Chapter 11

Heating Systems
Topics
1.0.0 Principles of Heating
2.0.0 Combustible Fuels
3.0.0 Warm-Air Heating Equipment
4.0.0 Warm-Air Heating Systems
5.0.0 Low-Temperature Hot Water Systems
6.0.0 Low-Temperature Hot Water Distribution
Systems
7.0.0 High-Temperature Hot Water Systems

To hear audio, click on the box.

Overview
Heat is one of the prime necessities of life, as essential as food, clothing, and shelter.
You can have a very good shelter, but you still need heat to be comfortable in it. By
studying this chapter, you will start to gain knowledge of what you will be required to
know to become a proficient Utilitiesman in the operation of a heating plant.

Objectives
When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Identify the principles of heating.
2. Identify the different types of combustible fuels.
3. Describe warm-air heating equipment.
4. Describe the different types of warm-air heating systems.
5. Describe the purpose and operation of low-temperature hot water systems.
6. Describe the different types of low-temperature hot water distribution systems.
7. Describe the different types of high-temperature hot water systems.

Prerequisites
None

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-1

This course map shows all of the chapters in Utilitiesman Basic. The suggested training
order begins at the bottom and proceeds up. Skill levels increase as you advance on
the course map.
Utilities Equipment and Maintenance
Air Conditioning
Refrigeration
Heating Systems U
Steam Distribution Systems T
Boilers
Sewage Disposal, Field Sanitation, and B
Water Treatment
Prime Movers, Pumps, and A
Compressors
Plumbing Fixtures S
Piping System Layout and Plumbing I
Accessories

Structural Openings and Pipe Material C

Fundamentals of Water Distribution

Basic Math, Electrical, and Plumbing
Operations
Plans, Specifications, and Color
Coding

Features of this Manual

This manual has several features which make it easier to use online.
Figure and table numbers in the text are italicized. The figure or table is either
next to or below the text that refers to it.
The first time a glossary term appears in the text, it is bold and italicized. When
your cursor crosses over that word or phrase, a popup box displays with the
appropriate definition.
Audio and video clips are included in the text, with an italicized instruction telling
you where to click to activate it.
Review questions that apply to a section are listed under the Test Your
Knowledge banner at the end of the section. Select the answer you choose. If the
answer is correct, you will be taken to the next section heading. If the answer is
incorrect, you will be taken to the area in the chapter where the information is for

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-2

 review. When you have completed your review, select anywhere in that area to
return to the review question. Try to answer the question again.
Review questions are included at the end of this chapter. Select the answer you
choose. If the answer is correct, you will be taken to the next question. If the
answer is incorrect, you will be taken to the area in the chapter where the
information is for review. When you have completed your review, select
anywhere in that area to return to the review question. Try to answer the question
again.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-3

1.0.0 PRINCIPLES of HEATING
Long after people had advanced to the stage of house building, heating methods had
not improved much. For centuries, fires for heating and lighting were contained in
braziers or confined to an unused corner of a room. The smoke was supposed to
escape through a hole left in the roof of the building during construction of course, a
considerable amount of rain and snow entered the room during bad weather. During the
twelfth century, however, the people in the northern part of Europe started using crude
fireplaces and flues to replace the brazier and hole-in-the-roof method of heating. Some
of these rudimentary heating systems still exist in Europe.
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, round, hollow stone chimneys began to be
used. At the end of the fourteenth century, people were using a number of fireplaces in
their homes and grouping the chimneys together in a vertical, rectangular mass of
masonry with decorative effect. By the end of the Italian renaissance period, chimneys
were in common use.
During colonial days in America, the fireplace chimneys were a large masonry mass
projected through the center of the roof, or were an important feature of the gable end
walls. This general trend of using chimneys is often followed in architecture today
because central heating, required in places where fires are required 5 or 6 months of
the year, makes the chimney an important feature of a heating plant. There are heating
installations, however, that do not make use of the masonry chimney and have
substituted an inconspicuous metal smoke pipe. Other types of heating, such as
electrical heating, require no chimney. Methods and equipment used for heating the
places we live and work have progressed quickly in the last 100 years. This quick
advance is due to our understanding of the principles and theory of heat, which in
earlier times was not yet understood.

1.1.0 Theory of Heat

Heat is a form of energy that is known for its effect. Heat can be produced or generated
by the combustion of fuels, by friction, by chemical action, and by the resistance offered
to the flow of electricity in a circuit. However, the particular form of generated heat with
which the Utilitiesman (UT) will be dealing is produced by combustion. Generated heat
is obtained by burning common types of fuels, such as coal, oil, and gas.

1.2.0 Measurement
To operate a heating plant efficiently, you must be familiar with the measurement of
heat and the method of transferring this heat from the plant to the space being heated.
The first part of this section is devoted to measuring temperature; the second part is
concerned with the transfer of heat from the plant to the space being heated.
Measurements of temperature and pressure, which are obtained continuously, are very
important factors in the operation of a heating plant. The degree of correctness of these
measurements directly affects the safety, efficiency, and reliability of the operation of
the heating plant. Although heat and temperature have a direct relationship, there is
also a distinction between them. For example, a burning match develops a much higher
temperature than a steam radiator, but the match does not give off enough heat to
warm a room. Another example tells us that 10 pounds of water at 80F will melt more
ice in a given length of time than 1 pound of water at 100F. The former has more heat,
but the latter has a higher temperature. Temperature is the measurement of heat
intensity in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius. Therefore, temperature measurements can
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-4
be made by using a glass thermometer calibrated either in degrees Fahrenheit or
Celsius. The generally accepted way of stating measurements of temperature in
English-speaking countries is in
degrees Fahrenheit.
The thermometer measures the
degree of sensible heat of
different bodies. The
thermometer can make a
comparison only between the
temperature of a body and some
definitely known temperature,
such as the melting point of ice
or the boiling point of water.
Figure 11-1 shows a comparison
of the scales of Fahrenheit and
Celsius thermometers. It also
shows the marking of the
freezing and boiling points of
pure water at sea level. The
range of the Fahrenheit
thermometer between the
freezing point and the boiling
point is 180 (32 to 212 =
180). On the Celsius Figure 11-1 Comparison of Fahrenheit
thermometer, the range is 100 and Celsius thermometers.
(0 to 100 = 100) from the
freezing point to the boiling point.
To convert Fahrenheit readings to Celsius:
(F - 32) 1.8 = C
To convert Celsius readings to Fahrenheit:
(C x 1.8) + 32 = F
The heat that can be measured by a thermometer and sensed or felt is referred to as
"sensible heat." An example of sensible heat is presented by placing a small vessel of
cold water over a gas flame and putting a thermometer in the water. Upon observation,
you note that the thermometer indicates a rise in temperature. Also, if you place your
finger in the water several times, you will feel (or sense) the change in temperature that
has taken place.
The unit of measurement for a given quantity of heat is the British Thermal Unit (BTU).
One BTU is the amount of heat needed to change the temperature of 1 pound of water
1 Fahrenheit at sea level. If one BTU is added to 1 pound at 50F, the temperature of
that pound of water will be raised to 51F.
All substances above absolute zero contain heat. There is heat even in ice, and its
melting point is fixed at 32F. Because of a fundamental law of nature, when ice at 32F
melts into water at 32F, a change of state takes place. The ice (solid) has turned into
water (liquid). A certain amount of heat is required during this change of state. This heat
is known as latent heat. Latent heat is the amount of heat required to change the state
of a substance without a measurable change in temperature.
There are other types of heat that you will encounter in heating:
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-5
 Specific heatThe ratio between the quantity of heat required to raise 1 pound of
any substance 1F and the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
pound of water 1F.
SuperheatThe amount of heat added to a substance above its boiling point.
Total heatThe sum of sensible heat plus latent heat.
We previously mentioned absolute zero. Scientists have determined that when the
temperature of a substance has been reduced to -460F, all the heat has been removed
from a substance. At this point all the molecules cease to have motion. Absolute zero is
the lowest temperature obtainable. Heat is present in all substances when the
temperature is above absolute zero.

1.3.0 Heat Transfer

The transfer of heat is the next problem to consider after the heat has been produced. It
must be moved to the space where it is to be used. Heat naturally flows from a warmer
to a cooler substance; consequently, there must be a temperature difference before
heat can flow. Naturally, the greater the temperature difference, the faster the heat flow.
When placed together, two objects that have different temperatures tend to equalize
their temperature. Heat travels in heating systems from one place to another by three
different methods. All three of these methods are used in most heating systems. They
are discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

1.3.1 Conduction
Conduction is the flow of heat from one part of a substance to another part of the same
substance, or from one substance to another when they are in direct contact.
When one end of a stove poker is held in a flame, the other end will soon be too hot to
hold. This indicates that the heat is being conducted, or transferred, from one end of the
poker to the other end. Such a transfer of heat is called conduction. Conduction is used
to transfer heat through the walls of a stove, furnace, or radiator so that the warmth can
be used for heating. Some materials do not conduct heat as well as others. For
example, if a piece of wood had been used instead of the poker, the end of the wood
away from the fire would have remained cool. Those materials that offer considerable
resistance to heat flow are referred to as insulators or poor conductors.

1.3.2 Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat by means of mediums, such as water, air, and steam.
When air is heated, it expands, becomes lighter in weight, and rises. The cooler air,
which is heavier, then flows in to replace the warm air. Thus a convection current is set
up. Water, when heated, acts in the same way as air. The water next to the heating
surface becomes warmer, lighter, and rises. This action allows the cooler water to flow
in next to the heating surface and become heated. Convection is a very important factor
in a heating system. It is this force, developed by heating the medium, which circulates
that medium to the space to be heated.

1.3.3 Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat through space. When a hand is held in front of a stove,
it is quickly warmed by means of radiation. In this same manner, the earth receives its
heat from the sun.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-6

Radiated heat is transferred by heat waves, similar to radio waves. Heat waves do not
warm the air through which they pass, but they must be absorbed by some substance to
produce heat. For example, when you stand in the shade of a tree, you feel cool
because the leaves and limbs are absorbing the heat waves before they reach you.
When heat waves strike an object, some are reflected, some may pass through, and the
object absorbs the rest. Polished metals are the best reflectors known; therefore, they
are poor absorbers of heat. A poor absorber is also a good radiator. Rough metal
absorbs heat more readily than a highly polished metal, and it also loses heat faster by
radiation.
The color of a substance also affects its absorbing power. A black surface absorbs heat
faster than a white one. That is why light-colored clothes are cooler in summer than are
dark-colored clothes.

2.0.0 COMBUSTIBLE FUELS

If electricity and coal are disregarded, the fuels most commonly used with heating
equipment are either gas or petroleum. Next, we will take a brief look at the types and
characteristics of combustible gases and fuel oils used for heating.

2.1.0 Types of Gases

Gaseous fuels are usually classified according to their source that, in turn, determines
their chemical composition. The heat valve (BTU per cubic foot) varies with the types of
gas and determines the quantity required for a specific heating requirement. The types
principally in use are natural gas, manufactured gas, and liquid petroleum gas (Table
11-1).

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-7

 Table 11-1 Fuel Gases
Heating Value
Fuel Source Maximum (BTU Remarks
per cu ft)
Natural gas Gas wells 700 1300 Ideal fuel. It is
pumped to point of
Average 1000
use.

Manufactured Gas

Carbureted Water Manufactured from 520 540 Costly good fuel that
Gas coal enriched with is part of most city gas
oil vapors systems.

Oil gas Manufactured from 520 540 Used on U.S. west

petroleum coast; is often mixed
with coke oven gas.

Producer gas Manufactured from 135 165 Requires cleaning.

coal, coke, and
wood

Liquefied/Petroleum
gas

Propane By-product of 2500 Boiling point: -44F.

gasoline Liquefies under slight
pressure.

Butane By-product of 3200 3260 Boiling point: 32F.

gasoline Liquefies under slight
pressure.

2.1.1 Natural Gas

Natural gas is a mixture of combustible gases and usually small amounts of inert gases
obtained from geologic formations. While the composition of natural gas varies with the
source, methane (CH4) is always the major constituent. Most natural gases also contain
some ethane (C2H6) along with small amounts of nitrogen and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Natural gas is colorless and odorless in its natural form; however; a distinctive odor is
usually added as a safety factor for detecting leaks. Natural gas mixes readily and
completely with combustion air and thus is substantially free from ash and practically
smokeless. These characteristics contribute to good environmental pollution control.
From a standpoint of trouble-free performance, ease of handling, and control, natural
gas offers many advantages that make it the most desirable of all heating fuels.

2.1.2 Manufactured Gas

The common manufactured gases are carbureted water gas, oil gas, and producer gas.
These gases are roughly one-half hydrogen and one-third methane, plus small amounts
of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and oxygen. They are made by converting low-grade liquid
or solid fuels to the gaseous form by destructive distillation (cracking) of oil or coal, by
the steam-carbon reaction, or by a combination of both processes. These gases are
ordinarily used at or near the production point because high manufacturing costs rule
out the added expense of distribution.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-8
2.1.3 Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) are hydrocarbon gases normally obtained as a by-
product of oil refineries or by stripping natural gas. These compounds are normally
gaseous under atmospheric conditions; however, they can be liquefied by moderate
pressure at normal temperatures.
The principal LPG products are propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10). Propane, the most
common, is available by the bottle or cylinder and in bulk form. Its boiling point is -44F
(note that this is very close to that of refrigerant R-22).
Butane is generally available in bulk form. It boils or vaporizes at 32F. In other words, if
the temperature of butane is 32F or lower, at atmospheric pressure, it remains a liquid,
and heat must be applied to bring it to the gaseous state. Note in Table 11-1, the high
heating values of propane and butane.

2.1.4 Fuel Oils

Fuel oils are derived from crude oil, which consists primarily of compounds of hydrogen
and carbon (hydrocarbons), and smaller amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, and depending
on the source, sulfur. Practically all fuel oil is either a product or a by-product of refining
crude oil by the fractional distillation process or by cracking.
The Bureau of Standards, United States Department of Commerce, standardizes
commercially used fuel oils. The oils are numbered in grades 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 and are
titled commercial standard grades (CSG). These grades are identified in the Navy by
military specifications and are intended for use in oil-burning equipment for the
generation of heat in furnaces for heating buildings, for the generation of steam, and for
other purposes. A more in-depth discussion of fuels and their characteristics is
contained in Fundamentals of Petroleum, NAVEDTRA 10883. A comparison of fuel oils
by grade is given in Table 11-2.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-9

 Table 11-2 Comparison of Fuel Oils
Approximate Heating value
Grade Number Type Fuel
weight/gallon (BTU per gallon)
Volatile distillate oil for
use in burners that
1 6.92 136,000 prepare fuel for
burning solely by
vaporization.

A moderately volatile
distillate oil for use in
burners which prepare
2 7.08 138,500 fuel for burning by a
combination of
vaporization and
atomization.

A residual oil for

burner installations
4 7.58 145,000 not equipped with pre-
heaters.

A residual oil of
intermediate viscosity
for use in burners
equipped with pre-
5 (Light) 7.83 148,500 heaters; however,
preheating may or
may not be required
depending on climate
and equipment.

A residual oil of
greater viscosity than
5 light. Preheating
may be required
Greater than 5 Greater than 5
5 (Heavy) before burning this oil;
Light Light and in cold climates,
preheating may be
required before
handling as well.

A residual oil of high

viscosity for which
6 8.16 152,000 preheating is always
required.

Test your Knowledge (Select the Correct Response)

1. Which metal is the best reflector of heat?

A. Polished
B. Concaved
C. Rough
D. Convexed

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-10

3.0.0 WARM-AIR HEATING EQUIPMENT
Advances in the field of warm-air heating have made it one of the most popular and
widespread forms of heating in use today. It has the advantage of adaptability with
various fuels and can be used in a variety of buildings, including barracks, hangars,
personnel housing, schools, and theaters. It is likely, therefore, that at one time or
another you will be responsible for performing technical maintenance and repair and
installation of warm-air heating equipment and systems.
The different types of heating equipment that will be discussed include unit heaters,
electric and gas- and oil-fired space heaters, and gas-fired and oil-fired furnaces.

3.1.0 Unit Heaters

In this chapter the term unit heater is defined as an installed equipment item and a
component of a system consisting of an extended finned heat transfer surface (coil) and
a propeller or blower fan to create airflow through it. Unit heaters are indirect units that
differ from space heaters because they generate heat indirectly from a medium of
steam or hot water piped through a central distribution system. Space heaters are
direct-fired units that generate heat directly by the use of an electrical coil or by a
combustible fuel.
Unit heaters can be used for many heating requirements, the major limiting factor being
the availability of a steam or hot-water system. They are commonly used with heating
systems in shops, offices, dining halls, and warehouses. There are three basic types:
(1) suspended horizontal discharge, (2) suspended vertical discharge, and (3) floor-
mounted or horizontal type of
blower unit (Figure 11-2, Views
A and B).
The units are rated in BTU or
equivalent direct radiation heat
output and cubic feet per minute
(cfpm) air discharge capacity at
a given fan or motor speed.
These ratings are important in
the application of unit heaters.
Manufacturers furnish
information regarding the area
effectively heated by units to
enable proper planning and
location of the units. Generally,
units under 50,000 BTU per hour
are designated to operate on
low-pressure steam or high-
temperature hot water.

3.1.1 Space Heaters

Space heaters are used for Figure 11-2 Types of unit heaters.
heating rooms and similarly
enclosed spaces, either in addition to, or in place of, a central heating system. They are
desirable as a means of providing heat to a small space because of their simplicity of
construction, low initial cost, and reasonable fuel consumption. They may be placed

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-11

directly in the space or at such a location where heat can be delivered through a single
register into the space.
Space heaters are sometimes classified by the manner in which they transfer heat to
the space to be heated, for example, by radiation and/or convection. The terms direct-
fired and indirect-fired are also used to identify such heaters. In this chapter, space
heaters are identified as direct-fired units and by their heat source or fuel. This
discussion will include electric, gas-fired, coal-fired, and oil-fired units.

3.1.1.1 Electric Heaters and Installation

Space heaters with electrically powered heating elements are used in spaces where it is
desired to eliminate cold spots and maintain uniform temperatures, whereas other fuels
are useful as portable units on the floor to overcome floor drafts, and as fixed units
mounted in or to walls or ceilings. They are generally rated in kilowatts (kW). One kW
(1,000 watts) is equal to 3,415 BTU per hour.
Electric space heaters are available in two general typesthe radiant and natural
convection type and the forced warm-air (fan) type. In the radiant and natural
convection type, heat from electric elements rises and strikes parabolic (bowl-shaped)
reflectors. The reflectors are highly polished curved metal surfaces, which deflect the
heat outward into the place where heat is desired (Figure 11-3).
Some radiant heat units have no deflectors but provide a combination of radiant and
natural convection heat, which rises from the coils into a chamber open on the side
where heat is required. The electric baseboard convection heater is an example of this
type. The forced warm-air type uses a motorized fan to circulate heat from the heating
element outward into the space (Figure 11-4). The electric units are operated manually
with an ON-OFF switch or automatically with a thermostat.
In the selection and installation of electrical space heaters, safety must be assured.
Units that are to be installed should bear the label of the Underwriters Laboratories
(UL). They should also conform to the safety standards outlined in space heating
equipment UL-573. All electrical work required for an installation should be done
according to the manufacturers instructions and by a qualified Construction Electrician
(CE).

Figure 11-3 Electric space Figure 11-4 Forced warm-air

heaters. electric space heaters.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-12
3.1.1.2 Gas Heaters and Installation
Gas-fired space heaters are clean in operation; they are also easily operated and
require no fuel handling. They are adaptable for use with natural gas, manufactured
gas, or liquefied petroleum gas.
Their construction features are
similar regardless of the type of
gas used. Basically, there are
two typesthe vented and the
unvented.
Vented units are enclosed metal
cabinets with either top or
bottom, or front and rear grilles
for warm-air circulation. The
flame burns in a closed
combustion chamber, and the
heater vent carries away the
gases (Figure 11-5).
The flow of heat is maintained by
a motor-driven fan and is
controlled by vanes, fins,
louvers, or diffusers. This type
of unit is more satisfactory than
the unvented type because there
is less danger of carbon
monoxide poisoning. Figure 11-5 Rear view of vented gas-fired
A panel unit is one type of space heater.
vented unit (Figure 11-6). It may
be recessed or surface-mounted in either
an interior or exterior wall with a vent
properly insulated and run up through the
wall. This type of unit has the advantage of
requiring less floor or ceiling space.
Unvented units are usually the open-flame
type where the gas burns in an open
combustion chamber. These heaters
should be used in a well ventilated area.
Ventilation ensures that the carbon
monoxide produced by the gas flame is
removed.
Gas-fired space heaters and their
connections must be of the type approved
by the American Gas Association (AGA).
Figure 11-6 Gas-fired panel
They must also be installed according to
space heaters.
AGA specifications. Installation factors,
such as the type of gas, the capacity of the
heater, and the line pressure drops, must be known to ensure proper plumbing
procedures with respect to the gas service line. All newly installed piping should be
tested for gas leaks. These tests should comply with NAVFAC DM3.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-13

On vented gas units, be careful to install the venting system properly to minimize the
harmful effects of condensation and to ensure that the combustion products are carried
away. During operation, the inner surface of the vent must be heated above the dew
point of the combustion products. This prevents water from forming in the flue pipe.
Vent sections must be installed with the male ends of the inner liner down to allow any
condensation that forms to return. This is important since the burning of 1,000 cubic feet
of natural gas produces approximately 12 gallons of water. For the same reason,
horizontal flue pipes should have an upward pitch of at least 1 inch per running foot.
Vent pipes should be equipped with draft diverters. A diverter is a type of inverted cone
through which the flue gases must pass on their way to discharge. It allows air from the
heated room to be drawn into the flue pipe joining the combustion-gases. This action
prevents excessive downdrafts or updrafts that are apt to extinguish the pilot light or
possibly the main burner.

3.1.1.3 Oil-Fired Space Heaters

In areas where oil is the principal fuel, oil-fired space heaters are used for many space
heating requirements. Oil-fired space heaters are very simple in construction. They
consist of a burner, a combustion chamber and outer casing, a fuel tank, and fuel
control valve. An air space is provided between the combustion chamber and the outer
casing. Air enters through grilles in the bottom of the heater, is heated, and passes out
through grilles in the top of the unit. Some oil-burning heaters are equipped with a
blower and electric motor to force the heated air out into the room. They turn at slow
speed and may be either direct drive or belt driven.
Oil-fired space heaters have atmospheric vaporizing-type burners. The burners require
a light grade of fuel oil that vaporizes readily at low temperatures and leaves only small
amounts of carbon and ash. Number 1 fuel oil is generally used. The two types of
burners that will be discussed are
the natural draft pot and the
perforated sleeve.
Natural draft pot distillate burners
are widely used for space heaters,
room heaters, and water heaters.
A cutaway view of a natural draft
pot type of burner is shown in
Figure 11-7. In operation, the
distillate (oil) is fed at the bottom
of the burner, either at the center
or on the sides, and is vaporized
at this point by radiant heat from
above. The vapors rise and mix
with the air drawn through the
perforated holes in the burner.
During high fire conditions, the
flame burns above the top
combustion ring (Figure 11-8),
and under low fire conditions, the
flame burns in the lower portion or
pilot ring of the burner (Figure 11- Figure 11-7 Cutaway view of a natural
9). draft pot type of burner.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-14

 Figure 11-8 High fire flame. Figure 11-9 Low fire flame.

The perforated sleeve burner consists of a metal base formed of two or more circular
fuel vaporizing grooves and alternate air channels (Figure 11-10). Several pairs of
perforated sleeves or cylinders force the air through the perforations into the oil vapor
chamber. In this way a large number of jets of air are introduced into the oil vapor,
bringing about a good mixture. This mixture burns with a blue flame and is clean and
odorless.
These burners usually have a short kindling wick. Some burners have a cup below the
base in which alcohol is burned to provide heat for starting. The wick and alcohol are
used only for lighting.

Figure 11-10 Perforated sleeve burner.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-15
3.1.1.3.1 Installation
Oil-burning heaters are portable
and are easily moved from one
location to another. For
satisfactory operation, follow the
installation procedures supplied
by the manufacturer. In both pot
type and perforated sleeve
burners, oil is fed to the burner
under control of a float-operated
metering valve (Figure 11-11).
Set the unit level so the oil can
be properly distributed in the
burner.
NOTE
The fuel level control valve is the
only safety device on the oil-fired
space heater.
When several space heaters are
installed in a building, an oil Figure 11-11 Oil-controlled metering
supply from an outside tank to all valve.
of the heaters is often desirable.
This eliminates frequent filling of individual tanks and reduces waste from spilling.
Figure 11-12 shows the principal elements of such a system and important points to
consider during installation.

Figure 11-12 Space heaters installed in series.

Be sure that the space heater is placed a safe distance from the wall. You also need a
metal pan for it to sit in. This pan catches the oil if a leak occurs. Do not use a sandbox
or cement, as both absorb oil and create a fire hazard. In case of wood floors, place a
piece of fire-retardant material, such as Gypsum board (Sheetrock), on the floor

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-16

underneath the metal pan. It may also be needed on the wall behind the heater if the
wall is made of wood.
Since the flow of air to a vaporizing type of burner is induced by a chimney draft, pay
careful attention to this feature. The draft produced by any chimney depends upon the
height of the chimney and the difference in temperature between the flue gas and
outside air. The cross-sectional area required depends upon the volume of flue gas to
be carried. Since outside air temperature varies during the heating season, arrange the
chimney or flue to produce the necessary draft under the most unfavorable conditions
likely to be encountered, usually an outside temperature of 60F. Above this
temperature, heat is not usually required, and below this temperature, draft would be
increased.
Install the draft regulator to maintain a constant draft adjustment for the rate at which
the heaters are fired. The regulator is a swinging damper or gate with provision for
adjustment. Since balance and free action are the fundamentals on which its operation
depends, be sure the installation provides for these features. Install the damper section
with the word top at the true top position. Make sure the face is plumb. When the
damper regulator is installed in a horizontal run of pipe, do not use a counterweight on
the damper.
A downdraft may seriously interfere with
proper functioning of these burners.
Downdraft may result when the chimney is
not high enough above the roof line or is too
close to other high buildings, trees, or
terrain features. The chimney top must be at
least 3 feet above the highest point of the
building roof. If the difficulty is caused by
other factors, a downdraft hood may prove
effective. There are several successful
designs; a simple constructed type is shown
in Figure 11-13.
Copper tubing is often used in an oil supply
system to burners because of its high
resistance to corrosion and ease of
installation. The use of compression fittings
Figure 11-13 H-type downdraft
or flair fittings is best for fuel supply
hood.
applications. A major advantage in using
copper tubing is that it can be bent easily
without collapsing the tube, especially if a tubing bender is used; this cuts down on the
number of fittings required for installation.

3.2.0 Unit Heater Maintenance

Oil-fired space heaters require periodic cleaning. You must make frequent checks to
ensure that equipment is kept clean because accumulations of carbon and soot can
cause disastrous fires. Move units when they are cleaned, so they can be cleaned
inside and out. You must remove accumulations of soot from inside the fuel pipe.
Ensure that all piping and tubing are kept clean and free of oil drippings.
The pot or burner assembly may be cleaned without removing the heater. When
cleaning this component, remove it through the front door opening and clean all the air
holes using a soft copper wire. Do not remove all the carbon from the bottom because a
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-17
small accumulation of carbon at the bottom acts as a wick and helps maintain the pilot
light. In replacing the burner assembly, make sure both sides of the burner are
tightened equally so the top of the burner and the fire-retardant gasket are set firmly
against the flue projection.
In checking the constant-level
control valve, check the operation
of the heater through a complete
cycle of operation from the pilot
fire position to the main fire
position, and then back to the
pilot fire position. Set the control
valve, if it is the manual type, to
high fire; if equipped with a
thermostatic device, set the
thermostat above room
temperature. If the heater fails to
operate properly through the
cycle, check the constant-level
control valve and follow the
manufacturer's instructions for
disassembly and cleaning. A
parts breakdown of the valve is
shown in Figure 11-14.

Figure 11-14 Constant-level control valve.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-18

Some of the common problems with pot and sleeve oil burners, gas-fired space heaters,
their causes, and possible remedies are listed in Table 11-3 and Table 11-4.
Table 11-3 Troubleshooting Chart for Pot and Sleeve Oil Burners
Problem Probable Cause Possible Remedy
Burner smokes Improper fuel Use recommended fuel
Insufficient oil flow Troubleshoot low flow
Excessive chimney draft Check draft regulator
Pilot casing is poorly fitted Remove/Install correctly
Dirty burner Clean burner
Burner goes out Low oil supply Add oil
Plugged vent on supply line Clean vent
Insufficient oil flow Troubleshoot low flow
Improper fuel Use recommended fuel
Fuel inlet plugged with carbon Clean
Dirt in oil control valve Clean valve
Oil valve is not level Level valve
Filter cartridge plugged Clean filter
Excessive chimney draft Check draft regulator
Excessive flue downdraft Install downdraft hood
Burner flooded Dirty float valve Remove/Clean valve
Improper operation Perform proper procedures
Needle valve stuck Clean/Replace valve
Dirty burner Clean burner
Excessive flue downdraft Install downdraft hood
Low oil flow Air trapped in supply line Eliminate high points
Oil control valve not level Level valve
Oil too heavy Use recommended oil
Dirt in supply line Clean line and components
Clogged oil strainer Clean strainer
Flue inlet clogged with carbon Remove carbon
High fuel consumption Improper fuel Use recommended fuel
Heat loss Reduce air supply
Excessive chimney draft Check draft regulator
Heat exchanger caked with slag Clean affected areas

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-19

 Table 11-4 Troubleshooting Chart for Gas-fired Space Heaters
Problem Probable Cause Possible Remedy
Motor does not run Incorrect current Check and correct
Faulty wiring Rewire
Defective wiring Replace/Lubricate
Motor runs intermittently Thermal overload cuts Replace motor
out
Excessive fan and motor Bent fan blade Straighten/Replace
noise
Excessive end play in Exceeds 1/32,
shaft Repair/Replace
Solenoid valve hums or Installed backwards Check arrow and correct
flutters
Poor electrical Check/Correct/Replace
connection
Burner does not ignite Faulty pilot burner Check/Correct/Replace
Inoperable solenoid valve Replace solenoid
Delay in main burner ops Malfunctioning limit Replace limit switch
switch
Improper burning Primary air not set Adjust primary air
Incorrect orifice size Check specs and replace
Incorrect gas pressure Check specs and adjust
Pilot fails to light Stopped pilot line Clean line or replace
Excessive draft Eliminate draft
Low gas pressure Check pressure regulator

4.0.0 WARM-AIR HEATING SYSTEMS

Heating equipment for complete air-conditioning systems is classified according to the
type of fuel burned, the BTU capacity of the furnace, and the method of circulating the
warm air. Warm-air systems are generally identified as either a gravity-type or a forced-
air type system.

4.1.0 Gravity System

Gravity furnaces are often installed at floor level. These are really oversized, jacketed
space heaters. The most common difficulty experienced with this type of furnace is a
return-air opening of insufficient size at the floor. Make the return-air opening on two or
three sides of the furnace wherever possible. Provide heat insulation above the furnace
top to avoid a possible fire hazard.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-20
Gravity warm-air heating systems operate because of the difference in specific gravity
(weight) of warm air and cold air. Warm air is lighter than cold air and rises when cold
air is available to replace it.

4.2.0 Forced-Air System

The majority of the furnaces
produced today are of the forced
warm-air type. This type of
furnace includes the elements of
a gravity warm-air system plus a
fan to ensure adequate air
distribution. It may include filters
and a humidifier to add moisture
to the air. The inclusion of a
positive pressure fan makes
possible the use of smaller ducts
and the extension of the system
to heat larger areas without the
need for sloping ducts. It is
possible to heat rooms located on
floors below the furnace if
necessary. Forced-air furnaces
are manufactured in a variety of
designs. A typical oil-fired furnace
is shown in Figures 11-15 and 11-
16. Figure 11-15 Oil furnace.

Figure 11-16 Horizontal stowaway oil furnace.

A typical gas-fired furnace is shown in Figure 11-17.
In a forced-air system, the fan or blower is turned on and off by a blower control which is
actuated by the air temperature in the bonnet or plenum. The plenum is that part of the
furnace where it joins the main trunk duct. The blower control starts the fan or blower
when the temperature of the heated air rises to a set value, and turns the fan or blower
off when the temperature drops to a predetermined point. Thus the blower circulates
only air of the proper temperature.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-21

4.3.0 Air Distribution
A knowledge of air distribution principles is
important when dealing with central warm-air
heating systems. Satisfactory heating from warm-
air systems is absolutely dependent upon proper
distribution of warm air from the heat source to all
portions of the space served. Warm air must be
distributed in quantities that are required to offset
the rate of heat released to each room. With
radiator systems, distribution is primarily a problem
of getting enough hot water or steam to each
radiator to be sure the radiator heats to its rated
capacity. It is not possible to deliver more heat
through steam or hot water than the radiator is
designed to transmit. With warm-air systems,
however, the rate of air delivery and the
temperature of the air delivered to the room
determine the amount of heat reaching each room.
Temperature balance, therefore, is primarily a
problem of controlling air distribution.
Factors such as velocity, volume, temperature, and
airflow direction play an important part in
temperature balance. In addition, for human
comfort, space-temperature variations and noise
levels must also be considered. Convection
currents result from the natural tendency of warm
air to rise and cold air to fall. Examples are the
temperature variations near doors and windows,
and when dense, cool air is drawn away quicker
than warm air. Objectionable noise will result at
supply diffusers if room velocities exceed 25 to 35
feet per minute (fpm). Air stratification and cold
floors may also result when supply diffusers are not
properly located within the space. Figure 11-17 Gas-fired
vertical warm-air furnace.
Patterns of air distribution vary with the positions of
supply diffusers. A diffuser that discharges through the floor in an upward direction or
downward through the ceiling provides a vertical distribution of air. On the other hand, a
diffuser that discharges through a wall provides a horizontal distribution of air. The
spread for either the horizontal or the vertical pattern depends on the setting of the
diffuser vanes. A low horizontal discharge provides the most effective distribution. Air
distribution that results from different diffuser locations is shown in Figure 11-18.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-22

 Figure 11-18 Air diffuser distribution.
As previously mentioned, warm-air heating systems are generally identified as either the
gravity type or the forced-air type. The type of duct distribution used further identifies
these installations. There are two types of duct layouts: (1) the individual duct (Figure
11-19, View A), where each duct is connected directly to the furnace plenum, and (2)
the trunk and branch duct (Figure 11-19, View B), where the trunk duct connects to the
furnace plenum and then branches off to the outlets.

Figure 11-19Types of duct layouts.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-23

Gravity-type furnaces are rated in leader area capacity, the leaders being the warm-air
pipes. With respect to return ducts, the register-free area and the return-air duct should
not be less than 1 1/4 times the area of the leader serving a given area. Gravity-type
installations, shown in Figure 11-19, View A, use the individual duct layout.
Forced warm-air systems usually have a register temperature range of 150F to 180F.
Ducts can be in the form of a trunk with branches or with individual leaders from a
plenum chamber. Furnaces used with forced-air installations must be equipped with
automatic firing devices. Velocities usually are in the range of 750 to 900 fpm in trunks
and approximately 600 fpm in branches. Outlet velocities at registers may be as high as
350 fpm.

4.4.0 Gas Fired Furnaces

In this section, construction features, basic components, gas burners, and controls of
gas-fired furnaces are discussed.

4.4.1 Construction Features

The various gas-fired furnaces available today have similar basic components;
however, there, are variations in design with respect only to dimensions and airflow.
Unit features pertinent to dimensions and
airflow are important when selecting a
furnace for a particular space or application.
A vertical counter-flow unit, for example, is
normally used where supply ducts are
located beneath the floor because it has the
return in the top and the outlet in the bottom.
The most commonly used unit is the upflow
highboy which, as a rule, draws air from the
side or bottom and discharges it from the
top. It can be installed in small spaces. In the
horizontal unit, the air flows in one side and
out the other. This unit is suitable for
installation in crawl spaces, attics, and
basements. In another type, sometimes
called a lowboy, both the return and the
outlet are at the top. It is a shorter and wider
version of the upflow unit. The different Figure 11-20 Furnace airflow
airflows are shown in Figure 11-20. designs.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-24

Another type of furnace is the duct furnace. It is designed for mounting in a duct system
where air circulation is provided by an external fan. It is generally used with an air-
conditioning system to supply heat during the heating season by using the same
ductwork. This type can be installed as a single unit or in batteries for larger
requirements. A typical gas-fired duct furnace is shown in Figure 11-21.

Figure 11-21 Gas-fired duct furnace.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-25

Gas-fired furnaces have three main partsthe return-air compartment that houses the
blower and filter components, the warm-air compartment that includes the heat
exchanger radiators and combustion enclosure, and the combustion air and fuel
compartment. This arrangement is shown in Figure 11-22.

Figure 11-22 Internal view of a furnace.

4.4.2 Basic Components

The components and assemblies of a gas-fired furnace can be broken down into six
units. Each unit is discussed briefly below. Refer to Figure 11-21 and Figure 11-22 as
we go along to identify the location of individual parts.
The furnace casing, sometimes called the cabinet, along with the framework contains
and supports the components of the unit. It also provides an insulating chamber for
directing return air through the heat exchanger into the warm-air outlet.
The blower is a centrifugal fan that provides the circulation required to move warm air
across the heated space. It also pulls the return air from the space back to the furnace.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-26

The burners are usually the
Bunsen type regardless of their
size or shape. Figure 11-23
shows Bunsen burners. The
burner nourishes the flame as it
provides the correct mixture of
primary air and fuel gas to the
combustion area.
The gas manifold assembly
includes the gas valves, pressure
regulator, and those components
that automatically control the flow
of gas to the pilot and main
burner. It is directly connected to
the burner.

4.4.3 Gas Burners and

Controls
To use natural gas, a nearly ideal
fuel, requires comparatively
simple equipment and unskilled Figure 11-23 Bunsen burners.
labor. This clean gas is almost
free of noncombustibles and is therefore clean. However, it is relatively dangerous
compared to coal or oil because it mixes easily with air and burns readily. Extreme care
must be exercised to prevent or stop any leakage of gas into an unlighted furnace or
into the boiler room. All gas burners should be approved by the AGA and installed
according to the standards of the National Board of Fire Underwriters (NBFU).
The gas burners used in gas-fired furnaces usually have a non-luminous flame and are
the Bunsen type, as shown in Figure 11-23. Part of the air needed for combustion is
primary air that is drawn into the burner mixing tube or "venturi," where it mixes with the
gas that burns at the burner ports. The secondary air is supplied around the base of
each separate burner flame by natural draft or is induced by a draft fan.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-27

The gas burner controls include the following unitsmanual gas valve, gas pressure
regulator, solenoid gas valve, diaphragm valve, pilot light, thermocouple, thermocouple
control relay limit control, heat exchanger, draft diverter, and humidifier (Figure 11-24).
A manual gas cock or valve must be installed ahead of all the controls.

Figure 11-24 Automatic gas burner control system.

4.4.3.1 Manual Gas Valve

The manual gas valve is installed on the heating unit next to the gas pressure regulator.
It is used to shut off the gas to the heating unit in case some of the controls must be
repaired or replaced.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-28

4.4.3.2 Gas Pressure Regulator
The gas pressure regulators used
in domestic gas-heating systems
are usually of the diaphragm type
(Figure 11-25). A gas pressure
regulator maintains the desired
pressure in the burner as long as
the gas main pressure is above
the desired pressure. When the
gas pressure to the burner is low,
the pressure-regulating spring
pushes the diaphragm down, in
turn pushing the pilot valve down.
When the pilot valve opens,
supply pressure is applied to the
top of the operating piston. As the
operating piston moves down, the
main valve opens, admitting
supply pressure to the burner. As
burner pressure rises, the
diaphragm is pushed up against
the pressure-regulating spring,
closing the pilot valve. This Figure 11-25 Gas pressure regulator.
removes the supply pressure from the top of the operating piston, and the piston return
spring pushes the piston up, closing the main valve. The regulator is thus closed every
time the burner pressure gets above the desired amount. Turning the adjusting screw at
the top can vary the setting of the regulator.

4.4.3.3 Solenoid Gas Valve

The basic principles of
construction and operation
applied in all solenoid gas valves
are similar. However, the design
of each individual unit differs
somewhat from the others. The
two most common types of
solenoid gas valves are the
standard solenoid valve and the
recycling solenoid valve
discussed in the following
paragraphs.
The standard solenoid gas valve
shown in Figure 11-26 is of the
electric type. It is suitable for use
with gas furnaces, steam and hot-
water boilers, conversion burners,
and industrial furnaces. This
valve operates when a
thermostat, limit control, or other
device closes a circuit to energize Figure 11-26 Standard gas solenoid valve.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-29
the coil. The energized coil operates a plunger, causing the valve to open. When there
is a current failure, the valve automatically closes because of the force of gravity on the
plunger and valve stem. The gas
pressure in the line holds the
valve disk upon its seat. To open
this valve during current failure,
use the manual-opening device
at the bottom of the valve. When
the electric power is resumed,
you should place the manual-
opening device in its former
position.
The recycling solenoid gas valve
shown in Figure 11-27 can be
used with the same heating
equipment as the standard
solenoid gas valve. The design of
this valve differs from that of the
standard solenoid gas valve
because it is equipped with an
automatic recycling device that
allows the valve to switch to
manual operation during power
failure. However, upon the Figure 11-27 Recycling solenoid valve.
resumption of power, the
thermostat automatically resumes control of this valve.

4.4.3.4 Diaphragm Valve

The diaphragm gas valve shown
in Figure 11-28 can be used
interchangeably with a solenoid
gas valve. Its main feature is the
absence of valve noise when it is
opening or closing. In this type of
diaphragm valve, the relay
energizes and opens the three-
way valve so the gas pressure on
the top of the diaphragm is
released to the atmosphere.
Reducing the pressure on the top
of the diaphragm in this manner
causes the gas supply pressure
to flex the diaphragm upward,
opening the main gas valve.
When the relay is de-energized,
the vent to the atmosphere is
sealed and pressure from the
gas supply is allowed to be
applied to the top of the
diaphragm, forcing it down and Figure 11-28 Diaphragm gas valve.
sealing the main valve.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-30
4.4.3.5 Pilot Light
The gas pilot light in a gas-heating unit is a small flame that burns continuously and
lights the main burner during normal operation of the heating unit. It is located near the
main burner (Figure 11-24).
The gas flow to the pilot light is, in some cases, supplied by a small, manually operated
gas shutoff valve on the main gas line above the main gas valve. In other cases, the
gas can be supplied from the pilot tapping on a solenoid gas valve, as shown in Figure
11-26. In more expensive heating units, the gas for the pilot light is often supplied by a
thermocouple controlled relay.

4.4.3.6 Thermocouple
A thermocouple is probably the simplest unit
in the electrical field that is used to produce
an electric current by means of heat. It is
constructed of two U-shaped conductors of
unlike metals in the form of a circuit (Figure
11-29).
If these conductors were composed of
copper and nickel, respectively, and were
joined as shown in the figure, two junctions
between the metals would exist. If a flame
heated one of these junctions, a weak
electric current would be produced in the
circuit of these conductors. A series of
junctions can be arranged to form a
thermopile to increase the amount of current
produced (Figure 11-30). Figure 11-29 Principle of a
In the heating field, thermocouples and thermocouple.
thermopiles are used to produce the
electrical current used to operate such units as gas valves, relays, and other safety
devices.

Figure 11-30 Thermopile.

The thermocouple is located next to the pilot light of the main gas burner, as shown in
Figure 11-24. It generates the electric current (usually 50,000 microvolts) which holds
open a main gas valve, a relay, or any other safety devices, permitting gas to flow to the
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-31
main burner. Soon after the pilot light is extinguished, current ceases to flow to these
safety devices, thus causing them to shut off the gas to the heating unit. These safety
devices will not operate again until the pilot light is lighted and current is again
generated by the thermocouple.

4.4.3.7 Thermocouple Control Relay

The thermocouple-operated
relay shown in Figure 11-31 is a
safety device used on gas-fired
heating equipment. The
thermocouple, when placed in
the gas pilot flame, generates
electricity. The electric current
energizes an electromagnet that
holds a switch or valve in the
open position as long as the pilot
flame is burning. When the pilot
flame goes out because of high
drafts or fuel failure, the
electromagnet is de-energized,
thus closing and preventing the
opening of the switch or valve.
The closing of the valve or
switch prevents the burner from
filling the combustion chamber
with unburned gases.
To re-light the pilot light, push up Figure 11-31 Thermocouple and valve
the reset button at the bottom of relay assembly.
the relay and allow the gas to
flow to the pilot light. Since some heating units are not equipped with relays, the pilot
light is not automatically shut off in case of gas supply failure.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-32

The relay shown in Figure 11-32 is an electrical switch type of relay. It is entirely
electrical and can be used as a controlling unit for either the magnetic or diaphragm gas
valves. This unit is actuated by the electric current generated by the thermocouple. It
controls the operation of the gas valve in the magnetic and diaphragm valves. A relay of
this type must also be reset manually for normal operation.

Figure 11-32 Electric switch type of relay.

4.4.3.8 Limit Control

The limit control in a gas burner system is a safety device. It shuts off the gas supply
when the temperature inside the heating unit becomes excessive. The limit control
device can be adjusted to the desired setting. It exercises direct control on the gas or
diaphragm valve.

4.4.3.9 Heat Exchanger

This unit or assembly may be either a single or sectional contoured steel shell. It
extends vertically from the burner enclosure to the flue exit. Functionally, it transmits
heat from the hot gases of combustion to the circulating warm air that passes the outer
surfaces.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-33

4.4.3.10 Draft Diverter
The diverter is simply a sheet metal chamber that encircles the flue. It has an opening at
the bottom to allow air to be drawn in by the flue draft. Its purpose is to reduce the
downdrafts and updrafts that are objectionable to pilot and burner operation.

4.4.3.11 Humidifiers
Humidifiers used with forced warm-air heating systems are usually of the pan type.
Unless the water is relatively free of solids, these humidifiers require frequent attention,
since the float may stick in the open position or the valve may clog. Overflowing of the
pan may result in a cracked heating section, and a stopped-up inlet valve will make the
humidifier inoperative.
The drum type of evaporative humidifier uses an evaporation pad in the shape of a
wheel. The slow-turning wheel is submerged in the water in the lower pan where the
sponge-like plastic foam material becomes saturated with water. The wheel lifts this
portion of the pad and exposes it to the warm, dry air flowing through it. The air then
absorbs more moisture because of lower relative humidity at a higher temperature.

4.5.0 Oil-Fired Furnaces

Oil-fired furnaces are similar to gas-fired units in physical arrangement. Internally, oil-
fired units have three areasthe burner compartment, the combustion and radiating
chamber, and the blower compartment. Figure 11-33 shows a cutaway view of a typical
oil-fired furnace.
Like gas-fired units, oil-fired units are also available with various airflow designs. The
model shown in Figure 11-15 is designed with both the return-air inlet and the warm-air
outlet in the top. More compact
models are available with the
return-air inlet at the side or
bottom below the radiating and
combustion area (Figure 11-33).
The warm-air outlet is at the top.
A floor furnace is shown in
Figure 11-34. This type of oil-
fired unit is smaller, lighter in
construction, and designed to be
hung from the floor of the space
served. Only a minimum of
clearance is required below the
floor (check with manufacturers
specifications).
Oil burners may be separated
into various classes, such as
domestic and industrial. Since
domestic oil burners are used
almost universally in warm-air
furnaces, they are the only ones
covered in detail in this section. Figure 11-33 Oil-fired furnace.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-34

 Figure 11-34 Oil-fired floor furnace.

4.5.1 Domestic Oil Burners

Domestic oil burners atomize the oil and are usually electrically power driven. They are
used in small central heating plants. They deliver a predetermined quantity of oil and air
to the combustion chamber, ignite it, and automatically maintain the desired
temperature.
Domestic oil burners are
classified according to various
methods, none of which is
entirely satisfactory because of
the overlapping among a great
number of models. Classification
may be by type of ignition, draft,
operation, method of oil
preparation, or features of design
and construction.

4.5.1.1 Design and

Construction
One of the most common types
of domestic oil burners is the
pressure-atomizing gun type of
burner. Gun type burners
atomize the oil by fuel-oil
pressure. The fuel-oil system of a
pressure-atomizing burner
consists of a strainer, pump,
pressure-regulating valve, shutoff Figure 11-35 High-pressure gun type of
oil burner.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-35
valve, and atomizing nozzle (Figure 11-35). The nozzle and electrode assembly
includes the oil pipe, nozzle holder, nozzle, strainer, electrode insulators, electrodes,
supporting clamp for all parts, and static disk. The oil pipe is a steel rod with a fine hole
drilled through it. This hole reduces oil storage in the nozzle to a minimum that prevents
squirting at the nozzle when the burner shuts off.
The air system consists of a power-driven blower with means to throttle the air inlet, an
air tube that surrounds the nozzle and electrode assembly, and vanes or other means to
provide turbulence for proper mixing of the air and oil. The blower and oil pump are
generally connected by a flexible coupling to the burner motor. Atomizing nozzles can
be furnished to suit both the angle of spray and the oil rate of a particular installation.
Flame shape can also be varied by changing the design of the air exit at the end of the
air tubes. Oil pressures are usually about 100 psi, but pressures considerably greater
are sometimes used.
Electric ignition is almost exclusively used. Electrodes are located near the nozzle but
must not be in the path of the fuel oil spray. The step-up transformer provides the high
voltage (usually 10,000 volts) necessary to make an intense spark jump across the
electrode tips.

4.5.1.2 Fuel Unit

There are many types of fuel
units available for oil burners;
however, the T-type, two-stage
fuel unit is the most commonly
used. Figure 11-36 shows this
type of unit. It is an oil pump with
two strainers mounted on the
body of the oil burner and
operated by the blower motor
shaft.
The T-type, two-stage fuel unit
can be used on a single-line or
on a two-line system. When
Number 1 on the strainer cover
is next to the letter marked on
the body of the pump, it is
correctly arranged for a single-
line system. It is set up for a two-
line system when the cover is
turned so Number 2 is adjacent
to the same letter. Figure 11-36 T-type, two-stage fuel pump.
A two-line system is necessary
when the bottom of the fuel tank is below the level of the pump. The suction line from
the tank is connected to the pump port marked "Inlet." The return line is connected to
the pump bypass port and is directed back into the tank. With the one-line system, the
return line is not used.

4.5.1.2.1 Ignition Electrodes

The heat of a spark jumping between two ignition electrodes ignites the fuel (Figure 11-
35). The voltage necessary to cause the spark to jump is much more than the line
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-36
voltage available. Therefore, an
electric transformer is used to
step up the line voltage to
approximately 10,000 volts.
The wall flame burner has an oil
distributor and fan blades
mounted on a vertical shaft
directly connected to the motor.
The oil distributor projects the oil
to a flame ring made of either
refractory material or metal.
Figure 11-37 shows this type of
burner. The hot flame ring
vaporizes the oil, and the oil
vapors mix with air and burn with
a quiet blue flame that sweeps
the walls of the furnace. Ignition
may be electric, gas-electric, or
gas. High-grade fuel oil is
necessary for satisfactory
performance. Figure 11-37 Vertical-rotary burner of the
vaporizing or wall-flame type.
4.5.1.2.2 Horizontal Rotary
Type
The horizontal rotary type was originally designed for industrial use; however, sizes are
available for domestic use. It has a wider range of fuel-burning capacity than the high-
pressure gun type and can accommodate heavier grades of fuel. Figure 11-38 shows
this type of burner.
The major parts of the burner are
the housing, fan, motor, fuel
tube, and rotating atomizing cup.
The atomizing cup and fan are
driven at the same speed by a
directly connected electric motor.
Oil is fed through the fuel tube to
the inner surface of the atomizing
cup. The oil spreads over the
surface of the cup, which turns at
3,450 revolutions per minute
(rpm). It then flows to the edge of
the cup where it is thrown off.
The whirling motion and the
resulting centrifugal force
separate the oil into fine particles
as it leaves the cup. Primary air
supplied by the fan is thrown in
around the outer edge of the
rotating cup and given a whirling
motion in the direction opposite Figure 11-38 Horizontal-rotary oil burner.
that of the oil. The streams of air
and oil collide and thoroughly mix as they enter the combustion chamber.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-37
4.5.1.3 Oil Burner Controls
The purpose of oil-burner controls is to provide automatic, safe, and convenient
operation of the oil burner. The system is designed to maintain the desired room
temperature, to start the burner
as required, and to ignite the fuel
to initiate combustion. However,
in case trouble arises during
operation, the burner must be
stopped and further operation
prevented until the trouble has
been corrected.
Oil-burner controls are
essentially the same as stoker or
gas controls. The only difference
is that the oil burner has, in
addition, two ignition electrodes
and a primary or safety control. A
diagram of a typical forced
warm-air control system is
shown in Figure 11-39.

4.5.1.3.1 Primary Control

The burner primary control is
electrically connected between
the thermostat and the burner, Figure 11-39 Forced warm-air control
as shown in Figure 11-39, and it system.
performs several functions. The
primary control closes the motor and ignition circuits when the thermostat calls for more
heat. It breaks the motor circuit
and stops the burner when the
motor first starts if the fuel fails to
ignite or if the flame goes out.
The control prevents starting of
the burner in case of electrical
failure until all safety devices are
in the normal starting position.
An interior view of a primary
control is shown in Figure 11-40.
This control device is also
equipped with a high-
temperature limit control. This
control shuts down the heating
plant whenever the temperature
of the furnace becomes
excessive. For example, if the
thermostat is exposed to a blast
of cold air for a long period of
time, the heating plant could run
long enough to become
overheated to the point of severe Figure 11-40 Interior view of a primary
control.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-38
damage or external fire if it were not for this high-temperature limit control.

4.5.1.3.2 Limit Control

The limit control is a device that responds to changes in air temperature (in a warm-air
heating system), to changes in water temperature (in a hot-water heating system), and
to changes in steam pressure (in a steam-heating system). The limit control has two
distinct functions. The first function is to control the operation of the fire so the
temperature and pressure of the heating plant never exceed safe operating limits. This
function is distinctly for safety control.
The second function of the limit control is to limit the temperature and pressure of the
heating system for better temperature regulation in the building. This function is
particularly useful in controlling coal-fired heating systems where the coal bed continues
to give off heat when the stoker motor stops. By lowering the setting of the limit control,
however, it is possible to prevent an excessively hot fire that would continue to throw off
excessive amounts of heat after the thermostat has been satisfied.

4.5.1.3.3 Temperature-Responsive Devices

Many automatic control units, such as the thermostat, limit control, fan control, and
many others, must respond to temperature changes. Actually, these are the instruments
that use a temperature change to cause the electrical contacts inside each unit to open
and close. The opening and closing is an indicating signal that is transmitted to the
primary control for specific action, such as starting or stopping the operation of the
heating plant.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-39

4.5.1.3.4 Bimetallic Strip
Some automatic control units are equipped with a switch that contains a straight
bimetallic strip to open and close electrical contacts. This actuating device is made by
welding together two pieces of dissimilar metals, such as brass and Invar (Figure 11-41,
View A). Below a certain predetermined temperature, this strip does not deflect or bend.
However, when the strip is heated, it bends in the direction of the metal that expands
the least (Figure 11-41, View B).

Figure 11-41 Bimetallic strips.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-40

Actually, this electrical switch is
constructed by welding two
electrical connections and
contacts to the strip (Figure 11-
41, View C). A switch of this type
can then be used to control
electrical circuits because the
bimetallic strip responds to
temperature changes. This is a
basic example of how this
principle of bimetallic strip
operation is used in many
temperature-responsive
automatic units. Other control
switches contain bimetallic strips
that are spiral, U-shaped, Q-
shaped, or even in the shape of a
helix (Figure 11-42).

4.5.1.3.5 Vapor-Tension Device

The vapor-tension principle is
also used to actuate some types Figure 11-42 Various types of bimetallic
of automatic control units. This is strips.
a common type of temperature-
measuring device in which the
effects of temperature changes
are transmitted into motion by a
highly volatile liquid. The most
used vapor-tension device is the
simple compressible bellows
(Figure 11-43, View A).
The bellows is made of brass. It
is partially filled with alcohol,
ether, or other volatile liquid not
corrosive to brass. When the
temperature around the bellows
increases, the heat gasifies the
liquid inside and causes the
bellows to extend. The extension
closes a set of electrical contacts
(Figure 11-43, View B). When
the bellows cools again, it
contracts. The contraction opens
the electrical contacts.

4.5.1.3.6 Remote-Bulb Device Figure 11-43 Tension devices.

Liquid-filled devices are not
always limited to the simple bellows. There are some remote-bulb devices that not only
have a bellows but also have a capillary tube and a liquid-filled bulb (Figure 11-44).

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-41

When the liquid in the bulb is heated, part of
it gasifies and forces its way through the
capillary tube into the bellows. This
increased pressure inside the bellows
causes it to extend and open a set of
electrical contacts (or open or close a valve).
When the bulb cools, the gas liquefies and
decreases pressure inside the bellows. This
decreased pressure allows the bellows to
contract and close the electrical contacts.
Pressure-responsive devices are actuating
mechanisms installed in units such as
steam-pressure controls, steam-pressure
gauges, and pressure regulators.

4.5.1.3.7 Bellows Figure 11-44 Remote-bulb

One type of pressure-responsive actuating device.
device uses bellows in a way similar to that
of the remote-bulb type. In this application,
the bellows extends and contracts in
response to changes in steam pressure. The
action caused by movement of the bellows
opens or closes a set of electrical contacts.

4.5.1.3.8 Bourdon Tube

Another type of pressure-responsive
actuating device is found inside the pressure
gauge (Figure 11-45). In this actuating
device, the pressure is applied inside a
hollow, partially flattened, bent tube called a
Bourdon spring tube. The pressure inside
this tube tends to straighten it, and in so
doing, it moves the lever mechanism that
turns the pointer. The pressure gauge
Figure 11-45 Bourdon spring
measures the pressure in pounds per square
inch (psi). tube.

Humidity-responsive devices open or close solenoid or motorized valves which control

the flow of water or steam to humidifying equipment. The sensitive element which
actuates the motion in this device consists of a group of human hairs. These hairs
lengthen when the humidity is high and shorten when the humidity is low.
Accumulation of dust and grease on these hairs, while not damaging, may decrease the
sensitivity of the controller. Consequently, you should clean the element periodically
with a camel's-hair brush and clean ether, and then a complete wetting with distilled
water should follow this cleaning.

4.5.1.3.9 Electrical Switches

Electrical switches in heating-control equipment operate electrical circuits in response to
signals from automatic control units. In other words, the actions initiated by devices
responsive to temperature, pressure, and humidity changes open or close switch

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-42

contacts. These in turn control the operation of the heating plant through electrical
circuits. Switches may be either the snap-action type or the mercury type.
Snap-action switches vary in their designs.
Some are constructed so they have an over-
center spring arrangement designed so the
movement of the actuating lever engages
the spring and causes the switch to move
with snap-action. The snap-action type of
switch is shown in Figure 11-46, View A.
Another snap-action switch shown in Figure
11-46, View A has a small magnet that
causes the electrical contacts to remain
firmly closed. It also provides the switch with
the snap-action effect. The contacts of this
switch must open or close quickly to avoid
excessive arcing across the points. Arcing
burns the contacting surfaces, which
eventually causes switch failure.
Figure 11-46 Electrical
A mercury switch has the electrical contacts switches.
and a small amount of mercury in a
hermetically sealed short glass tube (Figure 11-46, View B). Tilting the switch causes
the mercury inside the tube to cover or uncover the contacts. When the contacts are
covered, the electrical circuit is completed.
Every electrical switch is designed so it has a specific rated capacity in amperes and
volts, for example, a capacity of 8 amperes at 110 volts. An electrical switch should
never be overloaded because overloading causes overheating, which eventually results
in switch failure that can create a fire hazard.
The standard controls furnished for automatic fuel-burning equipment come in sets
designed for warm-air, hot-water, and steam-heating systems. A standard set usually
consists of a thermostat, limit control, primary control, and electric motor. Auxiliary
controls are those designed for a specific function in a warm-air, hot-water, or steam-
heating system. They are in addition to the standard controls.

4.5.1.3.10 Thermostat
The thermostat is the nerve center of the heating-control system. It is the sensitive unit
that responds to changes in room temperature. It indicates whether more or less heat is
required from the heating plant. It transmits the indicating signal to a primary control for
action. This indicating signal is initiated by closing or opening electrical contacts in the
thermostat.
Thermostats often differ in construction according to the type of primary control with
which they are to be used. Probably the most used thermostats are the spiral-bimetallic
type and the mercury-bulb type.
An electric clock thermostat has the additional features of an electric clock and an
automatic mechanism that can be adjusted to change the thermostat setting at a
desired time. For instance, it can be adjusted to reset the thermostat automatically from
80F to 60F at 11:00 p.m. (when 80F heat is not needed). Then it will reset the
thermostat to 80F at 6:00 a.m. (when more than 60F heat is needed).

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-43

The location for the thermostat should be representative of that part of the building in
which heat is needed to maintain a comfortable temperature. The best location is on an
inside wall, just a few feet from an outside wall and about 4 1/2 feet above the floor. The
thermostat wiring must conform to local electrical ordinances.
To check the calibration of a thermostat, hang an accurate test thermometer within 2
inches of the device. Allow 15 to 30 minutes for the thermostat and thermometer to
adjust themselves to room temperature. The thermostat contacts should close when the
control knob or dial is set at the temperature indicated by the test thermometer. You
should not try to recalibrate the thermostat if the closing point varies 1F or less. When
calibration is necessary, follow the manufacturer's instructions.

4.6.0 Furnace Installation

Since there are many types and makes of oil- and gas-fired warm-air furnaces on the
market, detailed assembly instructions to suit all makes and types cannot be given in
this manual. However, some general instructions which apply to both oil-fired and gas-
fired furnaces, except as noted, are given below.
Carefully follow assembling instructions included with each furnace or blower shipment.
Each piece or casting is manufactured to fit in its proper place. Parts are seldom
interchangeable.
Install furnaces in a level position. If the floor is uneven, use a steel wedge, a cast iron
wedge, or the leveling bolts provided on some equipment. Use a spirit level to make
sure the unit is level.
Gas-fired and oil-fired forced-air units which have the blower below the heating element
or combustion chamber should be set on masonry at least 3 inches thick and extending
at least 12 inches beyond the casing wall. Install all other units on a cold masonry floor.
Provide enough clearance to permit easy access for repairs. Make the clearance at
least 18 inches from wood or other combustible material unless you install an asbestos
board at least 1 inch from the combustible material. Units may be installed near
masonry walls; however, leave ample room to permit proper servicing.
Furnace cement is furnished with each cast iron furnace. Seal all furnace joints with a
liberal amount of furnace cement between sections to ensure the furnace is gastight.
Asbestos rope is furnished with a number of furnaces; follow the manufacturer's
instructions covering its use. See that projections from the furnace, such as the smoke
pipe or clean-outdoors, extend through the outside of the casing.
In assembling a furnace, be sure to tighten all bolts. Draw each bolt until it is almost
tight. Then, after all bolts have been installed, draw each one gradually until all are
uniformly and properly tight. Avoid drawing bolts too tight, as this can crack or break a
casting or buckle a steel plate.
After assembling the furnace, check all doors for free operation and tight fit.
Install the downdraft diverters furnished with the equipment on all gas-burning furnaces.
Diverters are developed for individual furnaces.
Use a vent or smoke pipe that is at least as large as the smoke-pipe outlet of the
furnace.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-44

Securely fasten the vent or
smoke pipe at each joint with a
minimum of three sheet metal
screws. Install horizontal pipe
with a pitch upward of at least 1
inch per linear foot (Figure 11-
47).
Ventilate the furnace room
adequately to supply air for
combustion. Provide an opening
having 1 square inch of free-air
area for each 1,000 BTU per hour
of furnace input rating, with a
minimum of 200 square inches.
Locate the opening at or near the
floor line whenever possible. In
addition, provide two louvered
openings, each having a free-air
area of at least 200 square
inches in it, at or near the ceiling
as near opposite ends of the Figure 11-47 Smoke pipe (flue)
furnace room as possible. installation.
Tank installation is largely
governed by local conditions. Listed here are the principles of tank installation that give
greatest freedom from service problems. Adhere as closely to these recommendations
as local conditions permit.
When possible, install single-pipe gravity oil feed on inside tanks or elevated outside
tanks (Figure 11-48). This type of installation is used for single-stage pumps. Use a 1/4-
inch globe valve at the tank instead of a larger size. Larger valves sometimes cause
tank hum.

Figure 11-48 Diagram of piping for inside or outside elevated tank

installations.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-45
For all installations, use a continuous piece of 1/2-inch copper tubing from the oil tank or
valve to the burner and a similar piece for the return when required. The principle is to
minimize the number of joints and thus minimize the possibility of air or oil leaks.
For inside installations where it is necessary to run the piping overhead between the
tank and burner, when the burner is either above or below the tank level, the two-pipe
system is recommended. This requires the use of a two-stage pump.
A dual-stage pump may be changed from a single-stage to a two-stage pump to
accommodate a single-pipe or two-pipe system. The stages on a Webster fuel pump
can be changed by removing the four screws on the pressure side of the pump and
lining the Number 1 up with the letter on the pump body for a one-pipe system. The
Number 2 lined up with the letter is for a two-pipe system. Most Sunstrand fuel pumps
are shipped from the factory set up for a one-pipe system. To change to a two-pipe
system, remove the 3/8-inch pipe plug from the bottom of the pump housing. There you
will find an Allen head plug. Remove this plug for a two-pipe system.
Install the outside tanks according to the instruction below (Figure 11-49).

Figure 11-49 Diagram of piping for buried outside tank.

Normally, when you are installing an underground fuel tank, the suction and return lines
are made of black iron from the tank to the inside of the building, and there the burner is
connected by copper tubing with a coil in it to eliminate vibration.
The return line is usually installed in the opposite end of the tank. Carry it to within 5
inches of the bottom. This creates an oil seal in the two lines, and any agitation caused
by return oil is safely away from the suction line.
A 1 1/2-inch fill line and a 1 1/2-inch vent line are recommended. Carry the vent well
aboveground and put a weatherproof cap on it. Pitch the vent line down toward the tank.
Use special pipe dope on all iron pipe fittings that carry oil. Treat the underground
outside tank and piping with a standard preparation or commercial corrosion-resistant
paint.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-46

4.7.0 Maintenance of Fuel Oil Systems
Among the major duties of the UT are troubleshooting and servicing oil burners. To
keep the burner in good operating condition, you must be able to recognize the
symptoms of various types of trouble and must know how to make various service and
maintenance adjustments to the burner.
Before getting into a discussion on troubleshooting and servicing of oil burners, lets
point out some information on fuel oil firing.

4.7.1 Fuel Oil Firing

Because fuel oils do not burn in the liquid state, several physical conditions must be
attained to affect complete and efficient combustion.
1. Either the liquid must be thoroughly vaporized or gasified by heating within the
burner, or the burner must atomize it so vaporization can occur in the combustion
space.
2. The mist must be thoroughly mixed with sufficient combustion air.
3. Required excess air must be maintained at a minimum to reduce stack thermal
loss.
4. Flame propagation temperature must be maintained.
Vaporization within the burner is generally confined to small domestic services, such as
water heating, space heating, and cooking, and to some industrial processes. Burners
for this purpose are usually of the pot type with natural or forced draft, gravity float-type
feed control, and hand or electric ignition. Kerosene, diesel oils, and commercial oils of
grades Nos. 1 and 2 are suitable fuels because they vaporize at relatively low
temperatures.
If oil is to be vaporized in the combustion space in the instant of time available, it must
be broken up into many small particles to expose as much surface as possible to the
heat. This atomization is done in three basic ways:
1. By using steam or air under pressure to break the oil into droplets
2. By forcing oil under pressure through a suitable nozzle
3. By tearing an oil film into tiny drops by centrifugal force
Primary combustion air is usually admitted to the furnace through a casing surrounding
the oil burner. The casing is spiral-vaned to impart a swirling motion to the air, opposite
to the motion of the oil. Three types of burners used for atomization are the steam- or
air-atomizing burner, the mechanical-atomizing burner, and the rotary-cup burner.
Burners should be piped with a circulating fuel line, including cutout, bypass, pressure-
relief valves, and strainer ahead of the burner. Burners should be accessible and
removable for cleaning, and the orifice nozzle plates should be exchangeable to
compensate for a wide range in load demand.

4.7.2 Steam-Atomizing and Air-Atomizing Burners

The burners consist of a properly formed jet-mixing nozzle to which oil and steam or air
is piped. The conveying medium mixes with fine particles of fuel passing through the
nozzle, and the mixture is projected into the furnace. Nozzles may be of the external or
internal mixing type, designed to project a flame that is flat or circular and long or short.
A burner should be selected to give the form of flame that is most positioned so there is
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-47
no flame impingement on the furnace walls and so combustion is completed before the
flame contacts the boiler surfaces.
Steam-atomizing burners are simpler and less
expensive than the air-atomizing type and are
usually used for locomotive and small power plants.
They handle commercial grade fuel oils Nos. 4, 5,
and 6 and require a steam pressure varying from 75
to 150 psi. The oil pressure needs to be enough to
carry oil to the burner tip, usually from 10 to 15 psi.
Burners using air as the atomizing medium are
designed for three air pressure ranges: low
pressure to 2 psi, medium pressure to 25 psi, and
high pressure to 100 psi.
Figure 11-50 shows a steam-atomizing burner of
the external mixing type. In View A, the oil reaches
the tip through a central passage and whirls against
a sprayer plate to break up at right angles to the
stream of steam (View B). The atomizing stream
surrounds the oil chamber and receives a whirling
motion from vanes in its path. When air is used as
the atomizing medium in this burner, it should be at
10 psi for light oils and 20 psi for heavy oils.
Combustion air enters through a register; vanes
or shutters are adjustable to give control of excess
air.

4.7.3 Mechanical-Atomizing Burner

The burner is universally used except in domestic
or low-pressure service. Good atomization results
when oil under high pressure (to 300 psi) passes
through a small orifice and emerges as a conical
mist. The orifice atomizing the fuel is often aided by
a slotted disk that whirls the oil before it enters the
nozzle.

Figure 11-50 Steam-

atomizing burner.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-48

Figure 11-51 shows a mechanical-atomizing burner.
View A is a cross section of the burner; View B
shows the central movable control rod that varies,
through a regulating pin, the area of tangential slots
in the sprayer plate and the volume of oil passing
through the orifice; View C shows a design with a
wide-capacity range obtained by supplying oil to the
burner tip at a constant rate in excess of demand.
The amount of oil burned varies with the load; the
excess is returned.

4.7.4 Horizontal Rotary-Cup Burner

The burner atomizes fuel oil by tearing it into tiny
drops (Figure 11-52). A conical or cylindrical cup
rotates at high speed (about 3,450 rpm), if motor
driven. Oil moving along this cup reaches the
periphery where centrifugal force flings it into an
airstream. It is suitable for small low-pressure
boilers.

Figure 11-51
Mechanical-atomizing
burner.

Figure 11-52 Rotary-cup oil burner.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-49

4.8.0 Oil-Burner Maintenance
Before attempting to start or to service oil burners, see that you have the proper
maintenance equipment available. One item of equipment needed is a pressure gauge
set. This should consist of a 150 psi pressure gauge, fittings to connect it, and a
petcock for removing the air from the oil line when starting the burner. You will need a
full set of Allen setscrew wrenches for bypass plugs and for adjusting the nozzle holder
and electrodes. Make sure you have a socket wrench of proper size for removing or
replacing the nozzle, an open-end wrench as required for the nozzle holders, and a
small thermostat wrench. This wrench comes packed with the thermostat and is used
for adjusting the differential. A small screwdriver is required for adjusting pressure at the
regulator and installing and servicing the thermostat. Another important item is pipe
dope, and if available, use the oil-line type only. If in doubt, order a can of special oil-
pipe dope for use on all pipe threads requiring dope. A nozzle assortment should also
be kept on hand. It is cheaper to make a change, time considered, than to clean the
nozzle on the job. When a few nozzles have accumulated, clean them in the shop.
When installing a nozzle, use a socket wrench for turning the nozzle. Be sure the nozzle
seat is clean. Screw it on until it reaches the bottom, then back it off and retighten it
several times to make sure of a tight oil seal. Do not over-tighten the nozzle or the brass
threads will become deformed, making it difficult to remove the nozzle.
Clean the nozzles in the shop on a clean bench. A nozzle is a delicate device. Handle it
with care. Use kerosene or safety solvent to cut the grease and gum; use compressed
air, if available, to blow the dirt out. Use goggles for eye protection when blowing dirt out
with compressed air. Never use a metal needle to clean the opening; it will ruin the
nozzle. Sharpen the end of a match or use a nonmetallic bristle brush to clean the
opening.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-50

When you are checking the nozzle, you may have to make adjustments in the distance
of the nozzle from the tube end, the distance of the ignition points ahead of and above
the nozzle, and the distance or gap between the ignition points. Figure 11-53 shows
these nozzles adjustments. The nozzle tip is set 5/8 inch apart, 1/8 inch ahead of the
nozzle, and 1/2 inch above the nozzle center line. These settings are given only for this
particular illustration. Actual adjustments should always be made according to the
specific settings in the manufacturer's instruction manual. Always tighten electrodes
securely to ensure permanent adjustment.

Figure 11-53 Setting of ignition points and nozzles.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-51

4.8.1 Troubleshooting
When oil burners are operated, operating problems will occur. These problems can
cause interruption of service, inefficiency, and damage to the equipment in the system.
To ensure proper operation and efficiency, you will need to be able to identify and
correct these difficulties. A list of common difficulties and their remedy are contained in
Table 11-5.
Table 11-5 Common Operating Difficulties for Oil Burners
Condition Check for
Furnace pulsates on starting, Proper adjustment of the nozzle electrode assembly
stopping, or during operation. land blast tube.
Improper draft. Leaks in chimney.
Defective nozzle.
Air in the line, between fuel unit and nozzle.
Flame is raw and stingy. Too large an opening in the air adjustment.
Partly plugged nozzle.
Air in the pump.
Ignition points collect carbon. Ignition points too close to nozzle.
Nozzle loose in holder.
Improper oil cutoff when burner is shutdown.
Oil pump is noisy. Air in oil line.
Leaks in suction line.
Plugged strainer.
Burner starts and stops too Thermostat is improperly wired.
frequently.
Thermostat is improperly adjusted.
Drive arm adjustment is incorrect.
Limit control is set too low.
Plugged air filters.
Nozzle is too large for unit.
Burner failsafe is activated. Low voltage occurring at night.
Incorrect polarity of wiring.
Primary control or stack switch improperly adjusted.
No oil at the nozzle. Fuel too low in the supply tank.
Plugged nozzle.
Leak in the suction line.
Leak in the vacuum-gauge port.
Pump failing to turn.
Leaking strainer gasket.
Leaking pump-shaft seal.
Fuel unit not operating.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-52
4.8.2 Flame Adjustment
After the burner has been visually adjusted and allowed to run about 30 minutes, reduce
the stack draft until there is just enough over-fire draft in firebox to keep the pressure
from increasing under unfavorable draft conditions. The draft regulator helps maintain a
constant draft in the furnace regardless of outside weather conditions. Adjust the draft
by properly setting the adjuster. Too little draft is likely to cause firebox pressure, odors
in the building, and possible smoke or smothering of the flame. Too much draft
accentuates the effect of a possible leak in the furnace, lowers the percentage of CO2 in
the flue gas, and in turn reduces the overall efficiency of the unit. After the burner flame
and draft are properly adjusted, a flue-gas analysis should show a CO2 content of
approximately 10 percent. If it does not, recheck the burner air adjustment and inspect
for air leaks. For best results, the flame should be just large enough to heat the building
properly in cold weather.
Air supplied to the burner will then be the minimum for clean combustion. If the furnace
is large enough and the burner has been set for correct oil flow and minimum amount of
air, stack temperature should not exceed 600F. Higher stack temperatures indicate that
the fire is too large or the furnace too small, or that there is too much excess air.

4.8.3 Test Equipment

It is almost impossible to set and adjust a burner without instruments or test equipment.
Proper instruments, in good working order, must be available in the heating shop for
use by personnel who service this equipment.
The draft gauge, usually of the pointer-indicating type, is used to determine suction in
the smoke pipe or combustion chamber. Suction is measured in inches of water.
Carefully follow the instructions for operating the instrument.
The stack thermometer is used to indicate the temperature of gases in the smoke pipe.
Insert the thermometer halfway between the center and outside of the smoke pipe and
not more than 12 inches from the furnace between the smoke pipe connection and the
draft regulator or barometric damper. Be careful to prevent the thermometer from being
influenced by cold air taken in by the draft regulator.
The flue-gas analyzer is used to determine the percentage of CO2 produced by
combustion. The CO2 reading shows how much excess air is being used. Along with the
stack temperature, it denotes the efficiency of the furnace. If, despite a good flame
setting, CO2 readings are low, examine the furnace for air leaks.

4.9.0 Fuel Pump

Maintenance requirements include cleaning the strainer, servicing the valve seat and
needle valve, and adjusting the pressure regulator. You must clean the strainers
frequently to prevent the screen from clogging and causing a shutdown. A good test for
valve operation consists of removing the nozzle line at the pump connection, starting
and stopping the pump, and observing whether the valve cuts off sharp and lean. When
necessary, you can easily service the valve by removing the valve chamber cover,
holding spring, washer, adjusting spring, cap, and bellows assembly. Then, by taking off
the nut that is marked "Nozzle," you can remove the valve, valve guide, and plug
assembly.
You can adjust the pressure regulator by replacing the vent plug with a pressure gauge,
removing the cover screw, and using an Allen wrench to turn the adjusting screw
clockwise to increase the pressure or counterclockwise to decrease the pressure.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-53
Burner failure or improper unit operation can be caused by various problems. Often you
can pinpoint the problem by observing the type of failure and giving it some thought
before attacking the problem. At other times, you can determine the cause only by a
process of elimination. Table 11-6 lists specific oil pump troubleshooting procedures,
while Table 11-7 and Table 11-8 list general oil burner troubleshooting procedures.
Check the simplest and more obvious items before progressing to the other checks and
always refer to the manufacturers instructions, here are some general trouble shooting
steps that might be useful.
Table 11-6 Oil Pump Troubleshooting
CONDITION CAUSE REMEDY

No oil flow at nozzle Oil level below line in Fill tank with oil.
supply tank

Clogged strainer or filter Remove/clean strainer.

Replace filter element.

Clogged nozzle Replace nozzle.

Air leak in intake line Tighten all fittings. Tighten

unused intake port plug.
Check filter cover and
gasket.

Restricted intake line Replace any kinked tubing

and check valves.

Two-pipe system that Check for and insert bypass

becomes air bound plug. Make sure return line
is below oil level.

Single-pipe that becomes Loosen gauge port plug or

air bound easy flow valve and bleed
oil for 15 secs after foam is
gone in bleed hose. Check
intake fitting for tightness.
Check all pump plugs.

Slipping or broken coupling Tighten/replace coupling.

Frozen pump shaft Replace pump.

Oil Leak Loose plugs or fittings Dope with thread sealer.

Leak at pressure adjuster Washer damaged. Replace
screw or nozzle plug the washer/O-ring.

Blown seal (single-pipe Check to see if bypass plug

system) has been left in unit.
Replace oil pump.

Blown seal (two-pipe Check for kinked tubing or

system) obstructions in return line.
Replace oil pump.

Seal leaking Replace oil pump.

Cover Tighten cover screws or

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-54
 CONDITION CAUSE REMEDY
replace damaged gasket.

Noisy operation Bad coupling alignment Loosen fuel unit mounting

screws slightly and shift fuel
unit in different positions
until noise is eliminated,
Retighten mounting screws.

Air in inlet line Check connections.

Tank hum on two-pipe Install return line hum

system and inside tank eliminator in return line.

Pulsating pressure Partially clogged strainer or Remove/clean strainer.

filter Replace filter element.

Air leak in intake line Tighten all fittings.

Air leaking around cover Be sure strainer cover

screws are tight. Check for
damaged cover gasket.

Improper nozzle cut-off To determine the cause of improper cutoff, insert a

pressure gauge in the nozzle port of the fuel unit. After a
minute of operation, shut burner down. If the pressure
drops from normal operating pressure and stabilizes, the
fuel unit is good and air is the cause of cutoff. If, the
pressure drops below 80 psig, replace oil pump.

Filter leaks Check face of cover and

gasket for damage.

Strainer cover loose Tighten four screws on

cover.

Air pocket between cutoff Run burner, stopping and

valve and nozzle. starting unit, until smoke
and after-fire disappears.

Air leak in intake line Tighten intake fittings.

Tighten unused intake port
and return plug.

Partially clogged nozzle Clean strainer or change

strainer nozzle.

Leak at nozzle adapter Change nozzle and

adapter.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-55

 Table 11-7 Oil Burner Troubleshooting
Burner Fails to Start

Source Procedure Causes Correction

Thermostat control Check thermostat Thermostat is in Switch to Heat

settings Off or Cool
position

Thermostat is Turn to higher

set too low setting

Safety overloads Check burner motor, Burner motor Push motor

primary safety control, overload tripped overload reset
and auxiliary limit
switch

Primary control Reset safety switch

tripped on safety

Auxiliary limit Push auxiliary limit

switch tripped switch reset
on safety

Power Check furnace Switch open Close switch

disconnect switch and
main disconnect switch

Blown fuse or Replace fuse or

tripped breaker reset breaker

Thermostat unit Touch jumper wire Loose Tighten connection

across thermostat thermostat
terminals on primary screw
control. If burner starts, connections
then fault is in
thermostat circuit

Dirty contacts Clean contacts

Thermostat not Level thermostat

level

Faulty Replace thermostat

thermostat

Cad cell Disconnect flame Flame detector Separate leads

detector wires at leads shorted
primary control. If
burner starts, fault is in
the detector circuit

Flame detector Seal off false source

exposed to light of light

Short circuit in Replace detector

flame detector

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-56

 Burner Fails to Start

Source Procedure Causes Correction

Primary control (1) Place trouble light Primary or Check dial

between the black and auxiliary control adjustment. Set to
white leads. No light switch open maximum stop
indicates there is no setting. Jumper
power to the control. terminals; if burner
start switch is faulty,
replace control

Open circuit Trace wiring and

between repair or replace
disconnect
switch and limit
control

Low line voltage Call CE

or power failure

Primary control (2) Place trouble light Defective Replace control

between the orange internal control
and black leads. No circuit
light indicates the
control is faulty

Burner (1) Place trouble light Blown fuse Replace fuse

between the black and
white leads to burner
motor. No light
indicates no power to
the burner motor.

Burner (2) Place trouble light Binding burner Turn off power and
between the black and blower wheel rotate blower wheel
white leads to burner by hand
motor. Light indicates
power to the motor and
a burner fault

Seized fuel If seized, free wheel

pump from binding or
replace fuel pump

Defective burner Replace motor

motor
Burner Starts but NO Flame is Established

Oil supply Check gauge or use dip No oil in tank Fill tank
stick. Coat dipstick with
litmus paper and insert
to bottom of tank. Listen
for pump whine.

Water in oil tank Pump or drain the

water out if greater
than 1 inch in depth
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-57
 Burner Fails to Start

Source Procedure Causes Correction

Tank shutoff Open valve

valve closed

Oil filters and oil line Listen for pump whine Oil line filter Replace filter
plugged cartridge

Kinks or Repair or replace oil

restriction in oil line
line

Plugged fuel Clean strainer or

pump strainer replace pump

Open bleed valve or Air leak in oil Locate and correct

gauge port. Start supply line leak and tighten all
burner. No oil or milky connections
oil indicates loss of
prime

Oil pump Install pressure gauge Pump partially Replace pump

on pump and read or completely
pressure. Pressure frozen; No
should not be less than pressure and
100 psig motor locks out
on control

Coupling Reengage or
disengaged or replace coupling
broken; No
pressure

Fuel pressure Adjust pressure to

too low 100 psig

Nozzle Disconnect ignition Nozzle orifice Replace nozzle with

leads. Observe oil plugged same size, spray
spray (gun assembly angle, and spray
must be removed from type
the unit). Inspect nozzle
for plugged orifice or
carbon buildup around
orifice

Nozzle strainer Replace nozzle with

plugged same size, spray
angle, and spray
type

Poor or off Replace nozzle with

center spray same size, spray
angle, and spray
type.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-58

 Burner Fails to Start

Source Procedure Causes Correction

Ignition electrodes Remove gun assembly Fouled or Clean electrodes

and inspect electrodes shorted and leads. Dress up
and leads electrodes and electrode tips and
leads; Eroded reset gap to 1/8 inch
electrode tips; and correctly
Improper position the tips
position of
electrode tips

Bad buss bar Retension and align

connection

Cracked or Replace electrode

chipped
insulators

Cracked or Replace electrode

burned lead leads
insulators

Ignition transformer Connect ignition leads Low line voltage Check voltage at
to transformer. Start power source.
burner and observe Correct cause of
spark. Check line voltage drop or call
voltage to transformer CE
primary

Burned out Replace transformer

transformer
windings

No spark or Properly ground

weak spark transformer case

Burner motor Motor does not come Low line voltage Check voltage at
up to speed and trips power source.
out on overload. Turn Correct cause of
off power and rotate voltage drop or call
blower wheel by hand CE
to check for binding or
excessive drag

Pump or blower Correct cause of

overloading overloading or
motor replace motor

Faulty motor Replace motor

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-59

 Table 11-8 Oil Burner Troubleshooting
Burner Starts and Fires but Locks Out on Safety

Source Procedure (1) Procedure (2) Cause Correction

Poor fire After burner If burner Unbalanced Replace nozzle

fires, continues to run, fire
immediately fault may be due
place jumper to poor fire. Too much air; Reduce
across flame Inspect fire lean short fire combustion air;
detector check
terminals at combustion
primary control
Too little fire; Increase
long dirty fire combustion air;
check
combustion

Excessive Adjust
draft barometric
damper for
correct draft

Too little draft Correct draft or

or restriction remove
restriction

Flame detector If fire is good, Dirty cad cell Clean cad cell
fault is in flame face face
detector. Check
detector circuit. Faulty cad Replace cad
cell; exceeds cell
1500 ohms

Loose or Secure
defective cad connections or
cell wires replace cad cell
holder and wire
leads

Primary Replace
control circuit primary control
defective

Oil supply If burner loses Air slug or Check supply

(listen for pump flame (does not leak in supply line and oil tank
whine) lock out on line
safety), fault is in
the fuel system Restriction or Remove
plugged restrictions or
strainers replace pump

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-60

 Burner Runs Continuously (Too Little Heat)

Combustion Check burner If burner Unbalanced Replace nozzle

combustion for continues to run fire
CO2 stack (does not lock out
temperature on safety), fault
and smoke. may be due to
poor fire. Inspect
fire.

Too much air; Reduce

lean short fire combustion air;
check
combustion.

Too little fire; Increase

long dirty fire combustion air;
check
combustion.

Excessive Adjust
draft barometric
damper for
correct draft.

Too little draft Correct draft or

or restriction remove
restriction.

Flame detector If fire is good, Dirty cad cell Clean cad cell
fault is in flame face face.
detector. Check
detector circuit. Faulty cad Replace cad
cell; exceeds cell.
1500 ohms

Loose or Secure
defective cad connections or
cell wires replace cad cell
holder and wire
leads.

Primary Replace
control circuit primary control.
defective

Oil supply If burner loses Air slug or Check supply

(listen for pump flame (does not leak in supply line and oil
whine) lock out on line tank.
safety), fault is in
the fuel system Restriction or Remove
plugged restrictions or
strainers replace pump.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-61

 Burner Starts and Fires but Short Cycles (Too Little Heat)

Source Procedure Causes Correction

Thermostat Check Heat anticipator Correct heat anticipator setting.
thermostat. set too low

Vibration in Correct source of vibration.

thermostat

Thermostat in Shield thermostat from draft or

warm-air draft relocate thermostat.

Limit control Connect Dirty air filters Clean or replace filter.

voltmeter (furnace)
between line
voltage Blower running Speed up blower for 85 to 95
connections to too slow temperature rise.
primary control
Blower motor Replace motor.
(black and
seized or burned
white leads). If
out
burner cycles
due to power Blower bearings Replace bearings and shaft.
interruption, it is seized
cycling off limit.
Blower wheel Clean blower wheel.
dirty

Blower wheel in Reverse blower wheel.

backwards

Power If voltage Wrong motor Replace with motor of correct

fluctuates, then rotation rotation.
fault is in power
source.
Recheck
voltage at
power source.

Disconnect Restrictions in Correct cause of restriction.

thermostat return air or
wires at primary supply air system
control.

1. If burner Adjust limit Rest limit to maximum stop

turns off, fault is control set too setting.
in thermostat low.
circuit.

2. If burner Loose wiring Locate and secure connection.

does not turn connection
off, fault is in
primary control.

Low or fluctuating Call CE.

line voltage

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-62

 Burner Starts and Fires but Locks Out on Safety.

Source Procedure (1) Procedure (2) Cause Correction

Poor fire After burner If burner Unbalanced Replace

fires, continues to run, fire nozzle.
immediately fault may be due
place jumper to poor fire. Too much air; Reduce
across flame Inspect fire. lean short fire combustion air;
detector check
terminals at combustion.
primary control.

Too little fire; Increase

long dirty fire combustion air;
check
combustion.

Excessive Adjust
draft barometric
damper for
correct draft.

Too little draft Correct draft or

or restriction remove
restriction.

Flame detector If fire is good, Dirty cad cell Clean cad cell
fault is in flame face face.
detector. Check
detector circuit. Faulty cad Replace cad
cell; exceeds cell.
1500 ohms

Loose or Secure
defective cad connections or
cell wires replace cad cell
holder and wire
leads.

Primary control If burner locks out Primary Replace

on safety, fault is control circuit primary control.
in primary control. defective

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-63

 Burner Runs Continuously (Too Much Heat)

Source Procedure Cause Correction

Thermostat Disconnect Shorted or Repair or replace thermostat.

thermostat welded
wires at primary thermostat
control. contacts

1. If burner Stuck thermostat Clear obstruction or replace

turns off, fault is bimetal thermostat.
in the
thermostat Thermostat not Level thermostat.
circuit. level

Shorted Repair short or replace wires.

thermostat wires

Thermostat out of Replace thermostat.

calibration

Thermostat in Correct cause of draft or

cold draft relocate thermostat.

2. If burner Defective primary Replace primary control.

does not turn control
off, the fault is
in the primary.

5.0.0 LOW-TEMPERATURE HOT WATER SYSTEMS

The Seabees use both the cast iron and steel hot-water type of boilers as sources of
heat for domestic hot-water systems in residences and other buildings. Small hot-water
heaters heat the hot water for domestic and for limited industrial uses.
Hot-water boilers come in many shapes and sizes. They are constructed with a firebox
for burning fuel and have provisions for passing the hot gases over the heat-absorbing
surfaces of the boiler. In most cases, baffles guide the gases over the most effective
route. These baffles also retard the flow of the gases from the furnace so water can
absorb as much of the heat as possible. Commonly both ends of the boiler have
openings for cleaning the boiler tubes and for washing the interior of the boiler. Since
most boilers are stationary units permanently installed at the site, they have specified
fittings and accessories for a specific heating job. Some boilers, however, called
package boilers, are complete units, including fittings and accessories. These boilers
are normally mounted on skids so they can be moved to different sites.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-64

This accounts for the term
package boiler. Package boilers
usually have the same
accessories and controls as the
comparable stationary type of
hot-water or steam boiler. Cast
iron boilers are seldom used as
package boilers because of the
danger of cracking the boiler
sections during transportation.
Cast iron hot-water boilers vary in
size from small domestic units to
moderately sized units capable of
developing 31 through 98
horsepower. These boilers are
usually constructed of several
sections joined together by push
nipples (round pieces of metal
pipe tapered at both ends). Pipes
known as header connections
ordinarily connect the boiler Figure 11-54 Cast iron boiler castings.
sections (Figure 11-54).
Cast iron boilers normally do not have brick settings. Usually, the only bricks used with
these boilers are those that are sometimes used as a base for the boilers. In most
cases, the bases are made of cast iron. Square sectional cast iron boilers are similar to
the typical unit shown in Figure 11-55. This boiler consists of a front and rear section
and a number of intermediate
sections, depending on the size
of the boiler. The sections are
connected on each side at the top
and bottom either by push nipples
or by an outside header. When
nipples are used, these sections
are held firmly together by rods
and nuts.
The boiler has a separate base
that does not contain water and,
therefore, requires a floor of
fireproof construction. Boilers that
have water in their bases are
referred to as wet-bottom boilers.
These boilers are relatively small
water units that may be installed
on floors constructed of
combustible materials. This
method of installation, however,
is not desirable.
The construction of square Figure 11-55 Cast iron boiler.
sectional boilers is ordinarily such that the sections can be taken through regular-sized
doors for assembly inside the boiler room. This is a distinct advantage from the
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-65
standpoint of both installing new equipment and replacing broken sections. Cast iron
boilers resist the chemical action of corrosive agents much better than steel boilers.
The disadvantage of cast iron hot-water heating boilers is the danger of the sections
cracking or breaking when improperly handled or fired.

5.1.0 Steel Hot-Water Boilers

Most steel hot-water boilers are constructed in two sections. One section consists of the
water jackets, combustion chamber, and smoke passages. These components are
either welded or riveted together as a unit. The other section consists of the base and
either the grates or burner, and is constructed according to the type of fuel used (Figure
11-56).

Figure 11-56 Typical hot-water boiler--light oil- or gas-fired.

Another steel boiler is a horizontal unit of the portable type, having an internal firebox
surrounded by water lanes. It rests either on a cast iron or a brick base. The front part of
the boiler rests on a pedestal. A disadvantage of this one-piece steel boiler is that it is
heavy and requires special equipment to lift it.

5.2.0 Installing Boilers for Low-Temperature Hot Water Systems

A boiler must have a good foundation. The top surface of the foundation should be level
to ensure proper alignment of the boiler sections, and thus eliminate strain on the boiler
castings. The furnace foundation should be poured separately from the finished floor. It
should be of sufficient width and depth to support the boiler without any settling, and it
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-66
should extend 2 inches above the finished floor. Assembly procedures vary in detail for
various boilers. However, manufacturers furnish detailed procedures for the assembly of
their boilers. Usually, the plans for the foundations can be procured from them.

5.3.0 Operation of Hot Water Boilers in a Low-Temperature Hot Water

System
Hot-water boilers, regardless of their design and type, operate on the same basic
principle. The fuel burns in the combustion chamber and produces heat. The resultant
heat is radiated and conducted to the water in the water jackets surrounding the
combustion chambers, and passes through the boiler tubes; heat is liberated by the flue
gases and absorbed by the water surrounding the tubes. The amount of heat
transferred into the water depends on the rate of heat conduction through the metal in
the boiler tubes and the rate of water
circulation in the boiler. For this reason,
boilers are designed with baffles to hold the
hot gases as long as possible. They give
up maximum heat before passing into the
chimney.

5.4.0 Boiler Fittings and

Accessories
All boilers have certain accessories for
safety and ease of operation. These
accessories are pressure-relief valves,
pressure gauges, water-level control
valves, and automatic controls.

5.4.1 Pressure-Relief Valve

In a closed hot-water heating system, there Figure 11-57 Pressure-relief
is always the possibility of building up a valve.
dangerous pressure. Consequently, a
pressure-relief valve is installed to allow this pressure to escape. A typical pressure-
relief valve is shown in Figure 11-57. This valve is usually on the top of the boiler. It
contains a spring-loaded valve that unseats when the pressure in the system increases
to a predetermined value, thereby allowing water to escape until the pressure drops to a
safe point. A valve of this type can be adjusted for different pressure.
Pressure-relief valves may eventually corrode and stick if they are not forced to operate
occasionally. It is a good practice, once each month, to increase the pressure to a point
that operates the valve. When the relief pressure on the gauge exceeds the setting of
the valve, check the valve pressure with an accurate gauge and adjust it to the required
amount. However, do not exceed the maximum safe pressure of the boiler.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-67

5.4.2 Pressure Gauge
The operator must know the water pressure
in the boiler at all times. A gauge is
connected to the top of the boiler. It shows
the water pressure in the boiler and in the
system in pounds per square inch. This
gauge is usually a combination gauge that
also indicates boiler water temperature and
altitude. The type shown in Figure 11-58,
however, indicates pressure only.
Little maintenance is required for this unit
other than to clean the glass so the gauge
can be read. Some types of pressure gauges
are constructed so they can be re-calibrated.
However, the proper equipment to do this is
not always available in the heating shop. To
calibrate a pressure gauge properly, you Figure 11-58 Water pressure
must have either a master gauge set or a gauge.
deadweight tester.

5.4.3 Water-Level Control Valve

Water is added to a hot-water heating system by either a manually operated water valve
or an automatic valve which is controlled by a float mechanism. Both valves are nearly
identical to those used in the free-water system of a steam boiler.

5.4.4 Airflow Switch

The airflow switch, or "sail switch" as it is sometimes called, is in the stack, breeching,
or the air inlet to the boiler. This switch shuts down the firing equipment in the event of
an induced or forced draft failure. To check the operation of this switch, you restrict or
shut off the draft. When you have done this, the switch should shut off the burning
equipment.

6.0.0 LOW-TEMPERATURE HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEMS
In hot-water heating systems, the water is heated at a central source and circulated
through pipes to radiators, convectors, or unit heaters. There are two general types of
low-temperature, hot-water heating systems. The first type is a gravity system in which
water circulation depends upon the weight difference between the hot column of water
leading to the radiators and the relatively cooler, heavier column of water returning from
the radiators. The second type is the forced-circulation system in which water is
circulated by a power-driven pump.

6.1.0 Gravity Systems

The distribution systems and piping for hot-water heating systems and for domestic hot-
water supply systems are simpler in design than those for steam because there are no
traps, drips, or reducing valves. Several items, such as supports, insulation, and some
valves and fittings, are the same for steam and hot-water distribution.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-68

Gravity hot-water distribution systems operate because of the gravitational pull on the
heavier cool water, which sinks as the heated water becomes lighter and rises. At this
point, let us discuss some of the types of gravity systems that are currently used.

6.1.1 One-Pipe, Open-Tank

System
The one-pipe, open-tank gravity
distribution system consists of a
single distribution pipe that
carries the hot water to all of the
convectors or radiators and
returns it to the boiler (Figure 11-
59). This system is easy to
install and moderate in cost.
The water that flows into the
radiators at the end of the
system has a lower temperature
than the water entering the first
radiators. A system of this type
should be designed so the water
reaching the last convector is not
too much cooler than the water
reaching the first convector.
Because of this progressive
temperature drop in the Figure 11-59 One-pipe, open-tank gravity
distribution system, convector hot-water distribution system.
radiators should be installed at
the end of the system to equalize the amount of heat radiation per radiator. It is difficult
to get enough circulation by
gravity to give the system small
convector temperature drops;
consequently, we do not
recommend the one-pipe, open-
tank gravity system.

6.1.2 Two-Pipe, Open-Tank

System
Many hot-water gravity
distribution systems are two-
pipe, open-tank systems (Figure
11-60). This heating system is
constructed with separate water
mains for supplying hot water
and returning cold water. The
radiators are connected in
parallel between the two mains.
In the two-pipe, open-tank gravity
system, the distributing supply
mains are either in the basement
with upfeed to the radiators or in Figure 11-60 Two-pipe, open-tank gravity
the attic. When the system is in hot-water distribution system.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-69
the attic, it has overhead downfeed supply risers. The return mains are in the basement.
Return connections for the two-pipe system are usually made into a gravity return which
pitches downward to the return opening in the heating boiler. The water temperature is
practically the same in all radiators, except for the allowance to be made for the
temperature drop in the distribution supply mains occurring between the boiler and the
end of the circuit. Water temperatures are the lowest at the end of the circuit. The
amount of temperature drop between the beginning and the end of the line depends
upon the length of the main and upon the heating load.
A tank with its vent open to the atmosphere is installed in the system above the highest
radiator for water expansion. The water level in the expansion tank rises and falls as the
system is heated and cooled, and the system is full of water and free from air at all
times. In the open-tank gravity hot-water heating system, the expansion tank is installed
on a riser directly above the boiler, so the air liberated from the boiler water enters the
tank and is not retained in the system.

6.1.3 One-Pipe, Closed-Tank System

A one-pipe, closed-tank gravity hot-water distribution system is similar to the one-pipe,
open-tank gravity hot-water heating system, except the expansion tank is a pneumatic
compression tank not open to the atmosphere (Figure 11-61). When the water in a
closed-tank system is heated, it expands into the pneumatic compression tank. This
action permits system operation
at a much higher water
temperature, without boiling, than
the temperature in the one-pipe,
open-tank gravity system. This
also results in higher heat
emission from the radiators.
A gravity open-tank system with
an average boiler water
temperature of 170F has a
radiator emission rate of 150
BTU psi, whereas a gravity
closed-tank system with an
average boiler water temperature
of 190F has a radiator emission
of 180 BTU per square foot (psf).
Higher boiler water temperatures
permit higher temperature drops
through the radiators;
consequently, smaller pipe sizes
can be used. The closed
pneumatic compression system Figure 11-61 One-pipe, closed-tank
requires a relief valve, usually set distribution system.
for the relief of water pressure
over 30 psi, depending upon the height of the building. A pressure-regulating valve
automatically maintains the system full of water. Installation of the radiators and piping
for an equivalent two-pipe, closed-tank gravity upfeed or overhead downfeed system is
the same as that for the open system, except the sizes of both the pipe and the
radiators are uniform and can be smaller. The open-tank system may have a reversed
return main that does not go directly back to the boiler.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-70

It doubles back from the last radiator and parallels the supply main back to the boiler
entrance. The reversed return system allows equal length of heating circuits for all
radiators. Friction and temperature losses for all radiators are nearly equal. In most
cases, the reversed return system involves no more piping than other piping
arrangements. With the correct size of piping and radiator supply tappings, the reversed
return system provides even heat and circulation to all radiators, even those near the
end of the circuit.

6.1.4 Expansion in a Gravity Hot-Water Distribution System

In the gravity and forced-circulation systems, open and closed expansion tanks allow
the water in the distribution system to expand as the temperature rises. An open tank
must be mounted at the highest point in the system; a closed tank can be located at any
point. If the air cushion leaks out of the closed expansion tank, it fills with water. At
times, you must recharge the tank by draining part of the water out of the tank and
allowing air to fill the space.
In the open system, an expansion tank open to the atmosphere allows the system to
expand. The open system is normally designed to operate at the maximum boiler
temperature of 180F. This gives an average radiator temperature of 170F or a radiator
output of 150 BTU psf. The closed system, in which the expansion takes place against a
cushion of air in the tank closed against the atmosphere, can be operated at
temperatures above 212F because the pressure built up in the system prevents the
water from boiling. Radiator temperatures then become equal to those of low-pressure
steam systems.
When a hot-water system is first filled with water, it is normally necessary to bleed the
air out of the system at the same time. You can remove the air by opening an air vent
on a radiator or by breaking a union near the end of the line. The temperature of the
water distributed is from 150F to 250F. The higher temperatures are used with the
forced-circulation systems.

6.2.0 Forced-Circulation Systems

Forced-circulation hot-water distribution systems have several advantages. They permit
the use of smaller pipe sizes and allow the installation of radiators at the same level as
the boiler, or below, without impairing water circulation. By using a circulation pump, a
positive flow of water is assured throughout the system. In larger installations, especially
where more than one building is served, forced circulation is almost invariably used.
With the development of a circulation pump of moderate cost, the forced-circulation
system is being used more in small heating installations.
As in gravity systems, forced-circulation systems can consist of a one-pipe or a two-
pipe, upfeed or downfeed, and can be equipped with a direct or a reversed return.
Although these systems usually have closed expansion tanks, they may have open
tanks.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-71

6.2.1 One-Pipe, Closed-Tank
System
The general arrangement of a
one-pipe, closed-tank, forced-
circulation system is similar to the
one-pipe gravity system, but with
the addition of a circulating pump
(Figure 11-62).
The circulation to individual
radiators is improved by special
supply and return connecting
tees. These tees, by an ejecting
action on the distribution supply
main and an ejecting action on
the return, combine to use a
portion of the velocity head in the
main to increase circulation
through the radiators. Tees of
this type also aid in stratification
of hot and cold water within the
distributing main. They are
designed to take off the hot-test Figure 11-62 One-pipe, closed-tank
water from the top of the main distribution system with a circulating pump.
and to deposit the colder water
on the bottom of the main.

6.2.2 Two-Pipe, Closed-Tank

System
The general arrangement of the
piping and radiators for the two-
pipe, forced-circulation
distribution system is the same as
that for the two-pipe gravity
system. The relative locations of
the compression tank relief valve
and the circulating pump are
shown in Figure 11-63.

6.3.0 Distribution System

Components
The component parts of a hot-
water distribution system include
the following: pipelines, radiators,
convectors, unit heaters,
circulating pumps, reducing
valves, flow-control valves, and
special flow fittings.
Figure 11-63 Two-pipe, closed-tank,
forced-circulation system.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-72

6.3.1 Pipelines
The piping system constitutes the closed passageway for the delivery of hot water to the
points where it is used. Pipelines are made of lengths of pipe fastened by screwed,
flanged, or welded joints. They have valves and fittings, such as tees, unions, and
elbows, according to the needs of the installation. Pipelines are supported by hangers
and fastened by anchors. Expansion joints or loops allow for expansion.
Mains and branches of the pipeline should be pitched so the air in the system can be
discharged through open expansion tanks, radiators, and relief valves. The pitch is
generally not less than 1 inch for every 10 feet. The piping arrangements for a new
system should provide for draining the entire system.

6.3.2 Radiators
The radiator transfers heat from the hot
water in the pipes of a hot-water heating
system into the surrounding air in a room.
A radiator is usually of two types. Cast iron
radiators are constructed and assembled
in sections, as shown in Figure 11-64,
Views A and B. Damaged radiator sections
can be replaced without replacing the
entire radiator assembly. Fin-tube radiators
are constructed of steel pipe and fins,
which are welded to the pipe (Figure 11-
64, Views C and D).
Radiators usually rest on the floor.
However, they can be either mounted on a
wall or hung from the ceiling. The location
of a radiator depends on the type of room
to be heated and its location with respect Figure 11-64 Types of
to the location of the boiler. For instance, in radiators.
a forced-circulation hot-water distribution
system, the radiators may be on the same
level with the boiler.

6.3.2.1 Convectors
Convectors are supported on the wall
much in the same way as a pipe. The
convectors consist of a fin-tube radiator
mounted in a metal cabinet and transfer
heat much in the same way, although a
damaged section must be welded or the
entire convector must be replaced (Figure
11-65).

Figure 11-65 Convector.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-73

6.3.2.2 Radiator Vents and Shutoff
Valves
Hot-water heating system radiators and
high points in the distribution lines must
have some type of vent that releases air
from the system. Air trapped in the system
prevents the circulation of water. For this
purpose, a manually operated key-type air
vent can be used (Figure 11-66).
Manually operated key-type air vents can
be replaced by automatic air vents. One
type of automatic air vent is shown in
Figure 11-67. It automatically allows the air
that forms in the system to escape. When
air vents fail, replace them.
Radiators also have shutoff valves, which Figure 11-66 Manually
reduce or stop the flow of hot water operated key-type air vent.
through a radiator (Figure 11-68). They are
installed in the piping next to the inlet side of the radiator. Occasionally, you must
tighten the packing nut on these valves to prevent the water from leaking around the
valve stem.

Figure 11-67 Automatic air Figure 11-68 Radiator shutoff

vent. valve.

6.3.3 Unit Heaters

Unit heaters are the same as those used in warm-air heating, except hot water is used
vice coils for the heating medium. The heater consists of a heating coil supplied with hot
water. The coil is usually of the finned type, and an electric fan circulates air over it. A
unit heater installed in a distribution main is shown in Figure 11-69.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-74

Servicing unit heaters is
generally outlined in the
NAVFAC instructions. In general
you need to check for water
leaks, cleanliness of the finned
coils, and the operation of the fan
motor. Other accessories which
you also should inspect are
traps, air vents, fan blades, and
valves. Make any needed
repairs. Lubricate the electric fan
monthly.

6.3.4 Circulating Pumps

A forced hot-water heating
system has a water-circulating
pump in the return line near the
boiler. This pump ensures the
positive flow of water regardless
of the height of the system or the
drop in the water temperature. Figure 11-69 Hot-water unit heater
Greater velocities of water flow installation.
are obtainable with forced
circulation than with gravity circulation.
Circulating pumps are free of valves and float control elements. They are operated
under a sufficiently high water inlet temperature to eliminate the difficulties caused by
vapor binding. The pumps are usually operated by electric motors.
During maintenance servicing, check the pump carefully for proper rotation, and
lubricate the electric motor and pump according to the manufacturer's instructions. Also,
periodically clean the pump of sand, rust, and other foreign matter that has collected in
the pump casing. Be sure the pump rotates freely and the shaft packing glands, if there
are any, are not drawn up so tight that they score the shaft.

6.3.5 Reducing Valves

A reducing valve is normally installed in the
cold-water line going to the boiler. It
automatically keeps the closed system
supplied with water at a predetermined safe
system pressure. These valves are usually
set at the factory, but you may adjust them
in the shop to a desired pressure. You
should install this valve at approximately the
same level as the top of the boiler.

6.3.6 Flow-Control Valves

Forced hot-water circulating systems use
the flow-control valve shown in Figure 11-
70. It is normally installed in the distribution
main. This valve prevents gravitational flow
of water through the system. The valve does Figure 11-70 Flow-control
valve.
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-75
not offer any serious resistance to the flow of water when the circulating pump is in
operation. However, when the pump is not operating, the small gravitational head of
water cannot open the valve. Each week you should check the flow-control valve for
proper operational down-free movement. Examine the valve for water leaks and repair it
when necessary.

6.3.7 Special Flow Fittings

Various types of special tees designed to deflect main-line water into the radiator
branches are used in one-pipe and two-pipe forced-circulation systems. These fittings
are designed and calibrated to the size of the radiator and system-operating
temperature. Fittings of this type are required with one-pipe, forced-flow systems, and
they do equally well for radiators above and below the distribution mains.

6.4.0 Maintaining and Troubleshooting Hot-Water Heating Systems

Hot-water heating systems require little maintenance other than periodic checks to
make certain that all air is out of the system and all radiators are full of water. The
circulating pumps should be oiled regularly according to the manufacturer's instructions,
and the pressure-relief valves should be checked periodically.
Some of the common discrepancies encountered when troubleshooting hot-water
heating systems are contained in Table 11-9.
Table 11-9 Troubleshooting Hot-Water Heating Systems
SYMPTONS REMEDY
Boiler smokes through the feed doors. Clean the boiler flues and the flue
pipes. Repair any chimney leaks.
Boiler heats slowly. Increase the draft. Check on the type of
fuel. Clean the boiler of scale.
Blowdown the boiler.
Radiator produces insufficient heat. Clean the boiler of scale. Change to a
larger boiler. Blowdown the boiler.
Increase the draft, and check on the
type of fuel.
Radiators do not heat. Insufficient water in the system. Bleed
the air from the system. Open the
radiator valves, and check the
operation of the circulation.
Distribution piping does not transfer hot Insufficient water in the system. Bleed
water to the radiators. the air from the high points in the
distribution piping. Check the operation
of the circulation pump. Check for
corrosion stoppage in the distribution
piping.
Operator maintenance on the electrically driven feed pump consists mostly of cleaning
the pump and motor. However, the pump motor is lubricated according to the
manufacturer's specifications. Remember that not using enough lubricant can result in
the bearings running dry or seizing on the motor shaft. But, too much lubricant causes
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-76
the motor to become dirty and can result in the motor windings becoming saturated with
oil and burning out.
When a water leak develops around the pump shaft, tighten the packing-gland nuts or
repack the stuffing box as necessary. The strainer, installed between the pump and the
condensate receiver, should be kept clean to avoid any restriction of the flow of water to
the pump.
The maintenance of feed-water heaters and economizers normally includes removing
solid matter that accumulates in the unit, stopping steam and water leaks, and repairing
inoperative traps, floats, valves, pumps, and other such associated equipment.
Test your Knowledge (Select the Correct Response)
2. What type of heating medium is used to produce heat in a unit heater?

A. Cold water
B. Air
C. Hot water
D. Steam

7.0.0 HIGH-TEMPERATURE HOT-WATER SYSTEMS

High-temperature hot-water (HTHW) systems operate at high pressure to maintain
water temperature that exceeds the normal boiling temperature of 212F (at
atmospheric pressure) used in other types of heating systems.
HTHW systems consist of standard and heavy-duty equipment, including boilers
(sometimes referred to as generators), expansion drums, system circulator pumps,
distribution piping, and heat-consuming equipment.
HTHW systems have the hot water pumped from the generator throughout the
distribution system. The circulator pumps are large enough to deliver the water at
sufficient pressure to overcome any drop in the distribution system and the heat-
consuming equipment. The major advantages of the HTHW heating system are makeup
requirements, minimum maintenance, high thermal efficiency, and safe, easy operation
and control.
The HTHW system is a closed system, so the only water waste is the normal leakage at
the pump and valve packing glands. Consequently, little water is consumed during
system operation. This means only a small amount of makeup water is used, practically
eliminating boiler blowdowns. The closed re-circulating system operates at high thermal
efficiency. All of the heat not used by heat-consuming devices in the system or lost
through pipe radiation is returned to the boiler plant. Because few boiler blowdowns are
required, the heat loss from blowdowns is kept to a minimum.

7.1.0 Types of HTHW Systems

The high-temperature range for most military and federal heating plants is 350F to
450F, which corresponds to saturated pressures of 135 psi to 425 psi. However, some
types of plants operate at higher pressures and therefore have higher water
temperatures. The installation of HTHW plants that operate at temperatures above
400F must be approved by the Naval Facilities Engineering Command. Costs usually
determine the maximum water temperature used because the types of HTHW systems
using the higher pressures require more expensive piping, valves, fittings, and heat
exchangers.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-77

The degree of complexity of HTHW systems varies according to the size, type, and heat
load requirement of the installation. Since methods used to maintain pressure and to
assure uniform flow rates depend upon the amount of heat load, they affect the
complexity of the heating system. There are two methods of circulating the HTHW
through the systemthe one-pump system and the two-pump system.
The one-pump system uses only one pump to circulate the hot water throughout the
system, which includes the generator. The two-pump system uses one pump to
circulate the water through the distribution system, and a second pump to circulate the
water through the generator for positive circulation. Figure 11-71 shows some typical
pumps that are used for circulation in the HTHW system. Note that the pumps are of the
centrifugal type. Each pump shown is used to circulate the water to different areas in
the distribution systems.

Figure 11-71 HTHW circulation pumps.

There are two common ways of heating the water in the HTHW systemone way is to
use hot-water boilers or generators and the other way is to use the cascade or direct
contact heater. The water in the HTHW generator is heated as low-temperature hot
water is heated. In the cascade heater, however, the water is forced through spray
nozzles and comes into direct contact with the steam. The steam condenses into the
circulating water. A typical spray nozzle head is shown in Figure 11-72.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-78

 Figure 11-72 Cascade heater
spray nozzle head.

The spray nozzles are installed in a combination cascade heater expansion drum. A
typical cascade heater expansion drum installation is shown in Figure 11-73. In the
paragraphs that follow, some ways of pressurizing the HTHW system are discussed.

Figure 11-73 Combination cascade heater expansion drum installation.

7.2.0 Pressurizing the HTHW System

Since water volume varies with changes in temperature, the extra water must be taken
care of when the water is heated. It is desirable to operate with the water above the
boiling temperature of 212F; therefore, the pressure in the system must be maintained
equal to or greater than the corresponding saturation (steam or vaporization)
temperature. An expansion tank is required because the water, which is not
compressible to a smaller volume, expands when it is heated. Also, the pressurization
prevents the formation of saturated steam or vaporization when the water temperature
is raised. There are two basic designs used for pressurizing HTHW systemsfirst, the
saturated steam cushion, and second, the mechanical gas cushion. Although both
designs have a variety of modifications, their characteristics are still typical of the basic
pressurized system design.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-79

7.2.1 Saturated Steam Cushion
Pressurizing the heating system with steam in the expansion tank is a natural method.
Firing the HTHW generator to maintain the system pressure corresponding to the
required saturation (steam or vaporization) temperature pressurizes the system. Excess
heat is generated to offset the radiant heat loss from the expansion tank. All of the
HTHW in the steam-pressurized system flows through the expansion tank and thereby
maintains the saturation (steam or vaporization) temperature there.
The steam in the space in the expansion tank provides the pressure or cushion for the
system. The pressure maintained is that of the saturated steam. The water in the lower
portion of the tank will be approximately saturation (steam or vaporization) temperature
corresponding to this pressure. The water to be used in the HTHW heating system is
drawn from the lower part of the expansion tank, mixed with the system return water,
and circulated throughout the system. The mixing is necessary to prevent cavitation
(steam flashing) at the pump suction.
Here are some conditions that are typical of the saturated-steam cushion design. The
expansion tank, either integral or separate, is a part of the HTHW system. The entire
amount of hot water flowing in the heating system passes through the expansion tank
and exposes the tank to maximum system heat and any form of contamination which in
turn subjects the expansion tank to thermal stresses and corrosion. There are explosion
hazards typical of a steam boiler in the system, and good water-level control is
important in maintaining proper operating conditions. Load variations, causing supply
pressure changes, create flashing of saturated liquid in the system and produce water
hammer.

7.2.2 Mechanical Gas Cushion

The expansion tank contains the mechanical-gas cushion and is connected to the
HTHW system return line just ahead of the circulating pump suction connection. The
tank contains an inert gas (usually nitrogen) and is the source of pressure in this
method. When the system has been pressurized by the nitrogen, pressure in excess of
saturation must be maintained, that is, the water temperature throughout the system
must always be less than its saturation temperature. In the nitrogen-pressurized system,
the expansion tank is installed in the system as a standpipe arrangement so the water
does not flow through it. The water in the lower part of this tank is stagnant, except for
the changes caused by expansion and contraction brought on by load fluctuations. If
you assume the water is virtually incompressible, the tank provides the space available
for these changes in the water volume of the system.
Here are some characteristics that are typical of this design. The expansion tank is
independent of the generator and remains cool. Corrosion is practically eliminated
because the heating system is flooded, with the exception of the nitrogen space in the
expansion (cushion) tank. When properly designed, the system is sealed with its fixed
charge of water and nitrogen. However, this design does not contain a steam drum or
any steam spaces that permit the accumulation of steam. The generator tubes are the
weakest link in this entire system. An explosion caused by the dissociation of hydrogen
and oxygen cannot occur. The formation of steam cools the otherwise red-hot metal
surfaces. Hot-water conditions do not allow the flashing of steam.

7.2.3 Operation
To ensure normal operation, fill the system with treated water taken from the water
softener. To prevent oxygen corrosion, add the chemicals for treating the water to
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-80
furnish 20 to 40 parts of sodium sulfite per million parts (ppm) of water. You thereby
maintain a pH value of 9.3 to 9.9. While the water is circulating in the generator and in
the system, you should fire the boiler at about 25 percent of its rated capacity to bring
the system up to normal operating temperature. You should allow the expansion drum
vent in steam-pressurized systems to blow for about 1 hour to rid the system of all
oxygen and other non-condensable gases.
The start-up and firing of HTHW boilers or generators are done in much the same
manner as for domestic hot water and steam boilers, depending upon the type of fuel-
burning equipment used. The specific start-up and operating procedures vary with
different installations. Therefore, this information is furnished by your local supervisor
and the manufacturer of the equipment.
Coal, oil, and gas are the types of fuels normally used to fire the boilers of HTHW
systems. The specific type of fuel used depends upon the type of firing equipment
installed in the plant. Each type of fuel requires designated inspections be made and
certain precautions be taken to eliminate fire and safety hazards.
When you are transferring fuel oil from one tank to another, be sure both tanks are
grounded. Checks must then be made to ensure excessive oil pressures are not
generated in the tanks by the expansion of the fuel. Although natural gas is not normally
stored on a base ashore, liquid petroleum (LP) gas is often stored near the heating
plant. You should check the areas where this gas is stored often to ensure there is no
leakage. Liquid petroleum gas is heavier than air, settles in low areas, and creates
explosive hazards. When checking for gas leaks, use a standard soap solution.
Because of the large heat storage capacity of HTHW systems, the load demand change
for the boiler is slow and smooth. This characteristic provides for improved and safer
operation than that provided by the saturated-steam cushion.

7.3.0 Piping System Installation

All piping in an HTHW system should be welded. No screwed joints should be
permitted, and flanges should be allowed only where necessary, such as at expansion
joints, pumps, and generator connections. Only schedule 40 black steel piping or better
is used for HTHW systems. Upon completion, the entire heating system is subjected to
a test of 450 psi that lasts for not less than 24 hours.
The possibilities of line failure are remote when the construction recommended above is
used. The system piping material is subjected to a minimum factory test of 700 psi. The
generator tubes are subjected to an ASME test of 900 psi. All valves and accessories
are rated at working pressures of 540 to 1,075 psi at 400F. The weakest link in the
piping network lies within the generator tubing. The worst likely failure is the loss of
tubes, and therefore the generator. The safety of the piping system is maintained over
the life of the installation because of the absence of corrosion in the hot-water heating
systems due to boiler water treatment.

Summary
As a UT, you will be involved with the installation, operation, and maintenance of
various types of heating systems. You must understand the basic theory and principles
of heating, such as measurement styles and heat transfer concepts. You must have the
understanding of the purpose, use, and control of the various combustible fuels used.
You will also be involved in the maintenance and repair of warm air heating systems,
low temperature hot water systems, and High-temperature hot-water (HTHW) systems
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-81
with all the associated distribution components. As a UT you will be responsible for the
generation and distribution of hot water to your unit.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-82

Review Questions (Select the Correct Response)
1. What is the range of the Fahrenheit thermometer between the freezing point and
the boiling point?

A. 180
B. 190
C. 200
D. 210

2. The sum of sensible heat plus latent heat is the definition of what term?

A. Specific heat
B. Total heat
C. Cumulative heat
D. Super heat

3. What principle is the transfer of heat by means of mediums such as water, air,
and steam?

A. Conduction
B. Radiation
C. Convection
D. Immersion

4. What principle is the transfer of heat through space?

A. Immersion
B. Conduction
C. Convection
D. Radiation

5. What fuels are most commonly used with heating equipment?

A. Gas and petroleum

B. Coal and gas
C. Wood and petroleum
D. Steam and gas

6. What is the major element present in natural gas?

A. Ethane
B. Methane
C. Nitrogen
D. Carbon dioxide

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-83

7. Butane and propane are part of what group of liquefied gases?

A. Natural
B. Manufactured
C. Liquefied petroleum
D. Chemically altered

8. How many types of unit heaters are currently utilized in the Seabee community?

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

9. Unit heaters rated for less than 50,000 BTUs per hour are designated to operate
on what systems?

A. Low pressure steam

B. Low temperature hot water
C. High temperature steam
D. Fuel oil burning

10. One kilowatt is equal to how many BTUs per hour?

A. 3355
B. 3415
C. 3560
D. 3745

11. Why is the vented gas heater more satisfactory than the unvented type?

A. Less expensive installation

B. Less preventive maintenance required
C. Less danger of carbon monoxide poisoning
D. Less accumulation of back soot

12. The burning of 1,000 cubic feet of natural gas will produce approximately how
many gallons of water?

A. 6
B. 8
C. 10
D. 12

13. What grade of fuel oil is required in oil-fired space heaters?

A. Light
B. Medium
C. Heavy
D. Super heavy

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-84

14. A perforated sleeve burner with its circular fuel vaporizing grooves burns what
color flame?

A. Cherry red
B. Blue
C. Orange
D. Red

15. What controls the flow of oil in the pot type and perforated sleeve burners?

A. Primary control unit

B. Fuel allocation diffuser
C. Float-operated metering valve
D. Restrictor orifices

16. A chimney top is required to be how many feet above the highest point of a
building?

A. 2
B. 3
C. 5
D. 6

17. What type of piping or tubing is used in oil supply systems to the burners?

A. Copper
B. Brass
C. Cast iron
D. Steel

18. Warm-air systems are identified as what types?

A. Forced-air and high temperature

B. Gravity and forced-air
C. Oil fed and gas fed
D. Vented and unvented

19. What part does the plenum join up with in a furnace?

A. Draft diverter
B. Exhaust piping
C. Main trunk duct
D. Intake valve manifold

20. What is the result of improperly placed supply diffusers?

A. Hot floors
B. Excessive condensation
C. Improper air intake
D. Air stratification

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-85

21. (True or False) In an individual duct system, each duct is connected directly to
the furnace plenum.

A. True
B. False

22. What is a register temperature range of a forced warm-air system?

A. 110 to 140
B. 150 to 180
C. 180 to 210
D. 220 to 240

23. What is the most commonly used airflow design associated with a gas- fired
furnace?

A. Horizontal
B. Vertical
C. Upflow highboy
D. Lowboy

24. Duct furnaces are mounted in a duct system where air circulation is provided by
what?

A. Furnace blower
B. Internal fan
C. Atmosphere
D. External fan

25. Along with the return-air compartment and warm-air compartment, what other
compartment comprises the gas-fired furnace?

A. Combustion air and fuel

B. Supply-air
C. Hot-air
D. Combustion and return

26. What type of blower is installed in a gas-fired furnace?

A. Rotary
B. Centrifugal
C. Jet
D. Displacement

27. Which piece of equipment is NOT part of the gas burner control?

A. Gas pressure regulator

B. Humidifier
C. Manual gas cock
D. Heat exchanger

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-86

28. What piece of equipment maintains the desired pressure in the burner as long as
the gas main pressure is above the desired pressure?

A. Diaphragm valve
B. Thermocouple control relay
C. Solenoid gas valve
D. Gas pressure regulator

29. What position does the solenoid gas valve revert to upon a current failure?

A. Open
B. Shut
C. As is
D. Bypass

30. How does the design of a recycling solenoid gas valve differ from a standard
solenoid gas valve?

A. Standard solenoid valves only ports a set fuel amount.

B. Allows the valve to switch to manual operation during a power failure.
C. Recycling solenoid gas valve maintains system pressure.
D. Allows for quieter operation.

31. What device is used to produce the electrical current used to operate gas
valves?

A. Thermoresistors
B. Pilot light
C. Thermopiles
D. Diaphragm valve

32. What device shuts off the gas supply when the temperature inside the heating
unit becomes excessive?

A. Recycling solenoid gas valve

B. Heat exchanger
C. Thermocouple control relay
D. Limit control

33. What device is used to reduce updrafts that are detrimental to pilot or burner
operation?

A. Diverter
B. Limit control
C. Thermopiles
D. Diaphragm valves

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-87

34. What is the voltage produced by the step-up transformer used in a gas fired
furnace?

A. 5,000
B. 10,000
C. 15,000
D. 20,000

35. What piece of equipment runs the fuel unit of a gas-fired furnace?

A. Ignition electrodes
B. Horizontal rotary unit
C. Blower motor shaft
D. High pressure gun relay

36. Which grade of fuel oil is used in a gas-fired furnace?

A. Low
B. Medium
C. High
D. Super high

37. What device closes the ignition circuits when the thermostat calls for more heat?

A. Primary control
B. Bimetallic strip
C. Limit control
D. Temperature-responsive relay

38. (True or False) The limit control is a device that responds to changes in steam
pressure in a steam-heating system.

A. True
B. False

39. What type of element is used in a vapor-tension device?

A. High pressure steam

B. Water temperature
C. Highly volatile liquid
D. Low discharge current

40. Other than the snap-action electrical switch, which other electrical switch is often
utilized?

A. Current seeking
B. Float
C. Transducer
D. Mercury

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-88

41. What is the nerve center of the heating-control system?

A. Thermostat
B. Primary control
C. Gas regulator valve
D. Step-up transformer

42. How far up on the wall should a thermostat be placed, in feet?

A. 3 1/2
B. 4 1/2
C. 5 1/2
D. 6 1/2

43. (True or False) Gas-fired and oil-fired forced-air units, which have the blower
below the heating element or combustion chamber, should be set on masonry at
least 4 inches thick.

A. True
B. False

44. What is the clearance requirement, in feet, of a furnace from wood or other
combustible material?

A. 12
B. 14
C. 16
D. 18

45. One inch of free-air area is required for how many BTUs per hour of furnace
input rating?

A. 1000
B. 2000
C. 3000
D. 4000

46. What type of material and diameter piping or tubing are required from the oil tank
or valve to the burner?

A. Copper, 1/4 inch

B. Copper, 1/2 inch
C. Cast iron, 1/4 inch
D. Cast iron, 1/2 inch

47. What size is recommended for all vent lines used in furnace installations?

A. 1 inch
B. 1 1/4 inch
C. 1 1/2 inch
D. 1 3/4 inch

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-89

48. Why are kerosene, diesel oils, and commercial oils of Grades Nos. 1 and 2
suitable for furnace usage?

A. They are easy to transport via aircraft.

B. They are easier to store than higher grades.
C. Their procurement costs are low.
D. They vaporize at relatively low temperatures.

49. (True or False) Burners using air as the atomizing medium are designed for
three air pressure ranges.

A. True
B. False

50. At what speed, in rpm, does a cylindrical cup use in a horizontal rotary-cup
burner rotate?

A. 3300
B. 3450
C. 3575
D. 3700

51. What is used to remove the air from a burner prior to starting?

A. Regulator
B. Ventilator
C. Petcock
D. Bypass

52. Which is NOT a cause for a flame that is raw and stingy in a oil burner?

A. Partly clogged nozzle

B. Air in the pump
C. Too large an opening in air adjustment
D. Improper draft

53. After the burner flame and draft are properly adjusted, a flue-gas analysis should
show a CO2 content of approximately what percent?

A. 10
B. 11
C. 12
D. 13

54. If the furnace is large enough and the burner has been set for correct oil flow and
minimum amount of air, stack temperature should not exceed how many
degrees?

A. 550
B. 600
C. 650
D. 675
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-90
55. The stack thermometer is used to determine the temperature of gases in what
piece of equipment?

A. Combustion chamber
B. Furnace outlet
C. Smoke pipe
D. Draft regulator

56. What is a possible problem in an oil pump, if you have no oil flow at the nozzle?

A. Blown seal
B. Air leak in intake line
C. Loose plugs or fittings
D. Bad coupling alignment

57. What is the disadvantage of using cast iron hot-water heating boilers?

A. Sections cracking
B. Low heat retention
C. Delayed start-up time
D. Scarcity of repair parts

58. How many inches above a finished floor should a low-temperature hot water
boiler be?

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

59. Where is the pressure-relief valve located on a boiler used in a low- temperature
hot water system?

A. Bottom of boiler
B. Right side of vent valve
C. Top of boiler
D. Left side of vent valve

60. What is another name for the airflow switch used in a low-temperature hot water
system?

A. Control valve
B. Extender
C. Draft
D. Sail

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-91

61. (True or False) A one-pipe, open-tank gravity distribution system consists of a
single pipe that carries hot water to all of the radiators and then returns it back to
the boiler.

A. True
B. False

62. The amount of temperature drop between the beginning and the end of the line
depends on the length of the main and what other factor?

A. Ambient air pressure

B. Heating load
C. Boiler start-up temperature
D. Temperature stabilization

63. The relief valve located in a closed pneumatic compression system is set to lift at
what water pressure level, in psi?

A. 15
B. 20
C. 25
D. 30

64. In the heating of larger installations where more than one building is involved,
what type of circulation method is used?

A. Free flow
B. Closed
C. Open
D. Forced

65. Mains and branches are pitched so air in the system is discharged through which
device?

A. Radiator
B. Surge tank
C. Pressure regulator
D. Diverter

66. How many radiator types are you concerned with as a UT?

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

67. (True or False) Circulating pumps used in low-temperature hot water distribution
systems ensure the positive flow of water regardless of the height of the system
or the rise in water temperature.

A. True
B. False
NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-92
68. Where is the reducing valve installed on the boiler?

A. At the outlet port

B. Inside the combustion chamber
C. Below the pressure regulating valve
D. At the same level as top of boiler

69. Which is a reason why radiators do not heat?

A. Not enough air in the system

B. Insufficient water in the system
C. Clogged fin-tubes
D. Closed radiator valve

70. What is the high temperature range for most military and federal heating
plants?

A. 250F to 350F
B. 350F to 450F
C. 450F to 550F
D. 550F to 650F

71. Whose permission is needed to install an HTHW plant that operates above
400F?

A. Base Commanding Officer

B. Crew Supervisor
C. Naval Facilities Engineering Command
D. Officer in Charge

72. What type of pump is used in an HTHW system?

A. Rotary
B. Jet
C. Submersible
D. Centrifugal

73. Why is an expansion tank required in an HTHW system?

A. To allow for water expansion when heated.

B. To receive excess water run-off from boiler.
C. To allow for excessive condensation to drain.
D. To comply with NACENGCOM directives.

74. What is the optimal pH range for an HTHW system?

A. 7.25 to 9.25
B. 9.3 to 9.9
C. 10.1 to 11.2
D. 12.3 to 15.6

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-93

75. Upon completion of an installation of an HTHW system, the entire system is held
under what pressure, in psi, for not less than 24 hours?

A. 300
B. 350
C. 400
D. 450

76. Generator tubes utilized in HTHW systems are subjected to an ASME test
pressure of what value, in psi?

A. 600
B. 700
C. 800
D. 900

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-94

Trade Terms Introduced in This Chapter
British Thermal Unit (BTU) The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb. of water 1F.
Saturated Soaked, impregnated, or imbued thoroughly;
charged thoroughly or completely.
Baffles Artificial obstructions for checking or deflecting
the flow of gases.
Braziers A metal receptacle for holding live coals or other
fuel, as for heating a room.
Flue Any duct or passage for air or gas.
Coke The solid carbonaceous material derived from
destructive distillation of low-ash, low-sulfur
bituminous coal. Cokes from coal are grey, hard,
and porous.
Orifice An opening or aperture, as of a tube or pipe; a
mouth-like opening or hole; mouth; vent.
Bellows A device for producing a strong current of air,
consisting of a chamber that can be expanded to
draw in air through a valve and contracted to
expel it through a tube.
Scale A coating or incrustation, as on the inside of a
boiler, formed by the precipitation of salts from
the water.
Diffusers A pierced plate or similar device for distributing
compressed air.
Refractory Resistant to heat or has a high melting point.
Dope An anaerobic chemical sealant that is used to
make a pipe thread joint leak proof and pressure
tight.
Slag The vitreous mass left as a residue by the
smelting of metallic ore.
Petcock A small valve or faucet, as for draining off
excess or waste material.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-95

Additional Resources and References
This chapter is intended to present thorough resources for task training. The following
reference works are suggested for further study. This is optional material for continued
education rather than for task training.
Basic Machines, NAVEDTRA 12199, Naval Education and Training Professional
Development and Technology Center, Pensacola, FL, 1994.
OSHA Regulations (Standards 29 CFR)
Naval Construction Force Manual, NAVFAC P-315, Naval Facilities Engineering
Command, Washington, D.C., 1985.
Facilities Planning Guide, NAVFAC P-437, Volumes 1 and 2, Naval Facilities
Engineering Command, Alexandria, VA, 1982.
Fluid Power, NAVEDTRA 12964, Naval Education and Training Professional
Development and Technology Center, Pensacola, FL, 1994.
National Standard Plumbing Code-Illustrated, National Association of Plumbing-
Heating-Cooling Contractors, Washington, DC, 2006.
Safety and Health Requirements Manual, EM-385-1-1, Department of the Army, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC, 1992.
MIL-STD-17-1, Mechanical Symbols
International Plumbing Code 2009, International Code Council
International Mechanical Code 2009, International Code Council
R. Dodge Woodson, Plumbers Quick-Reference Manual Tables, Charts, and
Calculations, 1st edition, McGraw-Hill, NY, 1996.
Water Testing Kit, Chemical Agent: M272, Technical Operations Manual, TM 3- 6665-
319-10, Department of the Army, Washington, DC, 1983
Boiler Care Handbook, Cleaver-Brooks Division of Aqua-Chem. Inc., Milwaukee, WI,
1985.
COMFIRSTNCDINST 3500.1, Operational Risk Management (ORM).
COMFIRSTNCDINST 5100.2, Naval Construction Force Occupational Safety and
Health Program.
UFC 3-430-07, Inspection and Certification of Boilers and Unfired Pressure Vessels.

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-96

CSFE Nonresident Training Course User Update
CSFE makes every effort to keep their manuals up-to-date and free of technical errors.
We appreciate your help in this process. If you have an idea for improving this manual,
or if you find an error, a typographical mistake, or an inaccuracy in CSFE manuals,
please write or email us, using this form or a photocopy. Be sure to include the exact
chapter number, topic, detailed description, and correction, if applicable. Your input will
be brought to the attention of the Technical Review Committee. Thank you for your
assistance.
Write: CSFE N7A
3502 Goodspeed St.
Port Hueneme, CA 93130
FAX: 805/982-5508
E-mail: CSFE_NRTC@navy.mil

Rate____ Course Name_____________________________________________

Revision Date__________ Chapter Number____ Page Number(s)____________

Description
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

(Optional) Correction
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

(Optional) Your Name and Address

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

NAVEDTRA 14265A 11-97