Power supply

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Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or system that supplies electrical or other types
of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The term is most
commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.

A power supply may include a power distribution system as well as primary or secondary sources of
energy such as:

 Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage, typically
involving converting AC line voltage to a well-regulated lower-voltage DC for electronic
devices. Low voltage, low power DC power supply units are commonly integrated with the
devices they supply, such as computers and household electronics; for other examples, see
switched-mode power supply, linear regulator, rectifier and inverter (electrical).
 Batteries
 Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems
 Solar power
 Generators or alternators

For large-scale power supplies, see electricity generation.

Constraints that commonly affect power supplies are the amount of power they can supply, how long
they can supply it without needing some kind of refueling or recharging, how stable their output
voltage or current is under varying load conditions, and whether they provide continuous power or
pulses.

A regulated power supply or stabilized power supply is one that includes circuitry to tightly control the
output voltage and/or current to a specific value. The specific value is closely maintained despite
variations in the load presented to the power supply's output, or any reasonable voltage variation at the
power supply's input.

[edit] Power supply types

Power supplies for electronic devices can be broadly divided into linear and switching power supplies.
(It is customary to refer to a simple unregulated supply as linear, although in fact is has no active
electronic devices, either in linear or switched mode.) The linear supply is usually a relatively simple
design; it becomes increasingly bulky and heavy for high-current equipment due to the need for large
mains-frequency transformers and heat-sinked electronic regulation circuitry. Linear voltage
regulation circuitry reduces voltage by dissipating it, making efficiency low. A switched-mode supply
of the same rating as a linear supply will be smaller, is usually more efficient, but will be more
complex.

[edit] Battery power supply[1]

A battery is a type of power supply that is independent of the availability of mains electricity, suitable
for portable equipment and use in locations without mains power. A battery consists of several
electrochemical cells connected in series to provide the voltage desired. Batteries may be primary
(able to supply current when constructed, discarded when drained) or secondary (rechargeable; can be
charged, used, and recharged many times)

The primary cell first used was the carbon-zinc dry cell.[2] It had a voltage of 1.5 volts; later battery
types have been manufactured, when possible, to give the same voltage per cell. Carbon-zinc and
related cells are still used, but the alkaline battery delivers more energy per unit weight and is widely
used. The most commonly used battery voltages are 1.5 (1 cell) and 9V (6 cells).

Various technologies of rechargeable battery are used. Types most commonly used are NiMH, and
lithium ion and variants.

[edit] Unregulated power supply

A home-made linear power supply (used here to power amateur radio equipment)

An AC powered unregulated power supply usually uses a transformer to convert the voltage from the
wall outlet (mains) to a different, nowadays usually lower, voltage. If it is used to produce DC, a
rectifier is used to convert alternating voltage to a pulsating direct voltage, followed by a filter,
comprising one or more capacitors, resistors, and sometimes inductors, to filter out (smooth) most of
the pulsation. A small remaining unwanted alternating voltage component at mains or twice mains
power frequency (depending upon whether half- or full-wave rectification is used)—ripple—is
unavoidably superimposed on the direct output voltage.

For purposes such as charging batteries the ripple is not a problem, and the simplest unregulated
mains-powered DC power supply circuit consists of a transformer driving a single diode in series with
a resistor.

Before the introduction of solid-state electronics equipment used valves (vacuum tubes) which
required high voltages; power supplies used step-up transformers, rectifiers, and filters to generate one
or more direct voltages of some hundreds of volts, and a low alternating voltage for filaments. Only
the most advanced equipment used expensive and bulky regulated power supplies.

[edit] Linear regulated power supply

The voltage produced by an unregulated power supply will vary depending on the load and on
variations in the AC supply voltage. For critical electronics applications a linear regulator may be used
to set the voltage to a precise value, stabilized against fluctuations in input voltage and load. The
regulator also greatly reduces the ripple and noise in the output direct current. Linear regulators often
provide current limiting, protecting the power supply and attached circuit from overcurrent.

Adjustable linear power supplies are common laboratory and service shop test equipment, allowing the
output voltage to be adjusted over a range. For example, a bench power supply used by circuit
designers may be adjustable up to 30 volts and up to 5 amperes output. Some can be driven by an
external signal, for example, for applications requiring a pulsed output.

[edit] AC/DC supply

Main article: AC/DC (electricity)

In the past, mains electricity was supplied as DC in some regions, AC in others. Transformers cannot
be used for DC, but a simple, cheap unregulated power supply could run directly from either AC or
DC mains without using a transformer. The power supply consisted of a rectifier and a filter capacitor.
When operating from DC the rectifier was essentially a conductor, having no effect; it was included to
allow operation from AC or DC without modification.

[edit] Switched-mode power supply

Main article: Switched-mode power supply

A computer's switched mode power supply unit.

A switched-mode power supply (SMPS) works on a different principle. AC input, usually at mains
voltage, is rectified without the use of a mains transformer, to obtain a DC voltage. This voltage is
then switched on and off at a high speed by electronic switching circuitry, which may then pass
through a high-frequency, hence small, light, and cheap, transformer or inductor. The duty cycle of the
output square wave increases as power output requirements increase. Switched-mode power supplies
are always regulated. If the SMPS uses a properly-insulated high-frequency transformer, the output
will be electrically isolated from the mains, essential for safety.

The input power slicing occurs at a very high speed (typically 10 kHz — 1 MHz). High frequency and
high voltages in this first stage permit much smaller transformers and smoothing capacitors than in a
power supply operating at mains frequency, as linear supplies do. After the transformer secondary, the
AC is again rectified to DC. To keep output voltage constant, the power supply needs a sophisticated
feedback controller to monitor current drawn by the load.

SMPSs often include safety features such as current limiting or a crowbar circuit to help protect the
device and the user from harm. [3] In the event that an abnormal high-current power draw is detected,
the switched-mode supply can assume this is a direct short and will shut itself down before damage is
done. For decades PC power supplies have provided a power good signal to the motherboard whose
absence prevents operation when abnormal supply voltages are present.

SMPSs have an absolute limit on their minimum current output. [4] They are only able to output above a
certain power level and cannot function below that point. In a no-load condition the frequency of the
power slicing circuit increases to great speed, causing the isolated transformer to act as a Tesla coil,
causing damage due to the resulting very high voltage power spikes. Switched-mode supplies with
protection circuits may briefly turn on but then shut down when no load has been detected. A very
small low-power dummy load such as a ceramic power resistor or 10-watt light bulb can be attached to
the supply to allow it to run with no primary load attached.

Power factor has become a recent issue of concern for computer manufacturers. Switched mode power
supplies have traditionally been a source of power line harmonics and have a very poor power factor.
Many computer power supplies built in the last few years now include power factor correction built
right into the switched-mode supply, and may advertise the fact that they offer 1.0 power factor.

By slicing up the sinusoidal AC wave into very small discrete pieces, a portion of unused alternating
current stays in the power line as very small spikes of power that cannot be utilized by AC motors and
results in waste heating of power line transformers. Hundreds of switched mode power supplies in a
building can result in poor power quality for other customers surrounding that building, and high
electric bills for the company if they are billed according to their power factor in addition to the actual
power used. Filtering capacitor banks may be needed on the building power mains to suppress and
absorb these negative power factor effects[citation needed].

[edit] Programmable power supply

Programmable power supplies

Programmable power supplies allow for remote control of the output voltage through an analog input
signal or a computer interface such as RS232 or GPIB. Variable properties include voltage, current,
and frequency (for AC output units). These supplies are composed of a processor, voltage/current
programming circuits, current shunt, and voltage/current read-back circuits. Additional features can
include overcurrent, overvoltage, and short circuit protection, and temperature compensation.
Programmable power supplies also come in a variety of forms including modular, board-mounted,
wall-mounted, floor-mounted or bench top.
Programmable power supplies can furnish DC, AC, or AC with a DC offset. The AC output can be
either single-phase or three-phase. Single-phase is generally used for low-voltage, while three-phase is
more common for high-voltage power supplies.

Programmable power supplies are now used in many applications. Some examples include automated
equipment testing, crystal growth monitoring, and differential thermal analysis.[5]

[edit] Uninterruptible power supply

Main article: Uninterruptible power supply

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) takes its power from two or more sources simultaneously. It is
usually powered directly from the AC mains, while simultaneously charging a storage battery. Should
there be a dropout or failure of the mains, the battery instantly takes over so that the load never
experiences an interruption. Such a scheme can supply power as long as the battery charge suffices,
e.g., in a computer installation, giving the operator sufficient time to effect an orderly system
shutdown without loss of data. Other UPS schemes may use an internal combustion engine or turbine
to continuously supply power to a system in parallel with power coming from the AC mains. The
engine-driven generators would normally be idling, but could come to full power in a matter of a few
seconds in order to keep vital equipment running without interruption. Such a scheme might be found
in hospitals or telephone central offices.

[edit] High-voltage power supply

High voltage refers to an output on the order of hundreds or thousands of volts. High-voltage supplies
use a linear setup to produce an output voltage in this range.

Additional features available on high-voltage supplies can include the ability to reverse the output
polarity along with the use of circuit breakers and special connectors intended to minimize arcing and
accidental contact with human hands. Some supplies provide analog inputs (i.e. 0-10V) that can be
used to control the output voltage, effectively turning them into high-voltage amplifiers albeit with
very limited bandwidth.

[edit] Voltage multipliers

Voltage multipliers, as the name implies, are circuits designed to multiply the input voltage. The input
voltage may be doubled (voltage doubler), tripled (voltage tripler), quadrupled (voltage quadrupler),
etc. Voltage multipliers are also power converters. An AC input is converted to a higher DC output.
These circuits allow high voltages to be obtained using a much lower voltage AC source.

Typically, voltage multipliers are composed of half-wave rectifiers, capacitors, and diodes. For
example, a voltage tripler consists of three half-wave rectifiers, three capacitors, and three diodes (see
Cockroft Walton Multiplier). Full-wave rectifiers may be used in a different configuration to achieve
even higher voltages. Also, both parallel and series configurations are available. For parallel
multipliers, a higher voltage rating is required at each consecutive multiplication stage, but less
capacitance is required. The voltage capability of the capacitor limits the maximum output voltage.
Voltage multipliers have many applications. For example, voltage multipliers can be found in
everyday items like televisions and photocopiers. Even more applications can be found in the
laboratory, such as cathode ray tubes, oscilloscopes, and photomultiplier tubes.[6][7]

[edit] Power supply applications

[edit] Computer power supply

Main article: Computer power supply

A modern computer power supply is a switch with on and off supply designed to convert 110-240 V
AC power from the mains supply, to several output both positive (and historically negative) DC
voltages in the range + 12V,-12V,+5V,+5VBs and +3.3V. The first generation of computers power
supplies were linear devices, but as cost became a driving factor, and weight became important,
switched mode supplies are almost universal.

The diverse collection of output voltages also have widely varying current draw requirements, which
are difficult to all be supplied from the same switched-mode source. Consequently most modern
computer power supplies actually consist of several different switched mode supplies, each producing
just one voltage component and each able to vary its output based on component power requirements,
and all are linked together to shut down as a group in the event of a fault condition.

[edit] Welding power supply

Main article: Welding power supply

Arc welding uses electricity to melt the surfaces of the metals in order to join them together through
coalescence. The electricity is provided by a welding power supply, and can either be AC or DC. Arc
welding typically requires high currents typically between 100 and 350 amps. Some types of welding
can use as few as 10 amps, while some applications of spot welding employ currents as high as 60,000
amps for an extremely short time. Older welding power supplies consisted of transformers or engines
driving generators. More recent supplies use semiconductors and microprocessors reducing their size
and weight.

[edit] AC adapter

Switched mode mobile phone charger

Main article: AC adapter
A linear or switched-mode power supply (or in some cases just a transformer) that is built into the top
of a plug is known as a "plug pack", "plug-in adapter", "adapter block", "domestic mains adapter" or
just "power adapter". Slang terms include "wall wart" and "power brick". They are even more diverse
than their names; often with either the same kind of DC plug offering different voltage or polarity, or a
different plug offering the same voltage. "Universal" adapters attempt to replace missing or damaged
ones, using multiple plugs and selectors for different voltages and polarities. Replacement power
supplies must match the voltage of, and supply at least as much current as, the original power supply.

The least expensive AC units consist solely of a small transformer, while DC adapters include a few
additional diodes. Whether or not a load is connected to the power adapter, the transformer has a
magnetic field continuously present and normally cannot be completely turned off unless unplugged.

Because they consume standby power, they are sometimes known as "electricity vampires" and may
be plugged into a power strip to allow turning them off. Expensive switched-mode power supplies can
cut off leaky electrolyte-capacitors, use powerless MOSFETs, and reduce their working frequency to
get a gulp of energy once in a while to power, for example, a clock, which would otherwise need a
battery.

[edit] Overload protection

Power supplies should have some type of overload protection. Overload protection is important to
protect the electronic equipment hooked up to the power supply and to also prevent overheating,
which could potentially lead to an electrical fire. Fuses and circuit breakers are two of the more
frequent mechanisms used for overload protection.[8]

[edit] Fuses

A fuse is a piece of wire, often in a casing that improves its electrical characteristics. If too much
current flows, the wire overheats and melts. This interrupts the power supply, and the equipment stops
working until the problem that caused the overload is identified and the fuse is replaced.

There are various types of fuses used in power supplies.

 fast blow fuses cut the power as quick as they can

 slow blow fuses tolerate more short term overload
 wire link fuses are just an open piece of wire, and have poorer overload characteristics than
glass and ceramic fuses

Some power supplies use a very thin wire link soldered in place as a fuse.

[edit] Circuit breakers

One benefit of using a circuit breaker as opposed to a fuse is that it can simply be reset instead of
having to replace the blown fuse. A circuit breaker contains an element that heats, bends and triggers a
spring which shuts the circuit down. Once the element cools, and the problem is identified the breaker
can be reset and the power restored.

[edit] Thermal cutouts

Some PSUs use a thermal cutout buried in the transformer rather than a fuse. The advantage is it
allows greater current to be drawn for limited time than the unit can supply continuously. Some such
cutouts are self resetting, some are single use only.

[edit] Current limiting

Some supplies use current limiting instead of cutting off power if overloaded. The two types of current
limiting used are electronic limiting and impedance limiting. The former is common on lab bench
PSUs, the latter is common on supplies of less than 3 watts output.

A foldback current limiter reduces the output current to much less than the maximum non-fault
current.

[edit] Power conversion

The term "power supply" is sometimes restricted to those devices that convert some other form of
energy into electricity (such as solar power and fuel cells and generators). A more accurate term for
devices that convert one form of electric power into another form (such as transformers and linear
regulators) is power converter. The most common conversion is from AC to DC.

[edit] Mechanical power supplies

 Flywheels coupled to electrical generators or alternators
 Compulsators
 Explosively pumped flux compression generators

[edit] Terminology
 SCP - Short circuit protection
 OPP - Overpower (overload) protection
 OCP - Overcurrent protection
 OTP - Overtemperature protection
 OVP - Overvoltage protection
 UVP - Undervoltage protection
 UPS - Uninterruptable Power Supply
 PSU - Power Supply Unit