x; y; B/ and EQ D
Q xQ ; yQ ; B/
.L; Q are symplectically equivalent if there exists a symplectomorphism  W
C  C ! C  C, such that L D  L, BQ D  B, and xQ D  x and yQ D  y,
And where the group of symplectomorphisms is defined to be generated by the
maps:
 W .x; y/ 7! .x; y C R.x//, where R.x/ 2 C.x/ is a rational function of x.
2
 W .x; y/ 7! . axCb
cxCd ; .cx C d/ y/, with ad  bc D 1,
 W .x; y/ 7! . y; x/.
all those transformations conserve the symplectic form

dx ^ dy:

The main property of the Fg s that we are going to define, is that they are
symplectic invariants, i.e. two regular spectral curves which are symplectically
equivalent, have the same Fg s.
338 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

7.1.2 Geometry of the Spectral Curve

7.1.2.1 Topology

Consider a compact Riemann surface L, of genus gN . If it is simply connected, the

genus is gN D 0, and L is the Riemann sphere C, O i.e. the complex plane compactified
with a point at 1. If it is of genus gN  1, it is not simply connected, and one can
find a basis of 2Ng non-contractible cycles, that can be normalized in order that their
intersections (the sign of the intersection corresponds to the orientation of contours,
positive if Ai ; Bi is direct) are:

Ai \ Bj D i;j ; Ai \ Aj D 0 ; Bi \ Bj D 0:

This choice of basis of non-contractible cycles is called symplectic, and it is not

unique.

A1
B1 A2
B2

If we chose some representants Ai s and Bi s of the cycles, then L D L n [i Ai [i

Bi is simply connected. It is called a fundamental domain .
The universal covering of L is a (non-compact) Riemann surface, obtained
by gluing an infinite number of copies of the fundamental domain L, along the
corresponding boundaries. It is also the set of all homotopy classes of paths between
a given base point, and arbitrary points of L. The universal covering is simply
connected, but non-compact.

7.1.2.2 Bergman Kernel = Fundamental Form of the Second Kind

When a symplectic basis of cycles is chosen, one defines the fundamental form of
second kind (sometimes called Bergman kernel [12, 13, 37, 56]):

B.z1 ; z2 /

as the unique bilinear differential having one double pole at z1 D z2 (it is called
second kind) and no other pole, and such that:
I
dz1 dz2
B.z1 ; z2 /  Canalytic ; 8i D 1; : : : ; gN ; B.z1 ; z2 / D 0:
z1 !z2 .z1  z2 /2 z1 2Ai
7.1 Symplectic Invariants of Spectral Curves 339

One should keep in mind that B depends only on L, and not on the functions x
and y.
We encountered it in Chaps. 3, 4, and 6. In each case, the cylinder amplitude was
(up to trivial terms) the fundamental form of the second kind.
Intuitively, the fundamental second kind form can be viewed as the electric
field on L measured in z1 generated by a small unit dipole located at z2 . Or said
differently, the integral
Z z1 Z z2
ln E.z1 ; z2 / D B.z01 ; z02 /
z01 Do1 z02 Do2

(where o1 ; o2 are arbitrary base points), is the electric potential measured at z1 ,

created by a unit charge located at z2 , it satisfies the Poisson equation

z1 ln jE.z1 ; z2 /j D 2 .z1  z2 /:

Examples
if L D C D C [ f1g Dthe Riemann Sphere (genus gN D 0), the fundamental
second kind form is
dz1 dz2
B.z1 ; z2 / D D dz1 dz2 ln .z1  z2 /
.z1  z2 /2

if L D C=.ZC Z/ DTorus (genus gN D 1) of modulus , the fundamental second

kind form is
E2 . /
B.z1 ; z2 / D .}.z1  z2 ; /  / dz1 dz2
3
where } is the Weierstrass elliptical function, and E2 the second Eisensteins
series.
if L is a compact Riemann surface of genus gN  1, of Riemann matrix of periods
D i;j i;jD1;:::;Ng , the fundamental second kind form is

B.z1 ; z2 / D dz1 dz2 ln ..u.z1 /  u.z2 /  c; //

where u.z/ is the Abel map, c is an odd characteristic, and  is the Riemann theta
function of genus gN (cf [36, 37] for theta-functions).

7.1.2.3 Branchpoints

Branchpoints are the points with a vertical tangent, they are the zeros of dx. Let us
write them ai , i D 1; : : : ; #branchpoints.

8i; dx.ai / D 0:
340 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

Since we consider a regular spectral curve, all branchpoints are simple zeros of dx,
the map x W L ! C is locally 2 W 1, and thus there are exactly two points z and zN in
the vicinity of ai such that:

x.Nz/ D x.z/

the involution z 7! zN is called the local Galois conjugate of z. It is defined locally

near each branchpoint ai , and it is not necessarily defined globally.
Locally, the map z 7! y.z/ behaves like a square root as a function of x.z/, near a
branchpoint ai :
p
y.z/  y.ai / C y0 .ai / x.z/  x.ai / C O.x.z/  x.ai //:

a2 z

a1
z

x(z) x

Examples of Spectral Curves

maps =1-matrix model, 1-cut. In Chap. 3 we have seen that maps spec-
tral curves are parametrized by the Zhukovsky variable z. In that case z 2
L DRiemann sphereD C, N and x.z/ and y.z/ are rational functions of z. In
particular we have

x.z/ D C .z C 1=z/ ; dx.z/ D x0 .z/dz D .1  z2 / dz:

The zeros of dx.z/ are z D 1, and we clearly have zN D 1=z:

a1 D 1; a2 D 1 ; zN D 1=z:

In that case the local Galois involution z 7! 1=z is defined globally on L. The
spectral curves of maps, are examples of algebraic rational spectral curve.
pure gravity .3; 2/. In Chap. 5, we have seen that the pure gravity .3; 2/ minimal
model, is related to the spectral curve

x.z/ D z2  2 ; y.z/ D z3  3z ; z 2 L D Riemann sphere:

7.1 Symplectic Invariants of Spectral Curves 341

We have

dx.z/ D x0 .z/dz D 2z dz

whose only zero is z D 0, and we have zN D z:

aD0 ; zN D z:

In that case the local Galois involution z 7! z is defined globally on L.

Ising model .4; 3/. The minimal model .4; 3/ (not studied in this book) with
central charge c D 1=2, is also called Ising model. It has the rational spectral
curve

x.z/ D z3  3z ; y.z/ D z4  4z2 C 2 ; z 2 L D Riemann sphere;

and thus

dx.z/ D x0 .z/dz D 3.z2  1/ dz

p
whose zeros are ai D 1, and near ai D 1 we have zN D  12 .z  ai 12  3z2 /:

1 p
ai D 1 ; zN D  .z  ai 12  3z2 /:
2
In this case, the local Galois involution z 7! zN is not defined globally, it is defined
only in the vicinity of each ai (the two Galois involutions near ai D 1, differ
by the choice of sign of the squareroot).

7.1.2.4 Recursion Kernel

Definition 7.1.5 We define the recursion kernel with z in a vicinity of a branch

point a:
Rz 0
1 z0 DNz B.z0 ; z /
Ka .z0 ; z/ D
2 . y.z/  y.Nz// dx.z/

where z 7! zN is the local Galois involution at a, and the integration path z ! zN is

chosen in the vicinity of a, in particular it doesnt intersect the Ai cycles or Bi
cycles.
Ka .z0 ; z/ is a meromorphic 1-form in the variable z0 , globally defined on z0 2 L,
it has a simple pole at z0 D z and at z0 D zN.
On the contrary, with respect to the variable z, Ka .z0 ; z/ is defined only locally
near the branchpoint a, and it is a 1-form raised to the power 1. As we shall see
342 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

below, Ka .z0 ; z/ will always be multiplied by a quadratic differential, so that the

product will be a 1-form. It is symmetric under the involution

Ka .z0 ; z/ D Ka .z0 ; zN/:

Ka .z0 ; z/ has a simple pole at z D a, and near z D a it behaves like:

1 B.z0 ; z/
Ka .z0 ; z/  C analytic:
2 dy.z/ dx.z/

Remember that dx.z/ has a simple zero at z D a and dy.a/ 0.

7.1.2.5 Correlators

Definition 7.1.6 We define recursively the following meromorphic forms:

.0/
!1 .z1 / D y.z1 / dx.z1 /
.0/
!2 .z1 ; z2 / D B.z1 ; z2 /

and if 2g  2 C n  0, and J D fz1 ; : : : ; zn g:

X h 0
X i
.g/ .g1/ .h/ .h0 /
!nC1 .z0 ; J/ D Res Kai .z0 ; z/ !nC2 .z; zN; J/ C !1CjIj .z; I/!1CjI 0 j .Nz; I 0 /
z!ai
i hCh0 Dg; I]I 0 DJ
(7.1.1)
P0
where in the right hand side means that we exclude the terms .h; I/ D
.0; ;/; .g; J/.
This definition is indeed a recursive one, because all the terms in the right hand
side have a strictly smaller 2g  2 C n than the left hand side.
An important property proved in [34], is that:
.g/
Proposition 7.1.1 !n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / is a meromorphic n-form on Ln , it is a tensor
product of meromorphic forms on L of each variables zi . It can be proved by
recursion, that it is always a symmetric form. Moreover, if 2g  2 C n > 0, its
only poles are at branchpoints zi ! aj , and have no residues.
Those properties can be proved by recursion on 2g  2 C n, and we refer the reader
to [34].
7.1 Symplectic Invariants of Spectral Curves 343

7.1.2.6 Symplectic Invariants

.g/ .g/
The previous definition, defines !n with n  1. Now, we define Fg D !0 by the
following:

7.1.2.7  Fg for g  2

Definition 7.1.7 (Symplectic Invariants)

We define for g  2:

1 X .g/
Fg D Res .z/ !1 .z/ ; d D ydx
2  2g i z!ai
(7.1.2)

(Fg is independent of a choice of integration constant for , indeed due to

.g/
Proposition 7.1.1, Res ai !1 D 0, so the contribution of a constant in vanishes).

7.1.2.8  Fg for g D 1

Definition 7.1.8 For g D 1 we define

!
1 Y
F1 D  ln B .fx.ai /g/12 y0 .ai /
24 i

where

y.z/  y.ai /
y0 .ai / D lim p
z!ai x.z/  x.ai /

and B is the Bergman -function of KokotovKorotkin [56], it depends only on the

values of x at branch points xi D x.ai /, it is defined by:

@ ln B .fxi /g/ B.z; zN/

D Res
@xi z!ai dx.z/

For example, for maps, we have a rational spectral curve with B.z; z0 / D
dz dz0 =.z  z0 /2 and with two branchpoints a; b, parametrized by Zhukovsky map
x.z/ D .a C b/=2 C .z C 1=z/ where D .a  b/=4, and thus the local Galois
344 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

involution zN D 1=z. In that case we have

@ ln B .a; b/ dz2 =z2 1 1 1

D Res D D
@a z!1 .z  1=z/2 .1  1=z2 / dz 16 4.a  b/

@ ln B .a;b/ 1
and similarly @b
D 4.ba/
, which leads to

B .a; b/ / 1=4 :

i.e.
1  3 0
F1 D  ln y .a/ y0 .b/ :
24

dy
Then, notice that y0 .a/ D limz!1 p1
y.z/y.1/
p
.zC1=z2/
D dz zD1 , and similarly for
0
y .b/, i.e. finally:
 
1
2 dy dy
F1 D  ln ;
24 dz zD1 dz zD1

which is what we found in Chap. 3.

For example, If we have a rational spectral curve with only one branchpoint a,
parametrized by x.z/ D a C z2 , we have

@ ln B .a/ dz2 1
D Res 2
D0
@a z!0 .z C z/ 2z dz

and thus

B .a/ / 1;

and
 
1 dy
F1 D  ln ;
24 dz zD0

which is what we found for . p; q/ minimal models and Kontsevich integral in

Chaps. 5 and 6.

7.1.2.9  Fg for g D 0

Here we assume that we have an algebraic spectral curve.

Let i ; i D 1; : : : ; npoles be the poles of ydx.
7.2 Main Properties 345

If i is a pole of degree di of x.z/, we define the local coordinate i .z/ D x.z/1=di

If i is not a pole of x.z/ [it is thus a pole of y.z/], we define the local coordinate
i .z/ D x.z/  x.i /
We define the potentials Vi and times ti :
 
i .z0 /
ti D Res y.z/ dx.z/ ; Vi .z/ D Res ln 1  y.z0 / dx.z0 /:
z!i z0 !i i .z/
P
Notice that i ti D 0. They are such that

y.z/dx.z/  dVi .z/  ti di .z/=i .z/ D analytic at z ! i :

Then, given an arbitrary generic base point o 2 L, we define:

Z o
i D . y.z/dx.z/  dVi .z/  ti di .z/=i .z// C Vi .o/ C ti ln i .o/
i

Then, we define
Definition 7.1.9
I I
1h X i
X X 1 gN
F0 D Res Vi .z/ y.z/dx.z/ C ti i C ydx ydx :
2 i i i iD1
2i Ai Bi

One may check

P that this quantity is independent of the choice of base point o (this
is because i ti D 0).
Notice, that contrarily to all Fg with g  2, which depend only on the local
behavior of x and y near branchpoints, F0 depends on the full spectral curve, and in
particular on its local behavior near the poles.

7.2 Main Properties

So, for every spectral curve E D .L; x; y; B/, we have defined some meromorphic
.g/ .g/
forms !n and some complex numbers Fg D !0 . They have some remarkable
properties (proved in [34]):
.g/
!n is symmetric in its n variables (this is proved by recursion).
.g/
If 2  2g  n < 0, then !n is a meromorphic form in each variable, with poles
only at the branch-points, of degree at most 6g  6 C 2n C 2, and with vanishing
residue.
346 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

.g/
If 2  2g  n < 0, !n is homogeneous of degree 2  2g  n:

!n.g/ ..L; x; y; B/I z1 ; : : : ; zn / D 22gn !n.g/ ..L; x; y; B/I z1 ; : : : ; zn /;

and in particular for n D 0

Fg .L; x; y; B/ D 22g Fg .L; x; y; B/:

In particular, if  D 1, we see that Fg is invariant under y ! y.

If two spectral curves E D .L; x; y; B/ and EQ D .L; xQ ; yQ ; B/ are symplectically
equivalent in the sense of Definition 7.1.4, i.e. dx ^ dy D dQx ^ dQy, or alternatively
1 P
R i .g/
ydx  yQ dQx D exact form, then they have the same FOg D Fg  22g i ti o !1 s
for g  2:

dx ^ dy D dQx ^ dQy ) 8g  2 FO g .E/ D FOg .E/:

Q

This property justifies the name symplectic invariants for the FOg s.
.g/
In general they do not have the same !n s, but we have that:

.g/ .g/
Q z1 / D exact form;
!1 .EI z1 /  !1 .EI

.g/
i.e. the cohomology class of !1 is a symplectic invariant.
This property has been proved (at the time this book is being written) only for
algebraic spectral curves, where L is compact, and x and y are meromorphic. It
is believed to hold in a more general setting.
Out of the Fg s, one can construct a formal tau function,
P which is believed to
obey Hirotas equation. It is of the form D exp . 1 gD0 N 22g
Fg / , where we
refer the reader to [17] for more details.
Dilaton equation, for 2g  2 C n > 0:
X .g/
Res .znC1 / !nC1 .z1 ; : : : ; zn ; znC1 / D .2  2g  n/ !n.g/ .z1 ; : : : ; zn /
znC1 !ai
i

.0/
where d D !1 D ydx.
Their derivatives with respect to any parameter of the spectral curve, are
computed below in Sect. 7.3.
They have many other properties, for instance their modular behaviour satisfies
the holomorphic anomaly equation, known as BCOV equation. See [15, 35].
7.3 Deformations of Symplectic Invariants 347

7.3 Deformations of Symplectic Invariants

Consider a spectral curve E D .L; x; y; B/.

Embed it within a C1 1-parameter family of algebraic spectral curves Et D
.Lt ; xt ; yt ; Bt /, defined for t in a small vicinity of t D 0, and such that at t D 0
it is the spectral curve E:

E0 D E ; .L0 ; x0 ; y0 ; B0 / D .L; x; y; B/:

Our goal is to compute derivatives of the symplectic invariants at t D 0:

@n !n .Et /
.g/
@n Fg .Et /
and :
@tn tD0 @tn
tD0

Here and in all the following sections, we assume that we have an algebraic regular
spectral curve for almost each t, and that Lt is compact and B D Bt is the
fundamental 2-form on it.

7.3.1 Spectral Curve Deformation

y(z)
z
x(z) x

x .z/x .z/
We would like to compute derivatives like xP t .z/ D @xt .z/=@tD lim!0 tC  t .
However, this doesnt make sense, because in the term xtC .z/ we have z 2 LtC and
in the second term xt .z/ we have z 2 Lt , and LtC Lt , are two different Riemann
surfaces.
In other words, we first need to chose a common local coordinate on both curves,
a common atlas of charts.
We thus locally chose a smooth family of open domains Ut  Lt , and a smooth
C1 family of charts, i.e. a C1 family of coordinates t W Ut ! U  C. The maps
348 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

xt t1 and yy t1 form two C1 families of meromorphic functions U ! C. We

can then use the local coordinate 0 at t D 0, to identify U  C, with the domain
U0  L0 D L.
By abuse of notation, we identify (locally in an open set U0  L):

xt .z/  xt t1 0 .z/ ; yt .z/  yt t1 0 .z/:

Now, it makes sense to derive with respect to t.

We write the beginning of the Taylor expansion near t D 0

xt t1 .z/ D x 01 .z/ C t xP .z/ C O.t2 /

yt t1 .z/ D y t1 .z/ C t yP .z/ C O.t2 /:

Here, xP and yP are analytic (meromorphic) functions on L D L0

There is some arbitrariness in this writing. The meromorphic functions xP and yP
depend on the choice of coordinates t and 0 .
In particular, one may change the parameter t to Qt D ft .t / with ft any analytic
bijection U ! U. This means that the parameter t is not intrinsic, and thus xP and yP
are not intrinsically defined.
Instead, what is intrinsic is the following 1-form:
Proposition 7.3.1 The meromorphic 1-form on L

.z/ D xP .z/ dy.z/  yP .z/ dx.z/

is independent of a choice of a family of coordinates t on Lt .

Proof Let t W U0 ! Ut defined by t D t1 0 . If we change the local coordinates
t ! ft .t /, this changes t ! gt .t / where gt D t1 ft1 f0 t . This changes the
time derivative:

xP ! xP C g0t dx ; yP ! yP C g0t dy

and thus it changes  ! , i.e.  is independent of a choice of coordinate. 

Remark 7.3.1 An easy choice, is that away from branchpoints, we may use t .z/ D
xt .z/ as a local coordinate on Lt . In that case we have xP D 0, and we have

@y.z/
.z/ D Py.z/ dx.z/ D  dx.z/:
@t x.z/Dconstant

Another way to state this proposition is that:

Proposition 7.3.2 The tangent space to the space of spectral curves f.L; x; y/g
(here we dont consider B for the moment), is homeomorphic to the space of
7.3 Deformations of Symplectic Invariants 349

meromorphic 1-forms on L:

T f.L; x; y/gj.L;x;y/  M1 .L/ D f D meromorphic 1  forms on Lg:

In other words the Lie derivative of a flow @t , is equivalent to a meromorphic 1-form

 on L.
One may notice that the location of branchpoints ai may be a function of t. Let
Xi D x.ai / be the xprojection of the ith branchpoint ai . Since dx.ai / D 0 by
definition, we have:

@Xi .ai /
D XP i D :
@t dy.ai /

In particular, the projection of a branchpoint in the x-plane is constant only if .ai /

vanishes.
If .ai / 0, we have XP i 0, and the conformal structure of the curve L
changes.
A classical result in algebraic geometry of Riemann surfaces, is the Rauch
variational formula [37, 56, 68, 78], which tells how the fundamental second kind
form B changes under a change of conformal structure:
Proposition 7.3.3 (Rauch Formula)

@B.z1 ; z2 / X B.z; z1 / B.z; z2 /
P 1 ; z2 / D
D B.z XP i Res :
@t z!ai dx.z/
xt .z1 /;xt .z2 / constant i

Moreover, since XP i D .ai /

dy.ai /
, and dx.z/ is assumed to have a simple zero at ai , we
may rewrite
X .z/ B.z; z1 / B.z; z2 /
P 1 ; z2 / D
B.z Res : (7.3.1)
i
z!ai dx.z/ dy.z/

Since we now know the variation of the spectral curve, and the variation of the
fundamental second kind form B, we may deduce the variation of the recursion
.g/
kernel K.z0 ; z/, and by recursion, the variation of every !n . This can be understood
in a geometrical way as follows.

7.3.2 Form-Cycle Duality

Let us assume that  2 M1 .L/ is a meromorphic 1-form on L. It may have poles i

of some degrees di . It is customary to classify meromorphic forms into four kinds:
350 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

Exact forms. .z/ is an exact H form if and only if, for any closed contour on C
avoiding the poles, we have  D 0. In that case, there exists a meromorphic
function f .z/ such that .z/ D df .z/. Notice that, since B.z; z0 / has a double pole
at z D z0 , we have:
X
df .z/ D Res
0
f .z0 / B.z; z0 / D  Res
0
f .z0 / B.z; z0 /:
z !z z !i
i

First kind differential. .z/ is said to be 1st kind, if it has no pole. On

a Riemann surface L of genus gN , the vector space of 1st kind forms, is of
dimension gN :

M1; first D H 1 .L; C/ ; dim H 1 .L; C/ D gN :

A basis is given by:

I
1
vi .z/ D B.z; z0 / ; i D 1; : : : ; gN :
2i z0 2Bi

This choice of basis is dual to the basis of Ai cycles:

I
vj .z/ D i;j ; i; j D 1; : : : ; gN :
z2Ai

Third kind differentials. .z/ is said to be third kind, if it has only simple poles.
We may add any first kind form without changing that property, so, up to H adding a
first kind form, we will assume that  can be normalized on A-cycles: Ai  D 0
for every for every i D 1; : : : ; gN . Since the sum of all residues of a differential
form must vanish, a third kind differential must have at least two poles. Let us
denote by P fpi g the set of poles of , and ti D Res pi  the corresponding residues
(and thus i ti D 0). The following formal sum of points of L
X X
DD ti pi  ; deg D D ti D 0;
i i

is called a divisor on L. The set of divisors of degree zero is denoted

Div0 .L/:

We thus have:

M1; 3rd .L/=H 1 .L; C/  Div0 .L/:

7.3 Deformations of Symplectic Invariants 351

A basis of Div0 .L/, is the set of 2-points divisors with residues C1 and 1:

basis of Div0 .L/ D f z1   z2  j .z1 ; z2 / 2 L  L ; z1 z2 g:

The corresponding basis of third kind differentials is:

Z
dSz1;z2 .z/ D B.z; z0 /:
z2 !z1

where the integration path z2 !z1 is the unique homology chain such that:

@ z2 !z1 D z1   z2  ; 8 i D 1 : : : ; gN ; z2 !z1 \ Ai D 0 D z2 !z1 \ Bi :

dSz1 ;z2 .z/ clearly has a simple pole at z D z1 , with residue C1, and a simple pole
at z D z2 with residue 1:
I
Res dSz1;z2 .z/ D 1 D  Res dSz1 ;z2 .z/ ; dSz1 ;z2 D 0:
z!z1 z!z2 Ai

Second kind differentials. They are everything remaining, i.e. .z/ is said to be
second kind, if it has poles of degrees  2, with vanishing residues, and vanishing
integrals around Ai cycles:
I
Res  D 0 ;  D 0:
i Ai

One can prove that if .z/ is second kind, there always exist an analytic function
f .z/, locally defined near the poles i (not necessary defined globally on L), such
that, 8 z 2 L:
X
.z/ D Res
0
B.z; z0 / f .z0 /:
z !i
i

In the end, we see, that for any meromorphic form  2 M1 .L/, there exists an
integration contour   L, and a function f .z/, such that
Z
.z/ D B.z; z0 / f .z0 /:
z0 2 

The linear map M1 .L/ ! C, that associates to any 1-form ! its integral on 
with integrand f :
Z
! 7! f !

352 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

is an element of the dual M1 .L/ , it is a generalized cycle on L, it is also called a

current.
Definition 7.3.1 A generalized cycle  D .  ; f /, is the data of small circle
 around a point, and a complex valued function f analytic on a vicinity of  .
The set of generalized cycles is called

M1 .L/

There is a pairing to the space of meromorphic 1-forms M1 .L/, by:

Z Z
def
. ; !/ D !D f !:
 

M1 .L/  M1 .L/ , i.e. generalized cycles belong to the dual of meromorphic

forms, but the dual may be bigger.
Remark 7.3.2 One may get rid of the function f , by changing R the variable z !
.z/, whose jacobian cancels the f .z/, and then write .z/ D z0 2 B.z; z0 / in the
new variable . This is why . ; f / is indeed a cycle.
This leads to the notion of form-cycle duality:
Definition 7.3.2 (Form-Cycle Duality)
The map
(
M1 .L/ ! M1 .L/ R
BO W
 7! . ; B/ D  .z0 / B.z; z0 /

realizes an isomorphism

M1 .L/=Ker BO  M1 .L/:

that we call form cycle duality.

For any meromorphic 1-form  2 M1 .L/, we call  D BO1 ./ 2
M1 .L/ modulo Ker B, O its dual cycle.
A vector @t of the tangent space of the space of spectral curves, is thus dual to a
meromorphic 1-form  and to a cycle  :

@t 2 T f.L; x; y; B/g $  2 M1 .L/ $ O

 2 M1 .L/=Ker B:

Remark 7.3.3 There are two notions of form-cycle dualities here. The Poincarr
duality induced by the integration pairing, and the one introduced here, induced by
O Those 2 dualities define a mixed Hodge structure, this is beyond the scope of
B.
this book.
7.3 Deformations of Symplectic Invariants 353

.g/
7.3.3 Variation of !n

Using the Rauch formula Eq. (7.3.1) for the variation of the fundamental second
kind form B, we find that:
X Z
B.z; z1 / B.z; z2 /
@t B.z1 ; z2 / D Res B.z; z0 /
i
z!ai dx.z/ dy.z/ z 0 2

Z X B.z; z0 / B.z; z1 / B.z; z2 /

D Res
z0 2 i
z!ai dx.z/ dy.z/
Z
.0/
D !3 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 /
z0 2

(we recall that the derivative @t is taken with x.zi / kept constant, i.e. using x.zi /s as
common local coordinates for all t.
We thus get:
.0/ .0/
Theorem 7.3.1 The variation of !2 , is the integral of !3 on the dual cycle to @t :
Z
.0/ .0/
@t !2 .z1 ; z2 / D !3 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 /:
z0 2

.g/
We shall generalize this theorem to any !n . First, let us rewrite:
Z
.0/
@t B.z1 ; z2 / D !3 .z0 ; z1 ; z2 /
z0 2
Z X
D Res K.z1 ; z/ .B.z; z0 / B.Nz; z2 / C B.z; z2 / B.Nz; z0 //:
z0 2 z!ai
i

(7.3.2)

Then, since
Rz
z0 DNz B.z0 ; z0 /
K.z0 ; z/ D ;
2. y.z/  y.Nz// dx.z/

and since we know the derivatives of B and y and x, we find (we leave it to the
reader, or otherwise look in [34]), that for any quadratic differential Q.z; t/ defined
354 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

in the vicinity of branchpoints ai and such that Q.Nz; t/ D Q.z; t/, that
X X
@t Res K.z0 ; z/ Q.z; t/ D Res K.z0 ; z/ @t Q.z; t/
z!ai z!ai
i i
X
C Res Res K.z0 ; z0 / K.z0 ; z/ Q.z; t/ .z0 /:
z!ai z0 !aj
i;j

(7.3.3)

The topological recursion takes that form with

0
X
.g1/ .h/ .h0 /
Q.z; t/ D !nC1 .z; zN; z2 ; : : : ; zn / C !1CkIj .z; I/!1CkI 0 j .Nz; I 0 /;
hCh0 Dg; ItI 0 Dfz2 ;:::;zn g

and then, by an easy recursion on 2g  2 C n, we find:

.g/
Theorem 7.3.2 (Form-Cycle Duality Variation) The variation of !n , is the
integral of !nC1 .g/ on the dual cycle to @t :
Z
.g/
@t !n.g/ .z1 ; : : : ; zn / D !nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn /;
z0 2

where we recall that derivatives are taken with x.zi /s kept constant.
In particular, for n D 0:
Z
.g/
@t Fg D !1 .z0 /:
z0 2

Notice that the case n D 1; g D 0

Z
.0/ O  /;
@t !1 D B D B.


is true by definition of  .
The case n D 0; g D 0 amounts to
Z
@t F0 D y dx:

7.3 Deformations of Symplectic Invariants 355

Application: Prepotential

Let us specialize this theorem further.

Let us denote
I
1
i D ydx:
2i Ai

If we want to vary i , while keeping all other j s unchanged, and all poles of ydx
(and all the negative part of their Laurent series expansion near poles) unchanged,
we find that .z/ must have no pole, and that
I I
1 @ 1 @
D ydx D j D i;j
2i Aj @i 2i Aj @i

thus, .z/ D 2ivi .z/ is a first kind differential, and is dual to the cycle Bi
I
.z/ D 2i vi .z/ D B.z; z0 /:
z0 2Bi

Theorem 7.3.2 thus gives

.g/ I I
@!n .z1 ; : : : ; zn / .g/ @Fg .g/
D !nC1 .z0 ; z1 ; : : : ; zn / ; D !1 :
@i z0 2B i
@i Bi

And in particular:
I I
@F0 1
D ydx ; where i D ydx:
@i Bi 2i Ai

This property of F0 is the characterization of the prepotential in Seiberg-Witten

theory. This is why, we claim that F0 is the prepotential.
Remark 7.3.4 Theorem 7.3.2 is often referred to as special geometry in the
context of string theory. As we have just seen, it is a generalization of the Seiberg
Witten equation when we restrict to  being first kind forms.
If we restrict to  being second kind forms, we would find that it is also a
generalization of the Miwa-Jimbo tau function, but all this is beyond the scope of
this book.
356 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

7.4 Diagrammatic Representation

.g/
The recursive definitions of !k and Fg can be represented graphically.
.g/
We represent the multilinear form !k . p1 ; : : : ; pk / as a blob-like surface with
.g/
g holes and k legs (or punctures) labeled with the variables p1 ; : : : ; pk , and Fg D !0
with 0 legs and g holes.

p1
p2

(g)
k+1(p, p1 , . . . , pk ) := p , Fg :=

pk (g)
(g)

.0/
We represent the fundamental second kind form B. p; q/ (which is also !2 , i.e.
a blob with two legs and no hole) as a straight non-oriented line between p and q

B. p; q/ WD p q.

We represent the recursion kernel K. p; q/ as a straight arrowed line with the

arrow from p towards q, and with a planar tri-valent vertex whose left leg is q and
right leg is q

q
K. p; q/ WD p .
q

7.4.1 Graphs

Definition 7.4.1 For any k  0 and g  0 such that k C 2g  3, we define:

.g/
Let GkC1 . p; p1 ; : : : ; pk / be the set of connected trivalent graphs defined as
follows:
1. there are 2g C k  1 tri-valent vertices called vertices.
2. there is one 1-valent vertex labelled by p, called the root.
3. there are k 1-valent vertices labelled with p1 ; : : : ; pk called the leaves.
4. There are 3g C 2k  1 edges.
5. Edges can be arrowed or non-arrowed. There are k C g non-arrowed edges and
2g C k  1 arrowed edges.
6. The edge starting at p has an arrow leaving from the root p.
7. The k edges ending at the leaves p1 ; : : : ; pk are non-arrowed.
7.4 Diagrammatic Representation 357

8. The arrowed edges form a spanning2 planar3 binary skeleton4 tree with root
p. The arrows are oriented from root towards leaves. In particular, this induces
a partial ordering of all vertices.
9. There are k non-arrowed edges going from a vertex to a leaf, and g non arrowed
edges joining two inner vertices. Two inner vertices can be connected by a non
arrowed edge only if one is the parent of the other along the tree.
10. If an arrowed edge and a non-arrowed inner edge come out of a vertex, then
the arrowed edge is the left child. This rule only applies when the non-arrowed
edge links this vertex to one of its descendants (not one of its parents).

.2/
7.4.2 Example of G1 . p/

.2/
As an example, let us build step by step all the graphs of G1 . p/, i.e. g D 2 and
k D 0.
We first draw all planar binary skeleton trees with one root p and 2g C k  1 D 3
arrowed edges:

p , p .

Then, we draw g C k D 2 non-arrowed edges in all possible ways such that every
vertex is trivalent, also satisfying rule 9) of Definition 7.4.1. There is only one
possibility for the first graph and two for the second one:

p , , p .

It just remains to specify the left and right children for each vertex. The only
possibilities in accordance with rule 10) of Definition 7.4.1 are5 :

2
It goes through all vertices.
3
planar tree means that the left child and right child are not equivalent. The right child is marked
by a black disk on the outgoing edge.
4
a binary skeleton tree is a binary tree from which we have removed the leaves, i.e. a tree with
vertices of valence 1, 2 or 3.
5
Note that the graphs are not necessarily planar.
358 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

p
p , , p

p
, p .

In order to simplify the drawing, we can draw a black dot to specify the right
child. This way one gets only planar graphs.

p , p
, p

p
, p

Remark that without the prescriptions 9) and 10), one would get 13 different graphs
whereas we only have five.

7.4.3 Weight of a Graph

.g/
Consider a graph G 2 GkC1 . p; p1 ; : : : ; pk /. Then, to each vertex i D 1; : : : ; 2gCk1
of G, we associate a label qi , and we associate qi to the beginning of the left child
edge, and qi to the right child edge. Thus, each edge (arrowed or not), links two
labels which are points on the spectral curve L.
To an arrowed edge going from q0 towards q, we associate a factor K.q0 ; q/.
To a non arrowed edge going between q0 and q we associate a factor B.q0 ; q/.
Following the arrows backwards (i.e. from leaves to root), for each vertex q, we
take the sum over all branchpoints ai of residues at q ! ai .
After taking all the residues, we get the weight of the graph:

w.G/

which is a k-form of . p; p1 ; : : : ; pk / 2 LkC1 .

Similarly, we define weights of linear combinations of graphs by linearity:

w.G1 C G2 / D w.G1 / C w.G2 /

7.4 Diagrammatic Representation 359

and for a disconnected graph, i.e. a product of two graphs:

w.G1 [ G2 / D w.G1 / w.G2 /:

Theorem 7.4.1 We have:

0 1
.g/
X B X C
!kC1 . p; p1 ; : : : ; pk / D w.G/ D w @ GA
.g/ .g/
G2GkC1 . p;p1 ;:::;pk / G2GkC1 . p;p1 ;:::;pk /

Proof This is a mere rewriting of the definition. This encodes precisely what the
recursion equations (7.1.1) of Definition 7.1.6 are doing. Indeed, one can represent
them diagrammatically by

= +
.


Such graphical notations are very convenient, and are a good support for intuition
and even help proving some relationships. It was immediately noticed after [30] that
those diagrams look very much like Feynman graphs, and there was a hope that they
could be the Feynmans graphs for the KodairaSpencer quantum field theory. But
they ARE NOT Feynman graphs, because Feynman graphs cant have non-local
restrictions like the fact that non oriented lines can join only a vertex and one of its
descendent.
Those graphs are merely a notation for the recursive definition (7.1.1).
Lemma 7.4.1 (Symmetry Factor) The weight of two graphs differing by the
exchange of the right and left children of a vertex are the same. Indeed, the
distinction between right and left child is just a way of encoding symmetry factors.
We could restrict ourselves to only topologically different graphs, weighted with a
symmetry factor which would be a power of 2.
Proof This property follows directly from the fact that K.z0 ; z/ D K.z0 ; zN/. 
360 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

7.4.4 Examples

.g/
Let us present some examples of computations of !k and Fg for low values of
.g; k/.

7.4.4.1 Correlators

.g; k/ D .0; 2/.

.0/
!2 . p; q/ D B. p; q/:

.g; k/ D .0; 3/.

p p
1 1
(0) p
3 (p, p1 , p2 ) = + p

p p
2 2

D Res K. p; q/ B.q; p1 /B.q; p2 / C B.q; p1 /B.q; p2 /

q!a

D 2 Res K. p; q/ B.q; p1 /B.q; p2 /

q!a

B.q; p/ B.q; p1/ B.q; p2 /

D Res
q!a dx.q/ dy.q/
X B.ai ; p/ B.ai; p1 / B.ai ; p2 /
D
i
2 dy.ai / dzi .ai /2
X 1 B.ai ; p/ B.ai ; p1 / B.ai ; p2 /
D
i
2y0 .a i / dzi .ai / dzi .ai / dzi .ai /

p
where zi .z/ D x.z/  z.ai / is the canonical local coordinate near ai .
7.4 Diagrammatic Representation 361

.g; k/ D .0; 4/.

p
3
(0) p
4 (p, p1 , p2 , p3 ) = + perm. (1,2,3)
p p
1 2
p
3
p
+ + perm. (1,2,3)
p p
1 2

D Res Res K. p; q/ K.q; r/ B.q; p1 /B.r; p2 /B.r; p3 /

q!a r!a

CB.q; p1 /B.r; p2 /B.r; p3 / C B.q; p2 /B.r; p1 /B.r; p3 /

CB.q; p2 /B.r; p1 /B.r; p3 / C B.q; p3 /B.r; p2 /B.r; p1 /
CB.q; p3 /B.r; p2 /B.r; p1 /
C Res Res K. p; q/ K.q; r/ B.q; p1 /B.r; p2 /B.r; p3 /
q!a r!a

CB.q; p1 /B.r; p2 /B.r; p3 / C B.q; p2 /B.r; p1 /B.r; p3 /

CB.q; p2 /B.r; p1 /B.r; p3 / C B.q; p3 /B.r; p2 /B.r; p1 /
CB.q; p3 /B.r; p2 /B.r; p1 /

.g; k/ D .1; 1/.

(1) p
1 (p) =

D Res K. p; q/ B.q; q/
q!a
362 7 Topological Recursion and Symplectic Invariants

.g; k/ D .2; 1/.

(2)
1 (p) = p + p

+ p + p

+ p

D Res Res Res K. p; q/K.q; r/K.q; s/ B.r; r/B.s; s/

q!a r!a s!a

C Res Res Res K. p; q/K.q; r/K.r; s/ B.r; q/B.s; s/

q!a r!a s!a

C Res Res Res K. p; q/K.q; r/K.r; s/ B.q; r/B.s; s/

q!a r!a s!a

CB.s; q/B.s; r/ C B.s; q/B.s; r/

= 2 p +2 p
+ p

where the last expression is obtained using Lemma 7.4.1.

.g; k/ D .2; 0/.

2F2 D Res Res Res Res . p/ K. p; q/ K.q; r/K.q; s/ B.r; r/B.s; s/

p!a q!a r!a s!a

C Res Res Res Res . p/K. p; q/K.q; r/K.r; s/ B.r; q/B.s; s/

p!a q!a r!a s!a

C Res Res Res Res . p/K. p; q/K.q; r/K.r; s/ B.q; r/B.s; s/

p!a q!a r!a s!a

CB.s; q/B.s; r/ C B.s; q/B.s; r/

where d D y dx.
7.5 Exercises 363

7.4.5 Remark: Pants Gluings

Every Riemann surface of genus g with k boundaries can be decomposed into

2g  2 C k pants whose boundaries are 3g  3 C k closed geodesics (in the Poincarr
metric with constant negative curvature 1). The number of ways of gluing 2g2Ck
.g/
pants by their boundaries is clearly the same as the number of diagrams of Gk , and
each diagram corresponds to one pant decomposition.
Indeed, consider the first boundary labelled by z1 , and attach a pair of pant to this
boundary. Draw an arrowed propagator from the boundary to the first pant. Then,
choose one of the other boundaries of the pair of pants (there are thus two choices),
it must be glued to another pair of pants (possibly not distinct from the first one). If
this pair of pants was never visited, draw an arrowed propagator, and if it was already
.g/
visited, draw a non-arrowed propagator. In the end, you get a diagram of Gk . This
.g/
procedure is bijective, and to a diagram of Gk , one may associate a gluing of pants.
Example with k D 1 and g D 2:

(2)
1 = +2 +2

7.5 Exercises

Exercise 1 Compute F0 for the Kontsevichs spectral curve:

(
x.z/ D z2
EQK W 1 PN 1
y.z/ D z C 2N iD1 i .zi / :

Hint: there are N C 1 poles: 0 D 1, and i D i for i D 1; : : : ; N. The

3
potentials are V0 .z/ D 23 z3 D 23 x.z/ 2 , and Vi .z/ D 0 for i D 1; : : : ; N.
Exercise 2 Compute F0 and F1 for the .2m C 1; 2/ curve:

x.z/ D z2  2u
EQK W P
y.z/ D m Q
kD0 tk Qk .z/

where Qk .z/ D .z2  2u/C

kC1=2
, defined in Eq. (5.2.3).
Chapter 8
Ising Model

In statistical physics, the Ising model represents a simplified model for mag-
netization. Each piece of the surface (here each face of a map) carries a unit
of magnetization, pointing either upward C or downward . This can also be
represented as a map with bicolored faces black/white, or C=, or any other
convenient choice. The color is also called the spin, worth C or .
Our goal is to put the Ising model on a random map, i.e. study the generating
functions counting bi-colored maps.



+
+ ++
+ +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +

+ +
+
+ +

In this chapter, we extend the previous method of Tuttes equations and its
solution by topological recursion, to bicolored maps, i.e. Ising model maps. The
method is more or less the same: define generating functions as formal series in
tv where v is the number of vertices, then write loop equations (generalization of
Tuttes equations), and then solve loop equations.
The loop equation for the disc, is an algebraic equation, and thus the disc
amplitude is an algebraic function, called the spectral curve.
Then, once we know the spectral curve, all the other generating functions (called
amplitudes) can be computed by the topological recursion of Chap. 7. It may look
surprising that the same topological recursion which solves the loop equations for
non-colored maps, also solves the more intricated loop equations of the Ising model.
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 365
B. Eynard, Counting Surfaces, Progress in Mathematical Physics 70,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7643-8797-6_8
366 8 Ising Model

In fact, this same topological recursion also solves the loop equations of many other
enumerative geometry problems, like O.n/-model on random maps, or Potts model
on random maps.
In this chapter, we dont present all computations in details, we just give the
definitions of the model, and the Tutte-like equations, and then the solution without
detailed proof.
The main new feature compared to maps, is that we also compute generating
functions for maps having multi-coloured boundaries. For such boundary generating
functions, we merely state the main results, without proofs (proofs are found in the
literature).

8.1 Bicolored Maps

The Ising model is a model of maps carrying two possible colors or two possible
spins C or . The unmarked faces can carry a spin C or . Here, spin means
color, the spin can take two values C or .
Our maps are constructed by gluing the following sorts of oriented polygonal
pieces, marked on unmarked:

n3
+ + +
n4 + + + +

n5 + +

nd
+ + +

~
n3
~
n4

n~5

~
n~
d

l1 l2 l3 lk
8.1 Bicolored Maps 367

Unmarked faces are required to have degree at least 3. And for the moment, we
consider that marked faces carry only spin C, and as usual, marked faces may have
any degree, and must have a marked edge.
.g/
Definition 8.1.1 The set Mk .v/ is defined to be the set of connected oriented Ising
maps of given genus g, with given number of marked faces k, and given number of
vertices v, which are obtained by gluing those (oriented) pieces together.
Like for uncolored maps, one easily proves, by computing the Euler characteristics,
that this is a finite set.
.0/
Example of a typical map contributing to M1 , it is a planar triangulation, with
only one marked face of perimeter l1 D 8:

+
+ +
+
+ +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+
+ +
+ + +
+

+ +
+
+
+

We wish to enumerate those maps, recording numbers of all kinds of faces, and
also recording the numbers of edges gluing faces of the same color CC or , or
of different colors C.
Definition 8.1.2 We define the generating function

.g/
Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I t3 ; : : : ; td ; Qt3 ; : : : ; QtdQ ; cCC ; c ; cC I t/
t k;1 g;0
D
x1
1 n ./ n4 ./ n ./ nQ3 ./ nQ4 ./ nQ ./
X X t33
t4 ::: tdd Qt3 Qt4 ::: Qt QdQ
C tv 1Cl1 ./ 1Cl2 ./ 1Clk ./
d

vD1 .g/ x1 x2 : : : xk
2Mk .v/

1 n ./ n ./ nC ./
c CC c cC
#Aut./ CC
368 8 Ising Model

where nij ./ is the number of edges separating two faces of colors i and j.
.g/
Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I t3 ; : : : ; td ; Qt3 ; : : : ; QtdQ ; cCC ; c ; cC I t/ is a formal power series
in powers of t:

.g/
Wk 2 Qf1=xi g; ftk g; fQtk g; cCC ; c ; cC t:

As usual, we write only the xi dependence explicitly, and for short we shall write:

.g/ .g/
Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I t3 ; : : : ; td ; Qt3 ; : : : ; QtdQ ; cCC ; c ; cC I t/ D Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk /

and
.g/
Fg D W0 :

Notice, that since a face can be glued to itself, the two faces on both sides of an
edge, may be not distinct.
.g/
It is not so easy to write directly some Tutte-like equations for Wk , by removing
the marked edge recursively on those maps. In fact, it is much easier to first consider
a slightly different set of maps.

8.1.1 Reformulation

Instead of the previous Ising model, let us introduce another model. Consider maps,
whose unmarked pieces can be of spin C or , and also with some bicolored pieces
of degree 2. We add the constraint that edges can be glued together along an edge
only if the spin is the same on both sides of the edge.
8.1 Bicolored Maps 369

n3
+ + +
n4 + + + +

n5 + +

nd
+ + +
+
~
n 3
~
n 4
~
n 5

~
n~
d

l1 l2 l3 lk

Definition 8.1.3 We define a generating function, with a weight c for that new
piece, as well as a weight 1=a per number of CC edges, and 1=b per number of 
edges:

.g/
WO k .x1 ; : : : ; xk I t3 ; : : : ; td ; Qt3 ; : : : ; QtdQ ; a; b; cI t/
t k;1 g;0
D
x1
1 n ./ n4 ./ n ./ nQ3 ./ nQ4 ./ nQ ./
X X t33
t4 ::: tdd Qt3 Qt4 ::: Qt QdQ
C tv 1Cl1 ./ 1Cl2 ./ 1Clk ./
d

vD1 O .g/ .v/

x1 x2 : : : xk
2M k

1
anCC ./ bn ./ cnO ./
#Aut./

where nO ./ is the number of bicolored pieces.

370 8 Ising Model

In this definition, the coefficient of tv is a formal power series in c (indeed

O .g/ .v/
M is not a finite set, because we can glue together as many bicolored pieces as
k
we wish without changing the number of vertices, but for each power of c, there is
a finite number of maps):

.g/
WO k 2 Qf1=xig; ftk g; fQtk g; 1=a; 1=bct:

The reason why we have introduced this model, is because it coincides with the
Ising model:
.g/
Theorem 8.1.1 The generating function WO n of this model coincides with the
.g/
generating function Wn of the Ising model,

.g/
Wk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I t3 ; : : : ; td ; Qt3 ; : : : ; QtdQ ; cCC ; c ; cC I t/
.g/
D WO k .x1 ; : : : ; xk I t3 ; : : : ; td ; Qt3 ; : : : ; QtdQ ; a; b; cI t/:

with the identification:

 1  
cCC cC a c
D :
cC c c b

i.e.
b a c
cCC D ; c D ; cC D :
ab  c2 ab  c2 ab  c2
Proof The sum over powers of c, is a geometrical series and can be performed
explicitly.
We may glue several bicolored pieces so that both external sides have spin C:

++ +++ + ++++++

2 2 4 3 2
1/a c/ab c/ab

that corresponds to an effective CC edge gluing weight:

1 X c2k b
cCC D D :
a k ak bk ab  c2
8.2 Tutte-Like Equations 371

Similarly we may glue such pieces so that both external sides have spin :

++ ++++
2 2 4 3 2
1/b c/ba c/ba

which corresponds to an effective  edge gluing weight:

1 X c2k a
c D D :
b k ak bk ab  c2

And Similarly we may glue such pieces so that external sides have spin C and :

+ + + +
3 22 5 33
c/ab c/ab c/ab

which corresponds to an effective C edge gluing weight:

1
c X c2k c
cC D D :
ab kD0 ak bk ab  c2

Finally we recognize the matrix relationship

 1  
cCC cC a c
D :
cC c c b

8.2 Tutte-Like Equations

Definition 8.2.1 We define the generating function of maps of genus g with n

marked faces of given perimeters:

.g/
Tl1 ;:::;ln D .1/n Res xl11 : : : xlnn Wn.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xn / dx1 : : : dxn :
372 8 Ising Model

We have:
.g/
X Tl1 ;:::;ln
Wn.g/ .x1 ; : : : ; xn / D ; (8.2.1)
l1 ;:::;ln xl11 C1 : : : xlnn C1

as usual this equality is an equality of formal power series in t, and for each power
of t, the sum over l1 ; : : : ; ln is a finite sum.
.g/
Definition 8.2.2 Let us also define TOl;kIl1 ;:::;ln to be the generating function of maps
of genus g, and n C 1 marked faces. n of the marked faces are usual marked faces
carrying spin C, they have degrees li ; i D 1; : : : ; n, and one marked face, is of
degree lCk, so that there are l consecutive edges gluing to spin C, and k consecutive
edges gluing to spin . If k  1, the marked edge on that marked face can always
be assumed to be the first C edge on the right side of a  edge.
.g/
Similarly, we define Gn;k .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn / to be the generating series where we sum
over perimeter of marked faces weighted by xili 1 and xl1 . We have:
.g/ .g/
TOl;kIl1 ;:::;ln D .1/nC1 Res xl xl11 : : : xlnn Gn;k .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn / dx dx1 : : : dxn

(notice that we dont sum over k), and

.g/
.g/
X TOl;kIl1 ;:::;ln
Gn;k .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn / D : (8.2.2)
l;l1 ;:::;ln xlC1 xl11 C1 : : : xlnn C1

Also, if k D 0, we recover:
.g/ .g/
TOl;0Il1 ;:::;ln D Tl;l1 ;:::;ln

and
.g/ .g/
Gn;0 .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn / D WnC1 .x; x1 ; : : : ; xn /:

.0/
For example, here is a typical map contributing to TO6;2 :

+
+ + +
+ +
+ + + + +
+ + + +

+ +
+
+ +

+
+
+ +
8.2 Tutte-Like Equations 373

.g/
Consider a map contributing to TOlC1;kIl1 ;:::;ln . On the other side of the marked edge
(which is a C edge), there can be either:
an unmarked spin C face of degree j, with 3  j  d, and removing the marked
.g/
edge gives a map of TOlCj1;kIl1 ;:::;ln weighted by tj =a.

+ +
+ + + + + +
+ +
+ +
+ + + + + + + +
+ +
+ + + + +
+ +
+
+ + + + + +
+ +
+

.g/
a bicolored face .C/, and removing the marked edge gives a map of TOl;kC1Il1 ;:::;ln
weighted by c=a.

+ + + + + + + +
+ +
+ + + + + +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + + + +

+ + + + + +
+ +
+

the ith marked face of degree li , and removing the marked edge gives a map of
.g/
TOlCli 1;kIl1 ;:::;ln;:::;l
i n
weighted by li =a.

+
+ + + + + + +
+ +
+
+ + + + +
+
+
+ + + +
+ + +

+ + + +

+ + + + +
+ +
+ +
+

the same marked face. In that case, removing the marked edge either disconnects
the map into two maps, or if there was a handle relating the two sides, it gives a
374 8 Ising Model

map of lower genus g  1 and one more boundary.

+ +
+ + +
+
+ + + + + +
+ + + + +
++ +
+ + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +

Finally, we see that bijectively removing the marked edge implies the following
relationships among generating functions:

.g/
X
d
.g/
a TOlC1;kIl1 ;:::;ln D tj TOlCj1;kIl1 ;:::;ln
jD3

.g/
Cc TOl;kC1Il1 ;:::;ln
X
n
.g/
C li TOlCli 1;kIl1 ;:::;lX;:::;l
i n
iD1

X
l1
.g1/
C TOj;kIlj1;l1 ;:::;ln
jD1

X
l1 X
g
X .h/ .gh/
C TOj;kII Tlj1;JnI :
jD1 hD0 Jfl1 ;:::;ln g

Since those equations may increase k by 1, they cant be closed, and thus we
.g/
need another equation. For that purpose, consider a map contributing to TOl;1Il1 ;:::;ln
with k D 1. It has a unique  edge, and on the other side of the  edge, there can
be either:
an unmarked spin  face of degree j, with 3  j  d, Q and removing the  edge
O .g/
gives a map of Tl;j1Il1 ;:::;ln weighted by Qtj =b.

+ + + +
+ + + +
+ +
+ + + + + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
+ +
8.2 Tutte-Like Equations 375

.g/
a bicolored face .C/, and removing the  edge gives a map of TOlC1;0Il1 ;:::;ln
weighted by c=b.

+ ++ +
+ + + +
+ +
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ +
+ + + + + +
+
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + +

+ +

There cannot be another marked face, neither the same marked face, because
there is no other  edge to glue to.
Finally, in terms of generating functions we have
dQ
X
.g/ .g/ .g/
b TOl;1Il1 ;:::;ln D Qtj TOl;j1Il1 ;:::;ln
C c TOlC1;0Il1 ;:::;ln :
jD3

8.2.1 Equation for Generating Functions

As for uncolored maps, we introduce the following series:

X
d
V10 .x/ D ax  tj xj1 ; t2 D a
jD3

dQ
X
V20 .y/ D by  Qtj y j1 ; Qt2 D b
jD3

.0/
c Y.x/ D V10 .x/  W1 .x/;

and:

dQ X
X j2
.g/
Un .x; yI x1 ; : : : ; xn / D .cV20 .y/ C c2 x/n;0 g;0  Qtj y j2k G.g/
n;k .xI x1 ; : : : ; xn /
jD2 kD0

(8.2.3)
dQ X j2 X Q .g/
.g/
X
d X j2 X
Q TOl;kIl1 ;:::;ln
Pn .x; yI x1 ; : : : ; xn / D tj Qtj xj2l y j2k :
jD2 QjD2 lD0 kD0 l1 ;:::;ln xl11 C1 : : : xlnn C1

(8.2.4)
376 8 Ising Model

.g/ .g/
Notice that Un .x; yI x1 ; : : : ; xn / is a polynomial in y, and Pn .x; yI x1 ; : : : ; xn / is a
polynomial in both x and y.
In terms of these, the loop equations become:
Theorem 8.2.1 The generating functions of the Ising model satisfy the following
set of equations (called loop equations or Tuttelike equations):

.g/ .0/
c .y  Y.x// Un.g/ .x; yI x1 ; : : : ; xn / C WnC1 .x; x1 ; : : : ; xn / U0 .x; y/
.g1/
CUnC1 .x; yI x; x1 ; : : : ; xn /
X
g 0
X .h/ .gh/
C U#I .x; yI I/ WnC1#I .x; J n I/
hD0 Ifx1 ;:::;xn g

Xn .g/ .g/
@ Un .x; yI fx1 ; : : : ; xn g n fxi g/  Un .xi ; yI fx1 ; : : : ; xn g n fxi g/
C
iD1
@xi x  xi

D c .V10 .x/  cy/.V20 .y/  cx/ C t c n;0 g;0  P.g/ n .x; yI x1 ; : : : ; xn /: (8.2.5)

8.3 Solution of Loop Equations

Loop equation (8.2.5) look substantially more intricated than Tuttes equations for
maps without Ising spins, however, as we shall see, the symplectic invariants of
Chap. 7 still give the solution.

8.3.1 The Disc: Spectral Curve

The disc corresponds to n D 0 and g D 0, for which the loop equation reads

.0/ .0/
c .y  Y.x// U0 .x; y/ D c.V10 .x/  cy/.V20 .y/  cx/  P0 .x; y/ C t c2 :

The right hand side is a polynomial of both x and y, and we call it E.x; y/:

1 .0/
E.x; y/ D .V10 .x/  cy/.V20 .y/  cx/  P .x; y/ C t c:
c 0

Notice that .V10 .x/  cy/.V20 .y/  cx/ is a polynomial of x of degree d and of y of
Q whereas P.0/
degree d, 0 .x; y/ is a polynomial of x of degree d  2 and of y of degree
dQ  2.
8.3 Solution of Loop Equations 377

The loop equation for the disc can thus be written

.0/
.y  Y.x// U0 .x; y/ D E.x; y/: (8.3.1)

.0/
Since U0 .x; y/ is a polynomial in y, it has no pole at y D Y.x/, and thus, by
substituting y ! Y.x/ we get

E.x; Y.x// D 0:

.0/
This equation shows that Y.x/ is an algebraic function of x, and therefore W1 .x/ D
V10 .x/  cY.x/ is an algebraic function of x. Moreover, we leave to the reader
a straightforward generalization of the 1-cut Browns Lemma (see Sect. 3.1.2 in
Chap. 3) , which shows that this algebraic equation must be of genus 0, and thus the
solution can be parametrized by rational functions. Like Zhukowski variable, we
define:
( PdQ 1
x.z/ D z C kD0 k zk
Pd1
Y.x.z// D y.z/ D z1 C kD0 k zk :

Writing that this parametrization is solution of E.x.z/; y.z// D 0, determines all

.0/
the coefficients ; k ; k , as well as all coefficients of the polynomial P0 .x; y/, as
algebraic functions of t, a, b, c, tj , Qtj , (they are thus algebraic power series in t).
1 0 .0/
Theorem 8.3.1 The disc amplitude Y.x/ D c .V1 .x/  W1 .x// is determined as
follows: Let
( PdQ1
x.z/ D z C kD0 k zk
Pd1
Y.x.z// D y.z/ D z1 C kD0 k zk

where ; k ; k are the unique solutions of the system of equations

t
V10 .x.z//  cy.z/  C O.1=z2 /
z!1 z

tz
V20 .y.z//  cx.z/  C O.z2 /
z!0

such that
ct
2 D C O.t2 / D cC t C O.t2 /:
ab  c2

Then the disc amplitude Y.x/ is:

Y.x.z// D y.z/:
378 8 Ising Model

Proof First, notice that there is a unique solution of loop equations which is a power
series in t (other solutions would have negative or fractional powers of t), indeed,
those equations correspond to recursively adding edges, and they uniquely allow
to construct every Ising map). One can check that this parametric curve is indeed
solution of loop equations, and it is a power series of t, therefore it is the solution
needed. 
Definition 8.3.1 The spectral curve E D .x; y/ is the pair of rational functions x.z/
and y.z/:
( PdQ 1
x.z/ D z C kD0 k zk
P d1
y.z/ D z C kD0 k zk

where k ; k ; are determined by

t tz
V10 .x.z// D cy.z/ C C O.z2 / ; V20 .y.z// D cx.z/ C C O.z2 /
z

and we choose the unique solution such that 2 D O.t/ at small t.

Theorem 8.3.2 (Algebraic Equation) The functions x.z/ and y.z/ are related by
the algebraic equation E.x.z/; y.z// D 0, where E.x; y/ is the polynomial of two
variables given by the resultant:
0 1
0  x 1 ::: dQ 1
B 0  x 1 ::: dQ 1 C
B C
B C
B :: :: C
B : : C
B C
B :: :: C
Q 2 B : : C
 .1/ cd B C
E.x; y/ D det B
B 0  x 1 ::: dQ 1
C
C
Q 2
dC d B C
Bd1 : : : 1 0  y C
B C
B C
B d1 ::: 1 0  y C
B C
B :: :: C
@ : : A
d1 ::: 1 0  y

Proof The resultant vanishes if and only if there is a z which is a common zero of
x.z/x D 0 and y.z/y D 0, indeed observe that the vector .1; z1 ; z2 ; z3 ; : : : / is
an eigenvector of that matrix, for the eigenvalue 0. The resultant is thus a polynomial
of x and y of the correct degree, which vanishes exactly when E.x; y/ vanishes, it
is thus proportional to E.x; y/. The prefactor is determined by matching the large x
behavior of E.x; y/  cxV10 .x/. 
8.3 Solution of Loop Equations 379

Theorem 8.3.3 (Variational Principle)

One can determine the coefficients k ; k ; by extremizing the functional:

dz
. ; k ; k / D Res .V1 .x.z// C V2 .y.z//  c x.z/y.z// C 2t ln
z!1 z

Proof

@ dz
D Res .V10 .x.z//  cy.z// kC1
@k z!1 z
 
t dz
D Res C O.1=z2 /
z!1 z zkC1
D0

@
D Res .V20 .y.z//  cxz// zk1 dz
@k z!1

D  Res .V20 .y.z//  cxz// zk1 dz

z!0
 
tz
D  Res C O.z2 / zk1 dz
z!0
D0

@ dz 2t
D Res .V10 .x.z//  cy.z// dz C Res .V20 .y.z//  cx.z// 2 C
@ z!1 z!1 z
dz 2t
D Res .V10 .x.z//  cy.z// dz  Res .V20 .y.z//  cx.z// 2
C
z!1 z!0 z
   
t tz dz 2t
D Res C O.1=z2 / dz  Res C O.z2 / C
z!1 z z!0 z2
t t 2t
D  C

D 0:

Reciprocally, if @=@k D 0 for all k that means

dz
Res .V10 .x.z//  cy.z// D0
z!1 zkC1

and thus V10 .x.z//  cy.z/ D O.1=z/. Similarly, @=@k D 0 for all k implies that
V20 .y.z//  cx.z/ D O.z/. And then, @=@ D 0 implies that V10 .x.z//  cy.z/ 
t=x.z/ and V20 .y.z//  cx.z/  t=y.z/. 
380 8 Ising Model

8.3.2 Example: Ising Model on Quadrangulations

We chose only t4 and Qt4 non-vanishing.

We have V10 .x/ D ax  t4 x3 and V20 .y/ D by  Qt4 y3 .
Theorem 8.3.1 says that we should look for two rational functions x.z/ and y.z/
of the form (we exploit the parity of V1 and V2 ):

x.z/ D z C 1 z1 C 3 z3 ; y.z/ D =z C 1 z C 3 z3 :

We need to compute:

V10 .x.z// D a. z C 1 z1 /  t4 . 3 z3 C 31 2 z C 33 2 z1 C 312 z1 / C O.z3 /

and thus:
t
c 3 D t4 3 ; c1 D a  3t3 1 2 ; a1  3t4 .3 2 C 12 /  c D ;

and similarly by computing V20 .y.z//  cx.z/:

t
c 3 D Qt4 3 ; c1 D b  3Qt3 1 2 ; b1  3t4 .3 2 C 12 /  c D :

Let us consider for simplicity the symmetric case, where a D b and t4 D Qt4 . In
that case we shall find i D i , and thus:
t
c 3 D t4 3 ; c1 D a  3t4 1 2 ; a1  3t4 .3 2 C 12 /  c D :

That gives an algebraic equation of degree 5 for 2 :

t42 6
.c C 3t4 2 /2 .t C c 2  3 /  ca2 2 D 0:
c
and we chose the unique solution which behaves at small t like

ct
2 D C O.t2 /:
a 2  c2
We then have

a t4 3
1 D ; 3 D  :
c C 3t4 2 c
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 381

8.3.3 All Topologies Generating Functions

Then, knowing this spectral curve we have for Ising maps the equivalent of
Theorem 3.3.1 :
Theorem 8.3.4 The generating functions counting Ising maps, are given by the
symplectic invariants of Chap. 7:

Fg D Fg .E/:
.g/
For the spectral curve E D .C; x; y; B.z; z0 / D dz dz0 =.z  z0 /2 /. The !n .E/s of
Chap. 7 give the generating functions of maps with n marked faces of spin C:

Wn.g/ .x.z1 /; : : : ; x.zn // dx.z1 / : : : dx.zn / D !n.g/ .z1 ; : : : ; zn /

Cn;1 g;0 V10 .x.z1 // dx.z1 /
dx.z1 / dx.z2 /
Cn;2 g;0 :
.x.z1 /  x.z2 //2
(8.3.2)

We skip the proof of this theorem, the interested reader can read the proof in [73].
We just mention that the proof is much more technical than for uncolored maps, it
is not at all a straightforward extension of Chap. 3.

8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions

So far, we have been considering marked faces, as well as unmarked faces carrying
one spin in their center.
Now, let us also consider marked faces having different spins on their sides
(unmarked faces will always have only one spin, either C or ). A typical marked
face can then be:

+
+
+
+ +
+

Let us construct a good set of generating functions for counting maps with such
marked faces with spin boundary conditions.
382 8 Ising Model

8.4.1 Maps with Mixed Boundaries

First, consider maps having n marked faces, of respective perimeters l1 ; : : : ; ln , such

that the ith marked face has 2ki changes of boundary conditions:

marked face i D li;1 spin C; Qli;1 spin ; li;2 spin C; Qli;2 spin ; : : : ; li;ki spin C; Qli;ki spin  :

X
ki
li D li;j C Qli;j :
jD1

Our goal is to compute the generating function which enumerates such configu-
rations:

1 n ./ n4 ./ n ./ nQ3 ./ nQ4 ./ nQ ./
X X t33 t4 : : : tdd Qt3 Qt4 : : : QtdQdQ
v
t Qn Qki 1Cli;j ./ 1CQli;j ./
vD1 .g/
2MnIk .v/ iD1 jD1 xi;j yi;j
1 ;:::;kn

1
anCC ./ bn ./ cnO ./ :
#Aut./

This generating function depends on k parameters of type xi;j (associated to spin

C boundaries of length li;j ) and k parameters of type yi;j (associated to spin 
boundaries of length Qli;j ), where 2k is the total number of boundary condition
changes:

X
n
kD ki :
iD1

8.4.1.1 Fixed k

From now on, it will be better to compute at once all generating functions with a
given k, i.e. with an arbitrary number of marked faces, provided that the total number
of boundary condition changes is 2k.
For instance for k D 2, we have either two marked faces with k1 D k2 D 1, or 1
marked face with k1 D 2.
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 383

For example the following maps both correspond to k D 2. The first one has two
marked faces, one with l1;1 D 5; Ql1;1 D 3 and one with l2;1 D 3; Ql2;1 D 4, and the
second map has only one marked face with l1;1 D 3; Ql1;1 D 1; l1;2 D 2; Ql1;2 D 2:

+ +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + +

+ + +
+ + + + + +


+
+ +
+ +
+ +

For that purpose, let us consider k parameters xi ; i D 1; : : : ; k associated to spin

C pieces of boundaries of respective lengths li , and k parameters yi ; i D 1; : : : ; k
associated to spin  pieces of boundaries of respective lengths Qli . Let us consider all
possible boundary conditions which can be encoded by those 2k parameters.
Consider x1 , it is associated to a piece of C boundary of length l1 of some marked
face. Going around the marked face (in the direction defined by the map orientation),
it must be followed by a  piece of boundary y.1/ of length Ql.1/ , where  is some
permutation of indices. Then, the  piece of boundary y.1/ must be followed by a
C piece of boundary, let us call it x 01 ..1// , where  0 is another permutation. We
proceed until we have completed a cycle around a marked face, i.e. until we have
completed a cycle of the permutation  01 . Then we repeat the same procedure
for all cycles of  01 .

1
xi
y(i) x
y 1

(i)
1
y y
x ( 1
(i)) 1

1 x

y
1

Considering all pairs of permutations .;  0 / exhausts all possible boundary

conditions with 2k changes of boundary spins.
384 8 Ising Model

Definition 8.4.1 Let us define the following generating function:

b.g/ 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /
H ;

D c g;0 k;1
1 n ./ n4 ./ n ./ nQ3 ./ nQ4 ./ nQ ./
X X t33 t4 : : : tdd Qt3 Qt4 : : : QtdQdQ
v
C t Qk 1Cli ./ 1CQli ./
vD1 .g/
2M; 0 .v/ iD1 xi yi

1
anCC ./ bn ./ cnO ./
#Aut./

where we sum over the set of maps whose boundary corresponds to the permutations
;  0 .
We also define the generating functions summed over the genus:
1
X 01
b; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D
H b.g/ 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /
.N=t/22g`. / H ;
gD0
(8.4.1)
where `. 01 / is the number of cycles of  01 . As usual, this equality is to
be understood as an equality of formal series in t, and for each power of t, the sum
over g is finite.
b.g/ 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / counts maps drawn on surfaces of genus g, with
H ;
`. 01 / boundaries, and whose boundaries are labeled by a sequence of x and y
variables according to the cycles of  01 .
Example of a surface of genus 2, with k D 8, and such that  01  has three
cycles:

y x

x y
y (1) y
x
x1 x (1(1))

y y
(1)
x y
x

y x
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 385

8.4.1.2 Non Connected Generating Functions

The formulae that will follow are better written using generating function for non-
necessarily connected maps. But we require that connected pieces contain at least
one boundary.
We define generating functions of non-connected maps, as the product of
connected ones.
For example for k D 1 there is only one boundary, and the map must be
connected, we define

bId1 ;Id1 .xI y/:

HId1 ;Id1 .xI y/ D H

For k D 2, if .;  0 / D .Id2 ; Id2 /, we see that   01 has two cycles, so the maps
can either be connected with two boundaries, or disconnected, thus we define:

bId2 ;Id2 .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 / C H

HId2 ;Id2 .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 / D H bId1 ;Id1 .x1 I y1 / H
bId1 ;Id1 .x2 I y2 /

and if .;  0 / D .Id2 ; .1; 2//, we see that  01  has only one cycle, so it must be
connected and thus we define

bId2 ;.1;2/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 /:

HId2 ;.1;2/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 / D H

And so on.
In general,
Definition 8.4.2 H; 0 is defined as the sum of products of H b ; 0 for all possible
i i
01
ways
Q 01 of decomposing the permutation   into a product disjoint permutations
i i i .

8.4.1.3 The Matrix Generating Function

For every pair of permutations of k variables .;  0 /, we have defined a generating

function H; 0 . Let us now collect them all together into a k  k matrix:
Definition 8.4.3 The matrix generating function H.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / is the k
k matrix, whose lines and columns are indexed by permutations ;  0 and whose
entries are the H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /:

H.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D fH; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /g; 0 2Sk :

386 8 Ising Model

Example with k D 3, we have the 6  6 matrix

here the pictures mean that we sum over all surfaces of all genus, and possibly
disconnected, with the corresponding boundaries.
Theorem 8.4.1 The matrix H.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / is symmetric:

H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D H 0 ; .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / (8.4.2)

Proof It just consists in remarking that reversing the orientation of a map, gives
another map, with the same number k of boundary conditions, and reversing the
boundary just exchanges  and  0 . 

Theorem 8.4.2 (Commutation Relations) We have

H.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /; A D 0

8 i D 1; : : : ; k ; H.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /; Ai  D 0

where Ai is the following k  k matrix with lines and columns indexed by

permutations
8

< y.i/ if  0 D 
1
.Ai /; 0 D Ntc xi x if  0 D  .ij/ :
:
j
0 otherwise
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 387

P
and A D i xi Ai :
8P
< i xi y.i/ if  0 D 
t
A; 0 D if  1  0 D transposition :
: Nc
0 otherwise

Example with k D 3:
0 t 1 t 1
1
y1 N c x1 x2 N c x1 x3 0 0 0
B t 1 t 1 C
B N c x1 x2 y2 0 0 0 N c x1 x3 C
B t 1 C
B N c x x 0 y3 0 t 1
0 C
A1 D BB 0
1 3 N c x1 x2
t 1 t 1 C:
C
B 0 0 y1 N c x1 x3 N c x1 x2 C
B t 1 t 1 C
@ 0 0 N c x1 x2 N c x1 x3 y2 0 A
t 1 t 1
0 N c x1 x3
0 N c x1 x2
0 y3

And we have the corollary.

Theorem 8.4.3 For every ;  2 C, the matrix H.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / commutes
with the k  k matrix M.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I ; / defined by:

Yk  
t 1
M; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I ; / D .i/; 0 .i/ 
iD1
N c .xi  / .y.i/  /
(8.4.3)

(it is a symmetric matrix).

We have

8 ;  ; H.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /; M.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I ; / D 0:

(8.4.4)

Proof We first prove Theorem 8.4.2. We use again some Tuttelike equations.1
Consider the boundary containing x1 , and consider the first edge of that boundary,
it has a sign C.
When we erase this edge, several situations may occur:
on the other side of the removed edge, we have a j gon of sign C, then the
corresponding term in Tutte equation will be:
X j1
ax1 H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D . tj x1 H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk //
j

C other possibilities

1
The proof of these two theorems was done in [72]. The proof presented here, is much simpler, and
is due to Luigi Cantini in 2007. It was never published and we thank L. Cantini for that proof.
388 8 Ising Model

where the subscript ./ means that we keep only negative powers of x1 .
on the other side of the removed edge, we have a bicolored .C/ face, i.e. after
removing the edge, we get an edge of sign , which thus enters the boundary
y 0 .1/ , then the corresponding term in Tutte equation will be:

ax1 H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D c .y 0 .1/ H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk //

C other possibilities

and the subscript ./ means that we keep only negative powers of y 0 .1/ .
on the other side of the removed edge, we have an edge of the same face or of
another marked face, let us say it is xj for some j 1. Erasing the edge either
disconnects the boundary into two pieces (and reduces the genus by 1), or on the
contrary merges two boundaries. In both cases, the boundary .;  0 / becomes
.;  0 .1j//. Then the corresponding term in Tutte equation will be:

t 1 
ax1 H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D H; 0 .1;j/ .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /
N x1  xj

H; 0 .1;j/ .xj ; x2 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /

Cother possibilities

on the other side of the removed edge, we have an edge of the x1 component of
the same boundary. Erasing the edge either disconnects the boundary into two
pieces, which either disconnects the surface, or decreases the genus by 1. Then
the corresponding term in Tutte equation will be:

ax1 H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D W.x1 / H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /

.1/
CH; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I x1 /
Cother possibilities

.1/
where H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I x1 / gathers all the possibilities of disconnect-
ing the surface or decreasingP the genus by 1.
Finally, writing that ax  j tj xj1 D V10 .x/, that gives

.V10 .x1 /  W.x1 //H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / 
.1/
H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I x1 /
t X 1
 H; 0 .1;j/ .xj ; x2 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /
N x 1  xj
j1
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 389

t X 1
D c y 0 .1/ H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /  H; 0 .1;j/ .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /
N x1  xj
j1
X
Dc H; 00 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / 00 ; 0 .A1 / 00 ; 0 :
 00

The key is to observe that all the terms in the left hand side are symmetric under
transposition  $  0 , and thus, taking the difference of that equation with its
transpose gives:

0 D HA1  .H A1 /t D HA1  A1 H D H; A1 :

The proof is similar for the other Aj s. This ends the proof of Theorem 8.4.2.
We shall not prove Theorem 8.4.3 here. We just give an argument towards it. The
full proof is very involved and relies on group theory, so is beyond the scope of this
book (more on the properties of matrices M can be found in [33, 77]).
The argument, is that the algebra of k  k matrices which commute with all Ai s
is generated by the matrices M.
Just observe that all those matrices commute together:

8 ;  0 ; ; 0 ; M.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I ; /; M.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I  0 ; 0 / D 0

(this commutation relation is not trivial, it relies on group theory of the unitary group
U.k/ [33]).
Then, expanding M at large  and , one has

 Nc k.k  1/ t2
AD Res Res .M  .1 C / Idk /
t !1 !1 2 N 2 c2

which implies that A; M D 0.

Similarly, expanding at  ! 1 and  ! xi we have
0 1
t X 1 A Nc
Ai D @ Idk C Res lim!1  .M  Idk /;
Nc xi  xj t !xi
ji

which implies that Ai ; M D 0.

There are also matrices Mi;j defined as

Mi;j .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D Res Res M.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I ; /

!xi !yj

which also commute with all the others

Mi;j ; M D 0:

390 8 Ising Model

8.4.1.4 Example k D 2

Let us see what this theorem tells us for k D 2:

We have
 t

x1 y1 C x2 y2
AD t
Nc D x1 A1 C x2 A2 ;
Nc
x1 y2 C x2 y1
! !
t 1 t 1
y1 Nc x1 x2 y2 Nc x2 x1
A1 D t 1 ; A2 D t 1 ;
Nc x1 x2
y2 Nc x2 x1
y1

and we find that the matrix M is

 
t 2  .y1 C y2 /  .x1 C x2 /  Nct
M.x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 I ; / D 1  Id2
Nc .x1  /.y1  /.x2  /.y2  /
t 1
 A;
Nc .x1  /.y1  /.x2  /.y2  /

and
   
t 10 t2 1 11
M1;1 D C 2 2
Nc 00 N c .x1  x2 / .y1  y2 / 1 1
t x1 y2 C x2 y1 C Nct t A
D Id2  :
N c .x1  x2 /.y1  y2 / N c .x1  x2 /.y1  y2 /

One easily verifies that they all commute together.

The eigenvalues of A are:
s
.x1 C x2 /.y1 C y2 / 1 t2
D .x1  x2 /2 .y1  y2 /2 C 4 :
2 2 N 2 c2

and the eigenvalues of A1 and A2 are

s
y1 C y2 1 t2
1 D .x1  x2 /2 .y1  y2 /2 C 4
2 2.x1  x2 / N 2 c2
s
y1 C y2 1 t2
2 D
.x1  x2 /2 .y1  y2 /2 C 4 :
2 2.x1  x2 / N 2 c2
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 391

P 
The common vectors of all these matrices, normalized so that  .1/ v D 1 are:
0 q 1
2t 2
1 C x12 y12 C x212 y212 C 4 N 2t c2
vD @Nc q A
2 x12 y12 2t
 x12 y12 C
2
x212 y212 C 4 N 2t c2
Nc

where we have denoted xij D xi  xj and

P yij D yi  yj to shorten the notations.
The matrix V with entries Vi;j D ; .i/Dj .1/ v , that we shall consider in
the next section is:
q
  2t
C x212 y212 C 4 N 2t c2  1 1
2
1 11 Nc
VD C :
2 11 2 x12 y12 1 1

Then write
 
HId2 ;Id2 .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 / HId2 ;.1:2/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 /
H.x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 / D :
H.1;2/;Id2 .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 / H.1;2/;.1:2/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 /

That gives

M.x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 I ; /; H.x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 /

 t
D .x1  x2 /.y2  y1 /HId2 ;.1:2/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 / C .HId2 ;Id2 .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 /
Nc
 0 1
H.1;2/;.1:2/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 //
10

and therefore Theorem 8.4.3 implies

t HId2 ;Id2 .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 /  H.1;2/;.1;2/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 /

HId2 ;.1:2/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 / D :
Nc .x1  x2 / .y1  y2 /

b and also written for fixed genus:

This can be rewritten in terms of connected H,

b .g/
cH Id2 ;.1:2/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 /

b.g1/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 /  H
H b.g1/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 /
Id2 ;Id2 .1;2/;.1;2/
D
.x1  x2 / .y1  y2 /
g b.h/
X .gh/
bId b.h/ b.gh/
H Id1 ;Id1 .x1 I y1 / H 1 ;Id1
.x2 I y2 /  H Id1 ;Id1 .x1 I y2 / H Id1 ;Id1 .x2 I y1 /
C :
hD0
.x1  x2 / .y1  y2 /
392 8 Ising Model

In particular, for the planar case g D 0, that gives:

Corollary 8.4.1

b .0/
cH Id2 ;.1:2/ .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 /

b.0/ .x1 I y1 / H
H b.0/ .x2 I y2 /  H
b.0/ .x1 I y2 / H
b.0/ .x2 I y1 /
Id1 ;Id1 Id1 ;Id1 Id1 ;Id1 Id1 ;Id1
D :
.x1  x2 / .y1  y2 /
(8.4.5)

Graphically it says that:

At the time of writing of this book, there is no known combinatorial interpretation

to that remarkable relationship.

8.4.1.5 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of the Commuting Matrices

Ai ; A; M; Mi;j

The k  k matrices Ai all commute Ai ; Aj  D 0, and they also commute with M,

and thus they have a common basis of eigenvectors.
Finding the eigenvalues of a k  k matrix is not easy, and fortunately, the
following theorem allows to find these eigenvalues, only in terms of k  k matrices,
which is much easier:
Theorem 8.4.4 Let Y D diag.y1 ; : : : ; yk / and the k  k antisymmetric matrix
1
i;j D Nt xi x j
if i j, and i;i D 0. Let D diag.1 ; : : : ; k / be a solution (there
are k solutions to this algebraic equation) of

8 ; det. Idk   / D det. Idk  Y/;

i.e. find such that the eigenvalues of C are y1 ; : : : ; yk

sp. C / D fy1 ; : : : ; yk g:

Then, let Vi;j be the k  k matrix of eigenvectors of C

C D V Y V 1
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 393

normalized such that it is a stochastic matrix (it is proved below that this is indeed
possible):
X X
Vi;j D Vi;j D 1:
i j

Then:
eigenvalue of Ai : i P
eigenvalue of A :  D i xi i
P Vi;j
eigenvalue of M :  D 1  Nct i;j .xi /.yj /
.
eigenvalue of Mi;j : i;j D  Nct Vi;j
where Mi;j D Res !xi Res !yj M.
Proof Let v D .v / be a common eigenvector. Let us define the k  k matrix
X
Vi;j D .1/ v :
 j .i/Dj

It satisfies:
X X X
Vi;j D Vi;j D .1/ v D et :v
i j 

where e is the vector e D .1/ , and et is its transposition.

Notice that when N is large, or equivalently, when the xi s and yi s are large
compared to t=Nc, the matrices A and Ai s are almost diagonal, with distinct
eigenvalues. In this regime, the eigenvectors v tend to the basis vectors, i.e. only
one component v is non-vanishing, i.e. et :v ! .1/ v 0.
Moreover, the eigenvectors are algebraic functions of the xi s and yi s, and thus
et :v is an algebraic function, and it doesnt vanish in this regime, so it doesnt vanish
for generic values of xi s and yi s.
We can thus chose to normalize our eigenvector v, for generic values of xi s and
yi s, so that the matrix V is not identically vanishing, and so that:

et :v D 1:

The equation Ai v D i v implies:

X t
8 i; j ; i Vi;j C Vl;j D yj Vi;j
Nc.xi  xl /
li
394 8 Ising Model

If we define D diag.1 ; : : : ; k / and Y D diag.y1 ; : : : ; yk /, and i;j D t

Nc.xi xj /
and i;i D 0 we have

. C / V D V Y:

If V would be invertible that would mean that the yi s are the eigenvalues of C :

Y
k
det.y   / D .y  yi /;
iD1

or

8 i; det.yi   / D 0:

In other words, we have the yi s as functions of the i s and xi s. We can invert those
relations and deduce the i s as algebraic functions of the yi s and xi s.
Let YQ D .Qy1 ; : : : ; yQ k / be the eigenvalues of C , and let VQ be a matrix
whose columns are a basis of eigenvectors of C . By definition the matrix VQ
of eigenvectors is invertible. The eigenvectors are defined up to a scalar factor, i.e.
VQ is defined up to right multiplication by an invertible diagonal matrix. For generic
choices of xi s and yi s, we may normalize VQ so that:
X
8j; VQ i;j D 1:
i

We thus have, by definition:

C D VQ YQ VQ 1 :

Multiplying by V on the right, and by VQ 1 on the left, we get:

YQ VQ 1 V D VQ 1 VY;

and Y and YQ are both diagonal matrices. Let C D VQ 1 V, we have:

8 i; j ; Ci;j .Qyi  yj / D 0:

This implies that either Ci;j D 0, or yQ i D yj . Moreover we have, by our choices of

normalization, that
X
8j; Ci;j D 1
i
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 395

so that for each j there must exist some i with Ci;j 0, and thus there must exist
some i with yQ i D yj . If the yj s are all distinct, then there is at most one yQ i equal to yj
for each j, and thus Ci;j D 0 for all the others. Up to reordering thePeigenvalues of
Q we may chose that yQ i D yi , and C must be diagonal, and since i Ci;j D 1, we
Y,
must have C D Id:

YQ D Y ; Q
V D V:

This proves in particular that V is invertible (for generic values of xi s and yi s).
So we have proved that V is the matrix of eigenvectors of C , and can be
chosen to be stochastic.
Then, if we write
X 1
M.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I ; / D Id C Mi;j .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /
i;j
.  xi / .  yj /

where

Mi;j .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D Res Res M.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I ; /:

!xi !yj

Let us call  the eigenvalue of M and i;j the eigenvalues of Mi;j for the eigenvector
v.

M.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk I ; / v D  v ; Mi;j .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / v D i;j v

we have:
X i;j
D1C :
i;j
.  xi /.  yj /

Let us multiply on the left by the vector e of components e D .1/ , we get

et M v D  et v:

Let us compute et M:

X Y 0 t 1

.et M/ D .1/  0 .i/;.i/ 
Nc .  xi /.  y 0 .i/ /
0 i
 
t 1
D det j;.i/ 
Nc .  xi /.  yj /
 
 t 1
D .1/ det i;j  :
Nc .  xi /.  y. j/ /
396 8 Ising Model

Notice that the matrix inside the determinant is of the form Id  ABt , where A and
B are vectors, we have:

det.I  ABt / D 1  Bt A;

and thus
!
 t X 1
.e M/ D .1/
t
1 ;
Nc i .  xi /.  y.i/ /

and then, taking the residue at  D xi and  D yj gives

t
.et Mi;j / D  .1/ .i/;j :
Nc

Multiplying Mi;j v D i;j v by et on the left thus gives

t
 Vi;j D i;j et :v D i;j :
Nc

In that case, we have that the eigenvalue of Mi;j is i;j D  Nct Vi;j .

t
Mi;j v D  Vi;j v:
Nc
This ends the proof of the theorem. 
Corollary 8.4.2 Since the matrices H.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / commute with Ms,
they must have the same basis of eigenvectors. Let V;
be a matrix whose columns
are eigenvectors normalized so that:

V t V D Id

(which is possible since all our matrices are symmetric), and so that

Ve D e ; et V D et

where e is the vector e D .1/ .

We thus may write:
X
H; 0 .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D V;
V 0 ;
H
.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /

where the H
.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /s are the eigenvalues of H.x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ;
: : : ; yk /, indexed by a permutation
.
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 397

This can also be written as:

H D Vt H V is diagonal:

8.4.2 Planar Discs

Here we restrict ourselves to the g D 0 planar case, and also to the case where we
have only one boundary, i.e.  01  has only one cycle, and up to renaming the
variables, we can always choose  D Idk and  0 as the shift  0 .i/ D i  1 mod k,
i.e.  0 D .1 ! k ! k  1 ! k  2 !    ! 2 ! 1/. Our goal in this section is to
compute explicitly all the generating functions

.0/
HIdk ;.1!2!!k!1/ .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /:

This is achieved by the following theorem, and it uses the knowledge of the
spectral curve E.x; y/ D 0, which we have written parametrically in Sect. 8.3 above
as x D x.z/; y D y.z/, or in Theorem 8.3.2:
Theorem 8.4.5 for k D 1

.0/ 1 E.x.z/; y.z0 //

HId1 ;Id1 .x.z/I y.z0 // D ; (8.4.6)
c .x.z/  x.z0 // .y.z/  y.z0 //
and for k > 1:
.0/
HIdk ;.1!2!!k!1/ .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /

X Y
k
.0/
D C .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / HId1 ;Id1 .xi I y .i/ / (8.4.7)
 iD1

where the coefficients C .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / are some universal rational func-

tions (defined further below) of the xi s and yi s, they are independent of the
parameters tk s and c; .
Again, the proof of this theorem is very technical and far from straightforward,
and we refer the motivated reader to [72]. Equation (8.4.7) can also be derived from
Theorem 8.4.3.
Proof Let us first prove Eq. (8.4.6) by using Tuttes method again.
Recall that we have computed the generating function (see Definition 8.2.2)
dQ j2k
X X
.0/ .0/
U0 .x; y/ D V20 .y/ C cx  G0;k .x/
jD2 kD0
398 8 Ising Model

which counts planar maps with 1 mixed boundary, made of a  boundary of length
k and a C boundary of arbitrary length weighted by x1length , and in Eq. (8.3.1) we
have found:
.0/ E.x; y/
U0 .x; y/ D :
c.y  Y.x//
Then, consider a planar Ising map with a unique marked face with .C; / boundary
with arbitrary lengths.
Chose the first  edge on the boundary, and we shall erase it. Several possibilities
may occur:
on the other side of the removed edge, we have a j gon of sign 

then the corresponding term in Tutte equation will be:

.0/
X .0/
by.c C H1;1 .xI y// D Qtj y j1 .c C H1;1 .xI y// C other possibilities:
j

Notice that erasing the edge can be done only if the length is positive, i.e. if the
power of y is strictly negative, which we can write
0 1
  X
.0/ .0/
b yH1;1 .xI y/ D @ Qtj y H1;1 .xI y/A C other possibilities:
j1

j


Recall that by definition of V20

X
by  Qtj y j1 D V20 .y/;
j

.0/
and observe that the positive powers of y in V20 .y/H1;1 .xI y/ is precisely the
.0/
definition Eq. (8.2.3) in Sect. 8.2.1 of U0 .x; y/ C cV20 .y/  c2 x:
 
.0/ .0/
V20 .y/.c C H1;1 .xI y// D U0 .x; y/ C cV20 .y/  c2 x;
C
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 399

and thus the equation is

.0/ .0/
V20 .y/.c C H1;1 .xI y// D U0 .x; y/ C cV20 .y/  c2 x C other possibilities

on the other side of the removed edge, we have a bicolored .C/ face, i.e. after
removing the edge, we get an edge of sign C,

the corresponding term in Tutte equation will be:

   
.0/ .0/
b y.c C H1;1 .xI y// D c x .c C H1;1 .xI y// C other possibilities
 

where in the right hand side we need to keep only strictly negative powers of x.
.0/ Q
Notice that the positive powers of x in x H1;1 .xI y/ give W.y/ D V20 .y/  cX.y/,
and thus we get
 
.0/ .0/
by.c C H1;1 .xI y// D cx .cCH1;1 .xI y//c.V20 .y/cX.y//Cother possibilities


on the other side of the removed edge, we have the same face

then the corresponding term in Tutte equation will be:

 
.0/ Q .0/
by.c C H1;1 .xI y// D W.y/ .c C H1;1 .xI y// C other possibilities

.0/
D .V20 .y/  cX.y// .c C H1;1 .xI y// C other possibilities:

Finally, putting all possibilities together we get

.0/ .0/
V20 .y/ .c C H1;1 .xI y// D U0 .x; y/ C cV20 .y/  c2 x
.0/
Ccx .c C H1;1 .xI y//  c.V20 .y/  cX.y//
.0/
C.V20 .y/  cX.y// .c C H1;1 .xI y//
400 8 Ising Model

many terms cancel and it remains

.0/ .0/ E.x; y/

c.X.y/  x// H1;1 .xI y/ D U0 D :
y  Y.x/

This proves the first part of the theorem.

Then we use:

H; A1 ; 0 D 0

with  D Idk and  0 D Sk . This gives:

Nc
.y1  yk / HIdk ;Sk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /
t
X 1 
D H.1;j/;Sk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /  HIdk ;Sk .1;j/ .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /
x1  xj
j1

and keep only planar terms:

N O .0/
HIdk ;Sk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / ! H .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /
t Idk ;Sk
and

N 2 O .0/
H.1;j/;Sk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / ! H .xj ; x2 ; : : : ; xj1 I y1 ; : : : ; yj1 /
t2 Idj1 ;Sj1
.0/
HO IdkC1j ;SkC1j .x1 ; xjC1 ; : : : ; xk I yj ; : : : ; yk /

and

N 2 O .0/
HIdk ;Sk .1;j/ .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / ! H .x2 ; : : : ; xj I y2 ; : : : ; yj /
t2 Idj1 ;Sj1
.0/
HO IdkC1j ;SkC1j .x1 ; xjC1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; yjC1 ; : : : ; yk /

.0/
c .yk  y1 / HO Idk ;Sk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk /
X 1  .0/ .0/
D HO Idj1 ;Sj1 .x1 ; : : : ; xj1 I y1 ; : : : ; yj1 / HO IdkC1j ;SkC1j .xj ; : : : ; xk I yj ; : : : ; yk /
x1  xj
j1

.0/ .0/
HO Idj1 ;Sj1 .xj ; x2 ; : : : ; xj1 I y1 ; : : : ; yj1 / HO IdkC1j ;SkC1j .x1 ; xjC1 ; : : : ; xk I yj ; : : : ; yk /
8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 401

This can be illustrated as:

1
c(yk y1 ) =
j
x1 xj

We see that at each step we split the set of variables fxi gs and fyi gs into disjoint
subsets, by drawing two arcs, which split the circle into two circles. The two arcs
can never cross.
By an easy recursion, we shall eventually split the circle by a set of arcs, in order
.0/
to reach only circles of length 2, i.e. a product of HO 1;1 .xi I y .i/ / with  a permutation.
Moreover,  must be a planar permutation, i.e. it draws a link pattern on the circle,
which can never cross itself.
Therefore there exists some coefficients C s which are rational functions of the
xi s and of the yi s, such that

.0/
X Y
k
.0/
HO Idk ;Sk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D C .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / HO 1;1 .xi I y .i/ /:
 2Sk iD1

where C D 0 if  is not planar.

.0/
By inserting this expression into the equation for HO Idk ;Sk , one finds that the
coefficients C have to satisfy the recursion:

1 X
k1 X X
C .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D
c .x 1 .k/  x1 / jD1 2S.1;:::;j/
2S. jC1;:::;k/

C .x1 ; : : : ; xj I y1 ; : : : ; yj / C
.xjC1 ; : : : ; xk I yjC1 ; : : : ; yk /
;
:
yk  yj

This recursion determines all the coefficients C . We shall write them explicitly
below.
This ends the proof. 
Example k D 2:

.0/ .0/ .0/ .0/

.0/ HO 1;1 .x1 I y1 / HO 1;1 .x2 I y2 /  HO 1;1 .x1 I y2 / HO 1;1 .x2 I y1 /
HO Id2 ;S2 .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 / D :
c y21 x12
402 8 Ising Model

Example k D 3:

.0/
HO Id3 ;S3 .x1 ; x2 ; x3 I y1 ; y2 ; y3 /
.0/ .0/ .0/ .0/
HO 1;1 .x1 I y1 / HO Id2 ;S2 .x2 ; x3 I y2 ; y3 /  HO 1;1 .x2 I y1 / HO Id2 ;S2 .x1 ; x3 I y2 ; y3 /
D
c x12 y31
.0/ .0/ .0/ .0/
HO Id2 ;S2 .x1 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 / HO 1;1 .x3 I y3 /  HO Id2 ;S2 .x3 ; x2 I y1 ; y2 / HO 1;1 .x1 I y3 /
C
c x13 y31

which gives:

.0/
c2 HO Id3 ;S3 .x1 ; x2 ; x3 I y1 ; y2 ; y3 /
 
.0/ .0/ .0/ 1 1 1
D HO 1;1 .x1 I y1 / HO 1;1 .x2 I y2 / HO 1;1 .x3 I y3 / C
x12 y31 x23 y32 x13 y21
 
.0/ .0/ .0/ 1 1 1
CHO 1;1 .x1 I y3 / HO 1;1 .x2 I y1 / HO 1;1 .x3 I y2 / C
x13 y31 x12 y32 x32 y21
.0/ .0/ .0/ 1
CHO 1;1 .x1 I y1 / HO 1;1 .x2 I y3 / HO 1;1 .x3 I y2 /
x12 x23 y23 y31
.0/ .0/ .0/ 1
CHO 1;1 .x1 I y3 / HO 1;1 .x2 I y2 / HO 1;1 .x3 I y1 /
x13 x32 y21 y13
.0/ .0/ .0/ 1
CHO 1;1 .x1 I y2 / HO 1;1 .x2 I y1 / HO 1;1 .x3 I y3 / :
x21 x13 y32 y21

8.4.2.1 The Planar Link Patterns and the Coefficients C

In the planar case, the boundary generating functions are thus of the form:

.0/
X Y
k
.0/
HO Idk ;Sk .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / D C .x1 ; : : : ; xk I y1 ; : : : ; yk / HO 1;1 .xi I y .i/ /:
 2Sk iD1

The coefficients C satisfy a recursion relation. The explicit solution of this

recursion was found in [72], and we just mention the result.
The coefficients C are determined as follows (we recall that  D Idk and  0 D
Sk is the shift  0 .i/ D i  1 mod k, and `./ denotes the number of cycles of a
permutation ):
C vanishes if `. 1 / C `. 1  0 /  `. 01 / k:

C 0 ) `. 1 / C `. 1  0 /  `. 01 / D k: (8.4.8)

8.4 Mixed Boundary Conditions 403

This means that  must be a planar link pattern drawn on the cycles of  01 :

y2
x2
y1

x1

yk

xk

x (k)

If condition Eq. (8.4.8) is satisfied, we decompose the cycles of  1  and

 1  0 as follows:
0
Y
m Y
m
1 1 0
  D i ;   D N i :
iD1 iD1

In other words, each i or N i is a face of the link pattern.

y3 x4
x3
y4
y2


x2 3
x
5

y5
y1 2 1

x1
4 3 5 x
2 6
y12
1 y6

x 12 5 x
7
7
y11 y7


x 11 6 4
6 x8
y10 y8
x x9
10 y9
404 8 Ising Model

If j is in a cycle i of  1 , the face is

xj ! y. j/ ! xi . j/ ! y.i . j// ! xi .i . j// !    ! y 1 . j/ ! xj

and we prefer to write i as the ordered set of variables:

i  .x j ; y. j/ ; xi . j/ ; y.i . j// ; xi .i . j// ; : : : ; y 1 . j/ /:

Similarly for N i , we write

N i  .x j ; y 0 . j/ ; xN i . j/ ; y 0 .N i . j// ; xN i .N i . j// ; : : : ; y 1 .j/ /:

With those notations, we shall write C as a product of faces:

0
Y
m Y
m
C D F`.i / .i / F`.N i / .N i /:
iD1 iD1

The face functions Fk .x1 ; y1 ; x2 ; y2 ; : : : ; xk ; yk / are defined by the following

recursion:

F1 .x; y/ D 1

and

X
k1
Fj .x1 ; y1 ; : : : ; xj ; yj / Fkj .xjC1 ; yjC1 ; : : : ; xk ; yk /
Fk .x1 ; y1 ; : : : ; xk ; yk / D :
jD1
c .x1  xk / .yk  yj /

They have the property to be cyclically invariant.

For instance for k D 2 we get

1
F2 .x1 ; y1 ; x2 ; y2 / D :
c .x1  x2 / .y2  y1 /

In fact, it is possible to write the functions Fk s as sums over trees, this was done
in [72], and we refer the interested reader to that article.

8.5 Summary: Ising Model

Let us summarize the concepts introduced in this chapter:

The Ising model is the combinatorics of bi-colored maps (colors = C and ,
also called spin), conditioned on the number of edges separating faces of same
or different colors.
8.5 Summary: Ising Model 405

We introduce Boltzman weights tk for the number of kgons of color C, Qtk for
the number of kgons of color , and cCC for CC edges, c for  edges, and
cC for C edges. We define c D cC =.cCC c  c2C /, a D c =.cCC c 
c2C /, b D cCC =.cCC c  c2C /.
These define the potentials:

x2 X tk k
V1 .x/ D a  x
2 k3
k

y2 X Qtk k
V2 .y/ D b  y:
2 k3
k

One can write Tutte equations by recursively erasing the marked edge of the first
marked face.
.0/
The disc amplitude W1 .x/ is an algebraic function, we define Y.x/ D 1c .V10 .x/ 
.0/
W1 .x//. It satisfies an algebraic equation:

E.x; Y/ D 0

where E.x; y/ is a bivariate polynomial, of degree degx E D d  1 D deg V1 and

degy E D dQ  1 D deg V2 . It can be written

1 .0/
E.x; y/ D .V10 .x/  cy/.V20 .y/  cx/  P0 .x; y/ C tc
c
.0/
where P0 .x; y/ is a polynomial of degree at most deg V100 in x and deg V200 in y.
.0/
The polynomial P0 .x; y/ is uniquely determined by requiring that the
algebraic equation E.x; y/ D 0 defines a Riemann surface of genus 0, and by
.0/ V 0 .x/ V 0 .y/
P0 .x; y/ D 1x 2y C O.t/.
Since the algebraic equation has genus zero, one can find a parametric solution
with rational functions:
( Pdeg V 0
x D x.z/ D z C kD0 2 k zk
Pdeg V 0
Y D y.z/ D z1 C kD0 1 k zk

and the coefficients , k , k s are uniquely determined by requiring that

t
V10 .x.z//  cy.z/  C O.z2 /
z!1 z
tz
V20 .y.z//  cx.z/  C O.z2 /;
z!0

2 D cC t C O.t2 /:
406 8 Ising Model

The disc amplitude is then:

.0/
W1 .x.z// D V10 .x.z//  cy.z/:

.0/
The cylinder amplitude W2 .
In the z variables (i.e. writing xi D x.zi /), we have:

.0/ 1 1
W2 .x1 ; x2 / D  :
.z1  z2 /2 x .z1 / x .z2 / .x1  x2 /2
0 0

The differential form:

.0/ dx1 dx2 dz1 dz2

B.z1 ; z2 / D W2 .x1 ; x2 /dx1 d2 C D
.x1  x2 /2 .z1  z2 /2

is the fundamental second kind differential.

The cylinder amplitude is thus universal, in the z variables it is always the
fundamental second kind differential.
Higher topology amplitudes are given by the topological recursion.
There are also algebraic formulae for enumerating maps with multi-colored
boundaries.

8.6 Exercises

Exercise 1 For Ising quadrangulations (only t4 and Qt4 non vanishing), count ele-
.0/ .0/
ments of M1 .2/ and M1 .3/, i.e. planar Ising quadrangulations with one boundary
(of color C), and with two and three vertices.
Answer:
!
2
.0/ t 2 cCC 3 2cCC 2t4 c3CC C 2Qt4 c2C c
W1 D C t 3 C t C C O.t4 /:
x x x5 x3

Exercise 2 For Ising quadrangulations (only t4 and Qt4 non vanishing), find the disc
amplitude. Write the parametrization:

x.z/ D z C 1 z1 C 3 z3 ;

y.z/ D z1 C 1 z C 3 z3 :

Find that the algebraic equation satisfied by R D 2 is of degree 7:

t .bc  3aQt4 R/.ac  3bt4 R/ t4Qt4

RD CR C 3 2 R3 :
c .c  9t4 Qt4 R /
2 2 2 c
8.6 Exercises 407

Consider the special case where t4 D Qt4 D 1, a D b and c D 1. In that case we

shall have 1 D 1 and 3 D 3 . Find the equation of degree 5 for R D 2 :

a2 R
RDtC C 3R3 :
.1 C 3R/2

Exercise 3 For the same Ising model on quadrangulations with t4 D Qt4 D 1, a D b

.0/
and c D 1, find the critical points, i.e. the values of a and t4 such that W1 .x/ has
non-square root singularities. This is obtained by requiring that x .z/ and y0 .z/ have
0

a common zero.
Find the critical lines at which there is a 3=2 singularity:

9 3
t D 1  a2
2 8
and
9 p
t D 1 C 3a
2a a:
2

If furthermore we require that x0 .z/; y0 .z/; x00 .z/; y00 .z/ have a common zero, then
find a D 4 and t D 10=9. This corresponds to a . p; q/ D .4; 3/ critical point as in
Chap. 5.
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Index

Annulus, 81 Formal power series, 15, 26

Automorphism, 10, 35 Fundamental domain, 338
Fundamental form of the second kind,
83
Bergman kernel, 83
Bipartite, 65
BIPZ, 36, 37 Gaussian, 25, 30, 79
BKW, 222 Generating function, 14
Boundary, 2, 38, 39
Browns lemma, 55, 82, 90, 150, 155
Hamiltonian, 71
Hyperelliptical, 159
Catalan numbers, 59, 80
Cauchy residue formula, 91
Closed map, 4 Ising, 365
Closed surfaces, 103
Complex curve, 237
Connected, 20, 37 Kacs table, 188
Cumulants, 20 Kappa, 281
Cylinder, 81 KdV, 195
Kontsevich integral, 272
KP hierarchy, 195
Dart, 6 KPZ, 188
Differential form, 16
Disk, 21, 53, 54, 60, 62, 66, 68
Dispersion, 217 Lagrange inversion, 67
Loop equation, 23, 41, 43, 53, 86, 150

Euler characteristics, 9, 34, 37, 53, 56

Even map, 5, 65 Map, 2, 6
Mirror symmetry, 288
Moduli space, 237
Feynman graphs, 31 Moments, 63, 121
Formal matrix integral, 25, 27, 29, 42 Multicut, 145, 150

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 413

B. Eynard, Counting Surfaces, Progress in Mathematical Physics 70,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7643-8797-6
414 Index

Nodal, 153, 155 Spectral curve, 55, 74, 119

Stable, 53, 107
Symmetry factor, 10, 31
1-cut assumption, 55, 82, 90, 145 Symplectic invariants, 92, 109, 119
Orbifold, 241
Orbit-stabilizer, 11, 35
Tau function, 214, 216, 217
t Hooft, 34
Pair of pants, 97 Topological expansion, 34
Planar, 9, 53, 54, 72, 110 Topological recursion, 91
Pochhammer symbol, 133 Topology, 9
Poisson bracket, 71 Triangulations, 5, 17, 75, 85, 101, 132
Propagator, 30, 33 Tutte, 17, 18, 21, 22, 41, 43, 53, 54
Twist, 4

Quadrangulations, 5, 17, 72, 85, 100, 109,

129 Universality, 83
Unstable, 53

Rauch formula, 349

Residue, 16 Variational principle, 64
Resolvent, 41 Virasoro, 44, 309
Riemann sphere, 83
Riemann surface, 237
Rooted, 4, 21, 72 Wick, 25, 30, 152
Wigner, 80
Witt, 46
Schiffer kernel, 83
SchwingerDyson, 42
Semi-circle, 80 Zhukovsky, 58, 86